EGM 241

Engineering Materials I
Lectures 03 & 04
1. Atomic Structure
➢ Atomic Structure:
➢ Each atom consists of a nucleus made up of protons and neutrons, surrounded
by moving electrons.
➢ Electrical Charge:
➢ Electrons: Negatively charged, with a charge magnitude of 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.
➢ Protons: Positively charged, with the same charge magnitude of 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹
C.
➢ Neutrons: Electrically neutral (no charge).
➢ Mass of Subatomic Particles:
➢ Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass: 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg.
➢ Electrons have a much smaller mass: 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg.

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1. Atomic Structure (Cont.)
➢ Atomic Number (Z):
➢ Represents the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
➢ For an electrically neutral atom or complete atom, the number of electrons
equals the atomic number.
➢ The atomic number ranges from 1 (hydrogen) to 92 (uranium), the highest
naturally occurring element.
➢ Atomic Mass (A):
➢ The sum of the masses of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
➢ Number of protons remain constant for all atoms of given element, but the
number of neutrons (N) may vary.
➢ Atoms with different neutron numbers, but the same proton number, are called
isotopes.

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1. Atomic Structure (Cont.)
➢ Atomic Weight:
➢ Corresponds to the weighted average of the atomic masses of an element's
naturally occurring isotopes.
➢ Atomic Mass Unit (amu):
➢ Used to compute atomic weight.
➢ Defined as 1/12 of the atomic mass of carbon-12 (¹²C), where A = 12.00000.
➢ The masses of protons and neutrons are slightly greater than one amu:
➢ Atomic Weight or Molecular Weight:
➢ Can be expressed in two ways:
➢ amu per atom (or molecule)
➢ grams per mole (g/mol) of material.

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1. Atomic Structure (Cont.)
➢ Atomic Weight:
➢ Corresponds to the weighted average of the atomic masses of an element's
naturally occurring isotopes.
➢ Atomic Mass Unit (amu):
➢ Used to compute atomic weight.
➢ Defined as 1/12 of the atomic mass of carbon-12 (¹²C), where A = 12.00000.
➢ The masses of protons and neutrons are slightly greater than one amu:
➢ Atomic Weight or Molecular Weight:
➢ Can be expressed in two ways:
➢ amu per atom (or molecule)
➢ grams per mole (g/mol) of material.

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1. Atomic Structure (Cont.)
➢ Avogadro’s Number:
➢ One mole of any substance contains 6.022 × 10²³ atoms or molecules.
➢ Relationship Between Weight Schemes:
➢ The atomic weight in amu per atom (or molecule) is related to mass per mole by the
equation:
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢/𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 (𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒) = 1 g/mol (1)

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2. Atomic Models
➢ Bohr Atomic Model*:
➢ Electrons are assumed to revolve around the nucleus in discrete orbitals.
➢ The position of each electron is relatively well-defined by its orbital.
➢ The Bohr model is illustrated in Figure 1.
➢ Quantised Electron Energies:
➢ Electrons can only possess specific, quantised energy values.
➢ An electron can change energy by making a quantum jump:
➢ To a higher energy state (absorbing energy).
To a lower energy state (emitting energy).

* In science, a model is a simplified representation of a system, concept, or phenomenon, used to explain, predict, or understand complex
scientific ideas. Models in science can take various forms, such as diagrams, mathematical formulas, simulations, or physical replicas.

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2. Atomic Models (Cont.)

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the Bohr atom.

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2. Atomic Models (Cont.)
➢ Energy Levels or States:
➢ Allowed electron energies are associated with distinct energy levels or states.
➢ These energy states are not continuous; adjacent states are separated by finite
energy differences.
➢ Allowed energy states for the hydrogen atom are shown in Figure 2.
➢ These energies are negative, with the zero reference representing the energy of an
unbound or free electron.
➢ The single electron in a hydrogen atom occupies only one of these allowed energy
states.
➢ The Bohr model attempts to describe electrons in atoms, in terms of both
position (electron orbitals) and energy (quantised energy levels).

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2. Atomic Models (Cont.)

Figure 2. The first three electron energy states for the Bohr hydrogen atom.
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3. Wave-Mechanical Model
➢ Considers the electron to have both wave-like* and particle-like#
characteristics.
➢ An electron is no longer treated as a particle moving in a discrete orbital;
rather, position is considered to be the probability of an electron being at
various locations around the nucleus.
➢ Position is described by a probability distribution or electron cloud.
➢ Figure 3 compares Bohr and wave-mechanical models for the hydrogen
atom.

*A particle is a discrete, localised object that can be described by properties such as mass, position, and velocity. Particles are often considered
to have a well-defined position in space.
#A wave is a disturbance that travels through space and time, typically characterised by oscillations or vibrations. Waves can spread out over a
region and do not have a fixed position.

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3. Wave-Mechanical Model (Cont.)

Figure 3. Comparison of the (a) Bohr and (b) wave-mechanical atom models in terms of
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4. Quantum Numbers
➢ The location and energy of every electron in an atom is determined by a
set of 4 quantum numbers that describe different atomic orbitals.
➢ An orbital is a region of probability where an electron can be found.
➢ Quantum numbers define the energy levels, shapes, and orientations of
atomic orbitals, and they help predict an electron's behaviour in different
environments.
➢ Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.

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4. Quantum Numbers (Cont.)
➢ Principal Quantum Number (n):
➢ Determines the energy level and size of the orbital.
➢ Values: Positive integers (n = 1, 2, 3, ...).
➢ Each orbital will have an n value.
➢ The larger the value of n, the higher the energy level and the farther the
electron is from the nucleus.
➢ Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l):
➢ Also referred to as the secondary quantum number or azimuthal quantum
number.
➢ Describes the shape of the orbital.
➢ Values: Integers from 0 to (n – 1).

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4. Quantum Numbers (Cont.)
➢ Each value corresponds to a specific type of orbital:
➢ l = 0: s orbital (spherical),
➢ l = 1: p orbital (dumbbell-shaped),
➢ l = 2: d orbital (clover-shaped)
➢ l = 3: f orbital (complex shapes).
➢ Magnetic Quantum Number (ml):
➢ Describes the orientation of the orbital in space.
➢ Orientation is relative to an external magnetic field.
➢ Values: Integers from – l to +l (including 0).
➢ Indicates how many orbitals exist for each type.
➢ For example, for l = 1 (p orbital), ml can be – l, 0, +1, which gives three p orbitals.

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4. Quantum Numbers (Cont.)
➢ Spin Quantum Number (ms):
➢ Describes the spin of the electron.
➢ Since each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, these spins must be
opposite.
➢ Values: +½ (spin up) or – ½ (spin down).
➢ Every electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum numbers, no two
electrons in an atom can have precisely the same four quantum numbers.
➢ Table 1 presents a summary of the values and relationships among the n, l,
and ml quantum numbers.

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4. Quantum Numbers (Cont.)
Table 1: Summary of the Relationships among the Quantum Numbers n, l, ml and
Numbers of Orbitals and Electrons

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Reading Assignment
➢ Explain the difference between an electron shell, subshell, and
orbital. How are these concepts related to each other in the context of
atomic structure, and how do they contribute to the arrangement of
electrons within an atom?

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