1

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

Review of Electrical Circuits Theory

Chew Chee Meng

Department of Mechanical Engineering

N ti
National
lUUniversity
i it off Si
Singapore
 2

Outline

Introduction
Basic Electrical Elements
Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Laws
Method of Superposition
Equivalent Circuits
Practical Considerations
 3

Introduction
All mechatronic
ec at o c aand
d measurement
easu e e t
systems contain electrical circuits and
components

Typical elements of electrical circuits

 4

Introduction
Basic
as c mechanical
ec a ca qua
quantities
t t es
Displacement
Velocity
Force
What about electrical domain?
 5

Introduction

Basic electrical quantities

Charge
Current
Voltage
g
 6

Introduction
Charge
Fundamental electric quantity
q y
Unit: coulombs (C)
Atomic structure of matter:
Consists of a nucleus (neutrons and
protons) surrounded by electrons
Elementary charges
A proton has a charge of 1.6 × 10-19 C
An electron has a charge of -1.6 × 10-19 C
 7

Introduction
Electrical current (charge in motion)
time rate
ti t off flow
fl off electrical
l t i l charge
h th
through
h a conductor
d t or
circuit element
unit: amperes, A (or C /s)

dq (t )
i (t ) 
dt
q(t) : quantity of charge flowing through a cross
cross-section
section of the
circuit element.

Electrons

Current flow direction

 8

Introduction
Direct
ect Current
Cu e t vs
s Alternating
te at g CuCurrent
e t
direct current (dc): constant with time.
current, (ac): varies with time
alternating current time,
reversing direction periodically (typically
sinusoidal).
sinusoidal)
 9

Introduction
Current
Cu e t Measurements
easu e e ts

How to measure current in a circuit?

Refer to:
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t b / t h? 34SY77
 10

Introduction
Electrical potential at any point in an
electrical field is defined as:
E
Q
E is
i potential
t ti l energy off a charged
h d particle
ti l
(with Q coulombs of charge) if it is placed at
that point
Note:
Only difference in electric potential is meaningful
Analogous to gravitational potential
 11

Introduction
Voltage (potential difference, electromotive
force (emf))
difference in electrical potential between 2 points
SI unit: volt,
volt V (or J/C)
Let Va be the electrical potential at point A
and Vb at point B
B, then the voltage across A
and B, Vab (A wrt B) is
Vab=Va-VVb
Also, Vba=-Vab
 12

Introduction
Notations
otat o s
When vab is positive
(negative), electric
potential at a is higher
(l
(lower)
) than
th that
th t att b

When v is positive
(negative), electric
potential at arrow end
is higher (lower) than
that at the non-arrow
end
 13

Introduction
How to measure voltage?

A Vab

Vab
+ 4.889V
-

+ve -ve
ve
B
Voltmeter

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 14

Introduction
Digital
g ta Multimeter
u t ete ((DMM)) ca
can be used
to measure:
Voltage
Current
Resistance
 15

Introduction
Ground
Typical reference for electric potential
Symbols
or

“Voltage at point A, Va = 3.8V” means potential at

point A is 3.8V with respect to ground potential
 16

Introduction
When current flows through an element and
voltage appears across the element, energy
is transferred.
When positive charge or current enters
through positive (negative) polarity into an
element,
l t energy is
i absorbed
b b d (supplied)
( li d) b
by th
the
element

Energy Energy
+
supplied absorbed
by the by the
element + element
 17

Introduction
Power
o e aand
d Energy
e gy
Power absorbed by an element:

p (t )  v(t )i (t ) *
*Remark: Note this formula is based on convention that current i is flowing
across element by entering through positive polarity of element. If inverse is
true computed value for p is negative and it means that element actually
true,
supplies power to rest of circuit.

Energy absorbed from time t1 to t2:

t2

w   p (t )dt
d t1 < t2
t1
 18

Basic Electrical Elements

Energy sources
Voltage source (Vs), current source (Is)
Ideal energy sources: Contain no internal
resistance, inductance, or capacitance.
Three basic passive* electrical elements
Resistors (R), capacitors (C) , inductors (L)
An electrical circuit is an interconnection of
electrical elements and energy sources.

*Passive elements: Require no additional power supply (cf ICs)

 19

Basic Electrical Elements

Ideal voltage source (Vs)

Ideal independent voltage source

 20

Basic Electrical Elements

Ideal voltage source (Vs)

Ideal dependent voltage source (diamond-shaped

symbol)
• Depends on a current or voltage that appears
elsewhere in the circuit
 21

Basic Electrical Elements

Ideal current source (Is)

Ideal independent current source

 22

Basic Electrical Elements

Ideal current source (Is)

Ideal dependent current source

Depends
p on a current or voltage
g that appears
pp
elsewhere in the circuit
 23

Resistor
Resistor
A dissipative
p element: Converts electrical
energy into heat

Symbol
 24

Resistor
Resistor
Ideal resistor
Voltage-current characteristics defined by
Ohm’s law:
v
R v
i
R=v/i

where R is a constant called resistance ((SI Unit:

Ohm, )
 25

Resistor
Method of reading resistor’s
resistor s value of wire
wire-
lead resistors

R  ab 10 c  tolerance(%)

10 k5%
 26

Resistor
Variable
a ab e resistors
es sto s
Potentiometer (pot)
Trim pot

Three terminals

Schematic symbols
 27

Resistor
Resistor
Resistance related to p
physical
y parameters
p

E.g. Resistance of a homogeneous material of length L

and with uniform cross-sectional area, A:

L
R
A
 is called the resistivity
which is a property off the
material
How to measure resistance?
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 28

Capacit
Capacitor
or
A passive element that stores
energy in the form of an electric
field Conducting plates

+ -
i + - Symbol:
+ Dielectric -
+ -
+ material -
Current flow* results in + -
opposite charge built up + -
+ -
on the conducting plates

Dielectric material (an insulator): increases capacitance

*Strictly, current does not flow through a capacitor

 29

Capacitor
Capacitor
Capac to aand
d its
ts fluid-flow
ud o a analogy
a ogy
 30

Capacit
Capacitor
or
v(t)
+ -
ddv
i(t) q  Cv or iC
dt
C

where
q (unit: coulombs, C): amount of accumulated charge
appearingi on each h capacitor
it plate
l t
C (unit: farads, F (coulombs/volts)): capacitance
v: voltage across the capacitor
i : current flowing into the positive polarity of the capacitor
 31

Capacit
Capacitor
or
Voltage
g across a capacitor
p cannot
change instantaneously (why?)
Can be used for timing purposes in electrical
circuits (e.g. RC circuit)
Vin

Vin
Vc

Used in low-pass
low pass filter
Capacitor behaves like an open
circuit during steady state condition
 32

Capacit
Capacitor
or
Capacitance:
p Ap
property
p y of
dielectric material
plate geometry and separation
Typical values: 1pF (picofarads,
10-12) to 1000F (microfarads,
10-6)
 33

Capacit
Capacitor
or
Primary
y types
yp of commercial capacitors:
p
Electrolytic (polarized, have a positive and
negative ends)
Tantalum
C
Ceramici di
diskk
Mylar
Capacitance codes:
Three-digit code
code, e
e.g.
g 102
102, implies 10x102
pF = 1 nF
Two digit code
Two-digit code, e
e.g.
g 22
22, implies 22 pF
 34

Inductor

A passive energy storage

element that stores energy in the
form of a magnetic field.

Symbol:
 35

Inductor

IInductor’s
d t ’ characteristics
h t i ti
governed by Faraday’s law
off induction:
i d ti
d
V (t ) 
dt
where λ = total magnetic flux Fig 2.10, p15 of Alciatore and Histand, 2003

(webers, Wb) through the

coil windings due to the
current
 36

Inductor
For ideal coil,
  Li ,

hence,

v t   L
di
dt
where L is the inductance (henry,
(henry H (=Wb/A)) of the
coil.
t
i t    v t dt  i t0 
1
or L t0
=>
> Current
C t cannott change
h instantaneously
i t t l
Note: Inductor behaves like a short circuit during steady state condition
 37

Inductor
Typical
yp ca inductor
ducto values:
a ues 1H  to 100mH
00
Present in motors, relays, solenoids,
po er supplies,
power s pplies oscillators circ
circuits,
its etc

Electric motors Fuel injector

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 38

Branches,, Nodes and Loops

p
Branch: Any portion of a Circuit
circuit with two terminals elements
connected to it

Node: Junction of two or

more branches
Node

Loop: Any closed connection

of branches

Loop 1 Loop 2

Loop 3
 39

Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Laws
Analysis
a ys s o
of ccircuits:
cu ts ca
calculate
cu ate voltages
o tages
and currents anywhere in a circuit
*Kirchhoff’s LaLaws:
s essential for
analysis of circuits which involve basic
elements, transistors, op amps, ICs, etc
Kirchhoff’s
c o s cu current
e lawa ((KCL)
C )
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

*Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

 40

Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Current Law
Sum of currents flowing into a node is
zero:
N

I
i 1
i 0

Eg:
I1+I2-I3 = 0
(I3 has negative sign
because it is flowing
away from the node)
 41

Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Current Law
Alternatively, the sum of the currents entering a
node equals to the sum of the currents leaving
the node
Eg:

(Sum of currents I1+I2 = I3 (Sum of currents

entering node) leaving node)
 42

Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Voltage Law
Sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero:
N

V
i 1
i 0

Start from a node (e

(e.g.
g
A) and end at the same
node
Either clockwise or
anti-clockwise is fine
 43

Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Voltage Law
Eg:

Loop 1: -vva + vb + vc = 0
Loop 2: -vc – vd + ve = 0
Loop 3: va – vb + vd – ve = 0
 44

Analysis of circuits
Procedure:
• First, assign current variable to each branch and assume its flow
direction.
• Then assign appropriate polarity to the voltage across each passive
element (current entering into +ve polarity).
• Apply KVL for loops or apply KCL for nodes to generate sufficient
equations together with constitutive equations of the elements (eg. Ohm’s
law) to solve the unknown current and voltage variables

+ vB - - vD +

- + -
Passive
vA vC vE
element
l
i1 i2 i3
+ - +
 45

Systematic Circuits Analysis Methods

For resistive circuits

Node-voltage method
Mesh-current method
 46

Series Resistance Circuit

Circuit: R1 and R2 connected in series with a voltage source Vs

To find: I, VR1 and VR2 (need three equations to solve)

Apply KVL to the closed loop
? starting from node A (clockwise):
-Vs+VR1+VR2 = 0
Constitutive equations, Ohm’s
? l
law:
?
VR1 = IR1
Fig 2.13,
2 13 p18,
p18 Alciatore and
VR2 = IR2
Histand, 2003
=> -Vs+IR1+IR2 = 0
Hence, I = Vs/(R1+R2) , VR1= IR1 , VR2 = IR2
 47

Series Resistance Circuit

Since Vs = I(R1+R
R2))=IR
IReq where Req=R
R1+R
R2
I

+
Vs Req
Figg 2.13, pp18, Alciatore and -
Histand, 2003

i.e. the two resistors can be

replaced by a single resistor Req
off value
l R1+R R 2.
 48

Series Resistance Circuit

In general, N resistors connected in

series is equivalent to a resistor with
resistance:
N
Req   Ri
i 1
where Ri is the resistance of ith
resistor connected in series
 49

Series Resistance Circuit

Voltage
g divider
R1
VR1  IR1  Vs
R1  R2
R2
Fig 2.13, p18, VR2  IR2  Vs
Alciatore and Histand,, R1  R2
2003

In general, voltage across the resistor Ri of N series

connected resistors branch is given by: R
VRi  N
i
Vs
R
j 1
j

and, VRi  Ri
 50

Series Resistance Circuit

Voltage
g divider : Create different reference
voltages by selecting appropriate resistors.
Question:
Given a 12 V battery, is it appropriate to use the
g divider to directly
voltage y create a voltage
g source or
supply of say, 5 V, for a device directly?

R1
Vin=12V

R2 Vout
 51

Parallel Resistance Circuit

Circuit: R1 and R2 connected in parallel with a voltage source Vs

To find: I, I1 and I2 (need three equations to solve)

? Applying KCL at node A:

I - I1 - I2 = 0
? ? Constitutive equation
equation, Ohm’s
Ohm s law:
I1 = Vs/R1
2 14 p20,
Fig 2.14, p20 Alciatore and I2 = Vs/R2
Histand, 2003

Vs Vs
=> I  I1  I 2  
R1 R2
 52

Parallel Resistance Circuit

Since Vs Vs 1 1  Vs where 1 1 1
I   Vs      
R1 R2  R1 R2  Req Req R1 R2
I

Fig 2.14, p20, Alciatore and

Histand, 2003 +
Vs Req
-

i.e. the two resistors can be

replaced
p by
y a single
g resistor Req of
value =
R1 R2
1 
 1 1  R1  R2
  
 R1 R2 
 53

Parallel Resistance Circuit

In general
general, N resistors connected in
parallel is equivalent to a resistor of
resistance Req , given by:
resistance,

N
1 1

Req i1 Ri
where Ri is the resistance of
ith resistor
 54

Parallel Resistance Circuit

Current divider
R1 R2
VS  IReq  I
R1  R2

Fig 2.14, p20, VS R2

Alciatore and Histand, I1   I
2003 R1 R1  R2

VS R1
I2   I
R2 R1  R2

That is, I1  R2 and I 2  R1

 55

Series Capacitors/Inductors Circuit

By applying KVL, it can be shown that:

L1 L2
C1 C2

C1C2 Leq  L1  L2
Ceq 
C1  C2
In general I generall
In N
Leq   Li
N
1 1

Ceq i 1 Ci i 1
 56

Parallel Capacitors/Inductors Circuit

By applying KCL, it can be shown that:

L2
C2

C1 L1

L1 L2
Ceq  C1  C2 Leq 
L1  L2
N
In general N In general 1 1
Ceq  Ci
L eq
 
i 1 Li
i 1
 57

Principle of Superposition

For a linear system:

Given:
Input Output
Input u1
Input, Output y1
Output,
System au1+ bu2 System ay1+by2

where a and b are some

Input, u2 Output, y2 constants
System

Apply to linear circuits (where all elements

can be described by linear equations, e.g. V
=IR, V=Ldi/dt,
/ Cdv/dt
C / = i))
 58

Principle of Superposition
If more than one independent voltage or
current source is present in any given circuit,
each branch voltage and current is the sum
of the independent voltages or currents
which would arise from each voltage or
current source acting individually when all
th other
the th independent
i d d t sources are zero*.*

*To zero a source, current source replaced by

open circuit and voltage source by short circuit.
circuit
 59

Example:
p Superposition
p p
To find I V II1: Portion of I
I2 R arising
i i ffrom I1
I1
II2: Portion of I
I ? arising from I2
(a) IV: Portion of I
((b)) arising from V
R
I1
II1 I2 R

V II2
(c)
R

IV Ans: I=I
I II1+II2+IV
=I1-I2
 60

Equivalent Circuits

Equivalent circuits

Portion of circuit to Equivalent circuit

be replaced
p with an
equivalent circuit
 61

Equivalent Circuits

Equivalent circuits - one that has identical

V-I relationship as viewed from a given
pair of terminals

I
I

V
V

Portion
P ti off circuit
i it tot Equivalent circuit
be replaced with an
equivalent circuit
 62

Thévenin Equivalent
Thévenin’s theorem: Given a pair of
terminals in a linear resistive network, the
network may be replaced by an independent
voltage source VOC in series with a
resistance RTH.:
I
I RTH
R1
Vin Linear
VOC
resistive V V
R2
network
t k

VOC - Thévenin voltage

RTH - Thévenin resistance
 63

Thévenin Equivalent (procedures)

Thévenin voltage - open circuit voltage

across the terminals.
Thévenin resistance – equivalent
resistance across the terminals when
independent voltage
oltage sources
so rces are
shorted and independent current
l
sources are replaced d with
ith open circuit.
i it
((Applicable only
y if there is no dependent
sources in the circuit)
 64

Example
Example:
p : Thévenin Equivalent
q
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from terminals
A and
dB
Solution:

R1
Vin
A Find VOC by voltage divider
formula,
R2 VOC
B R2
Voc  Vin
R1  R 2
 65

Example
Example:
p : Thévenin Equivalent
q
Solution ((cont):
)

Find RTH across the terminals A &

R1
B after replacing the voltage
source with a short circuit:
A

R2 R1 R 2
RTH  R 1 || R 2 
B R1  R 2
 66

Example
Example:
p : Thévenin Equivalent
q

Thévenin Equivalent:
R1 A
Vin
A +
RTH
VOC
R2

B B
 67

Norton Equivalent
Norton equivalent: Linear resistive network can be
replaced by an independent current source ISC and
Thevenin resistance RTH in parallel with the source.

I
I
Linear
resistive V ISC RTH V

network

ISC - Norton current

RTH - Thevenin resistance
 68

Norton Equivalent (procedures)

ISC - current that would flow through the terminals if
they were shorted together.
together
To convert to Thevenin equivalent circuit, we can
compute Thevenin voltage VOC as follows:

VOC  I SC RTH
I
RTH
I

VOC
ISC RTH V V

Norton equivalent Thevenin equivalent

 69

Example:: Find Norton Equivalent circuit across A and B

Example
R1 A

Vo
R2 Io
B

First, find the short circuit current (ISC) across AB:

R1 X A

Vo
R2 Io ISC
B

A l i KCL att node

Applying d XX: Vo  V X
 I o  I SC  0
R1
Vo (since VX = 0)
I SC   Io
R1
 70

Example - Norton Equivalent (cont.)

Next, find the Thevenin resistance:
Replace voltage source with short circuit and current source with
open circuit and inspect the equivalent resistance across the
terminals. R1 A

R2
B

RTH= RAB= R1
Thus the Norton equivalent circuit would be:
A

Vo
 Io R1
R1
B
 71

Practical Considerations
Breadboard
eadboa d
For prototyping circuits Instruments for powering
and making
measurements t in
i circuits
i it

Points are internallyy connected

 73

Practical Considerations

Impedance (AC concept of resistance) matching

Maximum
M i power ttransmission
i i
In order to transmit maximum power to a load from a source, the
load’s impedance
p should match the source’s impedance
p ((see
textbook for proof).

For example, when you select speakers, the audio amplifier

output impedance should be considered for maximum power
transmission to a load (speaker).
 74

Practical Considerations

Grounding
Very important
V i t t to
t provide
id a common ground d defining
d fi i a common
voltage reference among all instruments and power sources used in
a circuit or system.

Not to confuse the signal ground with the chassis

ground. The chassis ground is internally connected
to the ground wire on the power cord and may not
be connected to the signal ground (COM).
 75

Review of Electrical Circuits Theory

Introduction
Basic Electrical Elements
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Principle of Superposition
Equivalent
qu a e t Circuits
C cu ts
Practical Considerations