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Mic Hanu

Kinh tết vi mô bằng tiếng anh từ chương 1 đến chương 4

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
623 views11 pages

Mic Hanu

Kinh tết vi mô bằng tiếng anh từ chương 1 đến chương 4

Uploaded by

anb584131
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

C1&2 INTRODUCTION

A. Ten principles of economies.


1. People face tradeoffs
: efficiency and equality ( hiệu quả và công bằng)
efficiency : việc sử dụng tối đa các nguồn lực có hạn để đạt được sản lượng
tối đa.
equality: việc phân phối thu nhập và tài sản một cách công bằng giữa các
thành viên trong xã hội.
The relationship between efficiency and equality: Increased economic
efficiency can often lead to increased inequality. For example, when
businesses compete to increase profits, they may cut labor costs, leading to a
widening gap between the rich and the poor. Conversely( ngược lại), policies
aimed at reducing inequality, such as increasing high-income taxes or
enhancing social benefits, can reduce incentives to work and invest, thereby
reducing economic efficiency.

1. The cost of something is what you give up to get it


- the comparing between costs and benefits of choices.
- the opportunity cost is whatever must be given up to obtain it
- EX: you choose to buy a Dell laptop and your second choice is a Macbook, so
the opportunity is the Macbook.
2. Rational people think at the margin
- Rational people usually compare the margin benefits and margin costs to
decide whether to accept this action or not.
- ex: when you want more water, you have to compare the costs of the second
water( margin costs) with the feelings after drink ( margin benefits) if
- MC< MB should
- MC>MB shouldn’t
3. People respond to incentives( động cơ)
- Incentives: something that induces a person to act, i.e. the prospect of a
reward or punishment.
- Rational people respond to incentives
- EX: when milk prices rise, customers will drink less milk than before and
choose another product to replace milk.
4. Trade can make everyone better off( tốt lên)
- people can specialize(chuyên môn hóa) in producing one good or service and
exchange it for other goods
- Countries also benefit from trade & specialization: get a better price abroad
for goods they produce/ buy other goods more cheaply from abroad than
could be produced at home.
5. Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity
- Organize economic activity means determining( xác định) 👍
- What goods to produce
- how to produce them
- how much of each to produce
- who gets them?
6. Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes
- by enforcing property rights
- market failure: when the market fails to allocate( phân bổ) society’s resources
efficiently.
- externalities: when the production or consumption of a good affects
bystanders(ngoài cuộc)( ex: pollution)
- market power: a single buyer or seller has substantial(đáng kể) influence on
market price( ex: monopoly)
7. A country’s standards of living depend on its ability to produce goods and services.
- the most important determinant of living standards: is productivity, the amount
of goods and services produced per unit of labor.
8. .
9. Society faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment
B. The circular-flow model
1. The circular-flow diagram
- A visual model of the economy shows how dollars flow through markets
among households and firms
- 2 types of actors: households, firms
- 2 markets: the market for goods and services and the market for “ factors of
production”
- Households: own the factors of production, sell/rent them to firms for
income/buy and consume goods and services
- Firms: buy/hire factors of production, and use them to produce goods and
services/ sell goods and services.
-

2. The production possibilities frontier ( PPF)


- Shows the combinations( sự kết hợp) of output
- The economy can produce any combination on or inside the frontier.
- Points outside the frontier are not feasible(khả thi) given the economy’s
resources.
-

- the PPF shift when: technology advanced and advanced materials.


- The PPF could be a straight line or bow-shaped
- depends on what happens to opportunity cost as the economy shifts
resources from one industry to the other
- If opp. cost remains constant, PPF is a straight-line
- if opp. the cost of a good rise as the economy produces more of the good,
PPF is bow-shaped.
-

-
C. Microeconomics and macroeconomics
- Microeconomics is the study of how households and firms make decisions and how
they interact in markets
- Macroeconomics is the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation,
unemployment, and economic growth.
D. Positive and normative statements
-

- normative statements usually have ‘should’,’ have to’,...

TUTORIAL
1. D
2. D
3. C
4. B
5. C
6. C
7. B
8. C
9. C
10. D
11. A
12. D
13. B
14. A
15. A
16. C
17. D
18. B
19. C
20. C
21. F
22. T
23. F
24. T
25. T
26. T
27. T
28. T
29. T
30. F
31. If the salary rises, then the margin benefit is greater than the margin cost so the
teacher should accept that. but if there is not any rise, decline it.
C4 THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
1. The law of demand
- A market is a group of buyers and sellers of a particular product
- Competitive market: many buyers and sellers, each has a negligible( không
đáng kể) effect on price
- Perfectly competitive market: all goods are exactly the same and buyers and
sellers so numerous that no one can affect the market price
- Price taker: the person who accepts the market price.
- Demand comes from the behavior of buýe
- Quantity demanded: is the amount of the good that buyers are willing to
purchase
- Law of demand: quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good
rises, other things equal.
2. Demand curve shifters
- The demand curve shows how price affects quantity demand
- the ‘other things’ are non-price determinants of demand that will change the
curve.
- The curve shifts to the right: at each price, customers want to buy more than
before.
- The curve shifts to the left: at each price, customers want to buy less than
before.
- Variables that can shift the demand curve: Income , prices of related goods,
tastes , expectations , number of buyers.
- An increase in the number of buyers causes an increase in quantity demand
at each price - shift to the right
- An increase in income causes an increase in quantity demand at each price -
shift to the right
- normal good - positively related to income
- inferior good - negatively related to income.
- Two goods are substitutes( sản phẩm thay thế) if an increase in the price of
one causes an increase in demand for the other. EX : coke and pepsi
- Two goods are complements if an increase in the price of one causes a fall in
demand for the other. Ex if the price of computers increases, people will buy
fewer, and then the demand for software decreases - the curve shifts left.
- Tastes toward a good will increase demand for that good- shift to the right
- expectations affect consumers' buying decisions.
3. The law of supply.
- Supply comes from the behavior of sellers
- Quantity supplied : the amount that sellers are willing and able to sell.
- Law of supply : the quantity supplied of a good rise when the price of the
good rises, other things equal.
- The supply curve shows how price affects quantity supplied, other things
being equal.
- other things are non-price determinants of supply - shift the curve.
- Other things : input prices ( price of raw materials,..), technology, number of
sellers, expectations, …
4. Equilibrium and disequilibrium.
- Equilibrium price: the price that equates( ngang bằng) quantity supplied with
quantity demand
- Surplus : when quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded.- sellers
try to increase sales by cutting the price.
- Shortage : when quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied- sellers
raise the rise.
-

-
-
C5 ELASTICITY AND ITS APPLICATION
1. Elasticity
- Elasticity measures how much one variable responds to
changes in another variable.
- Qd: quantity demanded
- Qs: quantity supplied
- Price elasticity of demand: measures how much Qd responds
(phản ứng lại)to a change in P
-

- To calculate percentage changes, we use the midpoint method


-

2. What determines price elasticity ?


- Price elasticity is higher when close substitutes are available.
( sản phẩm thay thế tồn tại)
- Price elasticity is higher for narrowly defined( định nghĩa hẹp)
goods than broadly defined( định nghĩa rộng) ones.
- Price elasticity is higher for luxuries than for necessities( hàng
hóa thiết yếu)
- Price elasticity is higher in the long run than the short run ( vì
trong thời gian ngắn hạn người dùng vẫn chưa quen vơi
shanhf vi của mình nên nhu cầu vẫn sẽ tăng lên, còn khi dài
hạn họ đã quen rồi nên sẽ tìm cách hạn chế tốt nhất dẫn đến
độ đàn hồi giá cầu cao)
3. The variety of demand curves
- Perfectly inelastic demand (đường cầu hoàn toàn không đàn
hồi)
-

- lượng cầu về một sản phẩm hoàn toàn không thay đổi dù giá
cả có biến động như thế nào. ( EX : Thuốc kháng sinh, muối,..)
- Inelastic demand ( độ đàn hồi cầu không đàn hồi)
-

- khi giá cả của sản phẩm tăng lên, lượng cầu giảm đi rất ít
hoặc thậm chí không thay đổi(EX: thực phẩm, thuốc men, các
sản phẩm ko có hàng thay thế,...)
- Unit elastic demand (độ đàn hồi cầu đơn vị)
-

- Khi giá của một sản phẩm tăng (hoặc giảm) bao nhiêu phần
trăm, thì lượng cầu của sản phẩm đó cũng giảm (hoặc tăng)
bấy nhiêu phần trăm.( ex: quần áo, giày dép, thực phẩm chế
biến sẵn)
- Elastic demand ( độ đàn hồi cầu đàn hồi)
-

- Người tiêu dùng rất nhạy cảm với sự thay đổi giá cả của sản
phẩm. Nếu giá tăng, họ sẽ dễ dàng chuyển sang sử dụng sản
phẩm thay thế hoặc giảm lượng tiêu dùng.(ex: nước ngọt,
bánh kẹo, các nhãn hiệu điện thoại…)
- Perfectly elastic demand ( độ đàn hồi cầu hoàn toàn đàn hồi)
-

- khi giá cả của hàng hóa tăng lên dù chỉ một chút, lượng cầu sẽ
giảm xuống 0, và ngược lại, khi giá giảm, lượng cầu sẽ tăng
lên vô hạn.( ex: các sản phẩm nông sản)
4. Price elasticity and total revenue.
- Revenue= PxQ
-
-

5. Price elasticity of supply


- Price elasticity of supply measures how much Qs responds to
a change in P
-

6. The determinants of supply elasticity


- Two main factors affect the supply elasticity of a product
- Ability to change output: Độ đàn hồi cung càng lớn khi các
nhà sản xuất càng dễ dàng thay đổi lượng hàng hóa sản xuất.
- Time period : Độ đàn hồi cung dài hạn lớn hơn ngắn hạn:
Trong dài hạn, các doanh nghiệp có nhiều thời gian hơn để
điều chỉnh quy mô sản xuất, đầu tư vào công nghệ mới, hoặc
thậm chí tham gia hoặc rút khỏi thị trường. Do đó, độ đàn hồi
cung trong dài hạn thường lớn hơn so với ngắn hạn.
- Đường cung cong lên: Đường cung trong hình ảnh có dạng
cong lên, cho thấy khi giá tăng, lượng cung cũng tăng. Tuy
nhiên, mức độ tăng của lượng cung không phải lúc nào cũng
giống nhau.
- Độ đàn hồi cung lớn hơn 1 (elasticity > 1): Khi giá tăng từ 3
USD lên 4 USD, lượng cung tăng đáng kể. Điều này cho thấy
trong khoảng giá này, các nhà sản xuất rất nhạy cảm với sự
thay đổi của giá và sẵn sàng tăng sản lượng.
- Độ đàn hồi cung nhỏ hơn 1 (elasticity < 1): Khi giá tăng từ
12 USD lên 15 USD, lượng cung tăng rất ít. Điều này cho thấy
trong khoảng giá này, các nhà sản xuất đã đạt gần đến công
suất tối đa của họ, nên việc tăng sản lượng trở nên khó khăn
hơn.

7. Other elasticities:
- The income elasticity of demand measures the response of Qd
to a change in consumer income.
-

8. Other elasticities
- The cross-price elasticity of demand measures the response of
demand for one good to changes in the price of another good.
-

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