History Paper 1: Conflict in the Modern World

Section A: International Relations 1918-1963

 The Peace Treaties of 1919-1923
 League of Nations
 Cold War

Section B: Britain in WW2

 Appeasement
 Military
 Home front
Peace Treaties of 1918-1923
Treaty of Versailles June 1919
 Germany excluded from the treaty
 France (Clemenceau) – wanted harsh penalties, to make Germany suffer so
much it would no longer be a threat.
 Britain (Lloyd George) didn’t want to treat Germany too harshly – realised that
it would lead to future wars, but intended to make it pay for the cost of the war.
 USA (Wilson) – wanted to bring world peace and trade – let Germany off lightly.
 The USA hadn’t suffered as much as Britain and France – they were more
detached and wanted to stay impartial.
 Wilson drew up his 14 Points, which called for world peace and primarily – The
League of Nations
 T of V was harsher than the 14 Points, as it was aimed at crippling Germany
instead of aiming for peace.
Main Clauses:
 War-Guilt clause 231
 Army reduced to 100,00 men and only 6 warships
 Rhineland demilitarised
 Reparations at £6.6 billion
 Lost 10% land, including valuable Saar(coalmines), West Prussia and Upper
Silesia which were farming areas
Reactions:
 Some thought it was fair in response to what Germany had done
 Some thought it was too harsh, too severe. Wouldn’t help to prevent war, just
leave resentment in Germany
 Germans hated the treaty – lost their pride, economy and land.

St. Germain 1919 - Austria

 Separated Austria from Hungary and confirmed Austria no longer leading power
 Anschluss (uniting with Austria) forbidden
 Dealt mostly with land

Neuilly 1919 - Bulgaria
 Lost land and sea access
 Disarmament

Trianon 1920 - Hungary
 Took land away from countries, e.g Croatia and created new countries
 Made Hungary disarm
Sevres 1920 – Turkey
 Lost land, part of Turkey became new mandates
 Lost control of Black Sea

Key Results
 All defeated countries lost land and had to disarm
 All were punished in the same pattern of Versailles
 Germany, Austria and Hungary lost valuable industrial land – Bulgaria hadn’t
played a big part in the war
 New countries which had been increased or created now had people of different
nationalities

League of Nations

The Council
 Met 5 times a year, and in emergencies
 Made up of permanent members
 And temporary members which were
elected by Assembly.

Assembly
 Each country had one
vote
 Met once a year

Secretariat
 Carried out work of the League
 Similar to a civil service

Commissions International Labour Permanent Court of

 E.g, mandates, Organisation International Justice
refugees, WHO  Improve working  No power to do
and slavery conditions enforce decisions

Successes of the League

 Upper Silesia and Greece invading Bulgaria disputes resolved without violence
 Had a good reputation
 Did lots of work helping refugees
 WHO helped combat spread of diseases
 Fought slavery and brought better working conditions to many
Problems of the League:
 USA never joined the League
 League wasn’t powerful enough, no army of its own, had to be volunteered by
countries. No countries willing to.
 Without USA, sanctions were pointless
 Not all countries represented, especially Germany and Russia not allowed to join
at first
 Leaders of LoN (Britain and France) were weak, and they doubted it
  Vetoes could prevent actions which could prevent wars
 When members came on difference of opinion, they often left.

Corfu 1923
 Italian general killed while doing League work in Greece
 Mussolini invades Corfu, Greece asks for help
 Council condemns Mussolini and orders him to leave
 Told Greeks to give money to League
 Mussolini refused, League changed decision
 Greece had to apologise to Mussolini and pay money to Italy
 League seen as unfair, poor and easily pushed over and undermined
 Gave Mussolini belief that League were weak.

Manchurian Crisis 1931

 As a result of the Wall Street Crash in 1929, Japan invaded Manchuria in order
to expand and gain resources
 The League failed to stop Japan, even though they morally condemned the
Japanese. They did nothing else.
 League was seen as weak and powerless when it failed to stop the Japanese
aggression

Abyssinian Crisis 1935

 Dispute at the Wal-Wal oasis
 Annexes Abyssinia by 1936
 League imposed economic sanctions, Germany and Austria refused to apply them.
 Hoare-Laval Pact, Britain and France offer Italy most of Abyssinia
 At this time, Germany marches into the Rhineland where they are unopposed.
LoN also does nothing. France was in middle of elections – no leader wanted to
risk war
 League again seen as weak and powerless, Italy makes pacts with Germany.

The League Failed Because it WAS DUMB

1. Weak, league’s powers were useless, no army of its own and sanctions
failed
2. America wasn’t part of it, the strongest countries in the world
3. Structure of League was muddled, e.g members couldn’t agree but
decisions had to be unanimous
4. Depression, made countries worry about themselves not others
5. Unsuccessful – more the League failed, the less people trusted it and
eventually was just ignored
6. Members – main members let it down, and Italy and Japan betrayed it.
7. Big bullies – at the start the League dealt with weak countries, in the
1930s powerful countries like Germany, Italy and Japan attacked others.
Too strong for the League.
Cold War
 After WW2, Russia and Allies no longer had an enemy to bind them together
Soviet Mistrust  Capitalism was evil
 Invaded in 1914, Civil War and WW2,
wanted to stay secure
 1919 Paris Peace settlement, Russian land
given to others
 Believed the West wanted to destroy
Communism
Western Mistrust  Communism threatened Western values
 Worried Communism would spread
worldwide
 Dislike Stalin’s leadership – purges
 Stalin signs Nazi-Soviet pact 1939
Yalta Conference Feb 1945: Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin, before end of WW2
 Germany to be defeated, disarmed then forced to pay reparations
 Germany to be divided into 4 zones, GB, Fr, US and USSR
 Berlin individually split into 4
 Stalin to have influence over Eastern Europe, but countries to have “free
elections”
 FRAMEWORK SETTLEMENT
 Disagreement over Poland, Soviets wanted Communist government as they’d
liberated most of it. Friendly government in Poland meant protection from
Germany. Allies saw it as Soviet domination

Potsdam Conference July 1945 Atlee(GB), Truman and Stalin

 Occupation zones finalised
 Truman and Stalin didn’t get on well – tensions increased suspicion
 Allies wanted to strengthen Germany – buffer against Communism
 Stalin saw it as a threat against Communism, so he strips Communist zone of
equipment and machinery.
 West sent industrial goods to Soviets, but they didn’t return food and coal as
promised. West angry, suspicions grow
 Truman didn’t tell Stalin about the a-bomb he was going to use.

Eastern Europe
 Set up Communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria and Albania.
 “Salami tactics” taking over, bit by bit.
 Set up with military aid, not free elections as promised
 Iron Curtain speech, dividing East and West.

Truman Doctrine 12 March 1947

 Wanted to prevent spread of Communism
 Prepared to aid any country threatened by Communist take over
 Stalin sees this as threat, similar to declaring war on Russia
Marshall Plan June 1947
 American general – every country was so poor it was in danger of turning
Communist.
 Wanted aid to be given to European countries, $17 billion
 At first, refused, then passed.
Cominform
 Soviets hated Marshall plan, Stalin forbade Communist countries to ask for
money
 Set up Cominform, every Communist party in Europe joined
 Allowed Stalin country of all Communists.

Berlin Blockade 1948

 Allies had joined zones together to make one, and were planning to establish new
currency to aid recovery.
 Stalin saw it as a threat to USSR
 Stalin closed all roads, canals and railways between West and East Berlin.
Wanted Allies to give up West Berlin by starving them
 Britain and America flew in supplies
 May 1949, Stalin calls off Blockade as Allies are air lifting huge amounts of
supplies for West Berlin
 West Germany gained elected government.
 USSR responds by making East Germany with Communist government
 Allies determined to build up West Berlin as a showcase for capitalism.

NATO 1949
 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation: “Antidote to fear” of Communism
 12 Countries signed it. May 1955 West Germany admitted.

Comecon 1949
 Council for mutual economic assistance
 Co-ordinated trade within Communist countries and USSR

Warsaw Pact May 1955

 Defensive alliance, to protect Communist countries
 Keep control of Eastern Europe

Arms and Space Race

 1949 – Soviets successfully test atom bomb.
 Both countries begin developing weapons, trying to outgun the opponent.

Korean War 1950-1953

 Korea split into two, North went to Soviets, South went to Americans
 Both promised to leave after general elections. Soviets refused entry to UN
officials into North.
 Split Korea into two, Communist North and the South.
 1950, American Security Council issues report stating that America should
abandon containment and start “rolling back” Communism
 Domino Theory, knock on effects of Communism, spreading to other countries
 America supported S. Korea, indirect warfare.
 Kim Sung visits Stalin in 1949, convinces him he can defeat S. Korea.
 Syngman Rhee (S. Korea) had been boasting that he’d attack the Communists.
 N. Korea invades first in 1950, pushing S. Koreans all the way back
 Truman called on UN Security Council to support S. Korea, which it did.
 Soviets could have vetoed against this act, but they were boycotting the UN after
they rejected China (communists).
  Chinese joined in after MacArthur ignored Chinese warnings to stay away from
the River Yalu.
 Borders ended up in same place.

Consequences:
 Korean War example of successful containment – US
 Success for UN, even though US’ puppet
 China no longer seen as week
 Massive damage to Korea, 10% died
 Increased mistrust between both countries

The Thaw
 After Stalin’s death 1953, Khrushchev was installed as leader.
 He de-Stalinised the whole country and its satellite states
 Khruschev was more open and less hostile to the West
 Theory of Peaceful Coexistence, that both communist and capitalist states could
exist side by side
 Some states misinterpreted change and believed they would have greater
economic and political freedom
 1956 protests and riots in Poland led to some small concessions
 Revolt in Hungary was put down very harshly; people thought they had the
chance to change things.
 1961 Berlin Wall built
 End of The Thaw

U2 Incident 5th May 1960

 Russia’s satellite – Sputnik gave them psychological advantage, many Americans
felt threatened
 Summit planned for 1960 to discuss Berlin and nuclear weapons, Eisenhower
wanted “open skies” agreement.
 Assure each other that the other wasn’t preparing for war.
 Khrushchev refused, but Eisenhower went ahead anyway
 9 days before summit, Russians announced they’d shot down a U2 spy plane.
 Americans at first denied it, claiming it was a weather-plane.
 Russians put pilot, Gary Powers on trial for spying. Americans admitted it
 Paris Summit was ruined, Khrushchev demanded apologies and the cancellation
of all spy flights
 Eisenhower agreed to cancel spy flights, but not to apologise.
 Russia – grew in confidence
 Americans became angry with Eisenhower and elected Kennedy who promised to
be tougher on Communism.
Berlin Wall 1961
 Kennedy President of US, lacked experience and seen as week.
 Khruschev thought he could bully him, so demanded West give up Berlin
 Kennedy refused, so the Soviets erected a border between East and West
 Kennedy protested, but wouldn’t risk war
 Then work started on the Wall, built to “prevent defectors from East to West”
 US used it as propaganda, if Communism was so ideal, why did people need to be
caged in?
 Soviets showed it as a protective shell from spies and sabotage.
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
 1959 Fidel Castro introduces Communist government in Cuba
 1961 Bay of Pigs, America funded and supplied Cuban rebels to invade Cuba,
they failed miserably.
 Underestimated Fidel’s support among the people – his reforms had made him
popular.
 Cuba asks for support from Russia, publicly. Russia promises it.
 Khruschev wanted to test America, and bargain for missiles in Turkey.

Events
14 Oct: U2 spy-plane takes pictures of Missile bases in Cuba - experts tell Kennedy
he has 10 days before they are operational.
16 Oct: Kennedy set up a Committee of the National Security Council to advise him.
22 Oct: Kennedy announced that he was mounting a naval blockade of Cuba. B52
nuclear bombers were deployed on standby. Western spy’s last message
before arrested is “Soviet attack imminent”
23 Oct: Khrushchev explained that the missile sites were ‘solely to defend Cuba
against the attack of an aggressor’. 20 Russian ships were heading for Cuba.
24 Oct: Khrushchev accused America of piracy. He warned that Russia would get
ready ‘a fitting reply to the aggressor’.
25 Oct: The first Russian ship reached the naval blockade. It was an oil ship and
was allowed through. All the other Russian ships (carrying missiles) turned
back. Secretly, the US offers to remove US missiles in Turkey in exchange
for those in Cuba.
26 Oct: Russia was still building the missile bases, and Kennedy started planning a
military attack on Cuba - until, at 6pm, Khrushchev sent a telegram to
Kennedy, offering to dismantle the sites if Kennedy would lift the blockade
and agree not to invade Cuba
27 Oct: Before Kennedy could reply, Khrushchev sent another letter, demanding that
Kennedy also dismantle American missile bases in Turkey. On the same
day, a U2 plane was shot down over Cuba.
It looked as if war was about to happen.
Kennedy ignored the plane incident. He also ignored Khrushchev’s second
letter – he wrote simply that would lift the blockade and agree not to invade
Cuba if Khrushchev would dismantle the missile bases. He also offered
secretly to dismantle the Turkish missile bases.
28 Oct: Khrushchev agreed. The crisis finished.
20 Nov: Russian bombers left Cuba, and Kennedy lifted the naval blockade.

Results
1. Khrushchev lost prestige – he had failed. Particularly, China broke from Russia.
2. Kennedy gained prestige. He was seen as the men who faced down the Russians.
3. Both sides had had a fright. They were more careful in future. The two leaders set
up a telephone ‘hotline’ to talk directly in a crisis.
4. In 1963, they agreed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Cuba was the start of the end of
the Cold War.
5. Cuba remained a Communist dictatorship, but America left it alone.
6. Propaganda victory for Capitalism over Communism.
Section B
Appeasement
 Britain and France both tried to appease Germany in order to avoid any wars,
people still remembered the horrors of WW1.
 Their armies couldn’t match Hitler’s, and Chamberlain privately ordered for
British forces to be strengthened.
 Fear of Communism spreading, and they believed Germany could be a buffer for
it.
 Munich Agreement: Italy, France, Britain give Hitler Sudetenland.
 “The Piece of Paper” Germany and Britain promise to resolve differences through
talks – massive approval and celebrations.
 Appeasement was needed for Britain to prepare forces to oppose Hitler.

Sudetenland 1938
 During appeasement, March 11 1938 Hitler invades Austria
 7th September 1938, German Sudeten Party demands union with Germany
 Hitler threatens to support the Sudeten Germans with military force
 Chamberlain meets Hitler at Berchtesgaden, where he persuades Czechs to hand
over Sudetenland
 Next meeting at Bad Godesberg, Hitler makes more demands, which Chamberlain
eventually gives in.
 29th Setpember, Britain, France and Hitler meet and make Munich Agreement
 Sudetenland handed over to Germany
 Chamberlain returns with “Piece of Paper”

Nazi Soviet Pact 23rd August 1939

 Russia and Germany sign non-aggression pact
 Also made number of secret protocols, to split up and divide countries among
them
 Britain and Russia also attempted talks, these broke down due to suspicion of
Communism and Stalin, and also of Britain (Munich Agreement), Hitler was
promising peace, half of Poland and a “sphere of influence”, and Britain’s delay
in the talks
 Russia agreed so that it would have time to make military preparations against
Germany and because it mistrusted Britain

Build Up To War SCRAMCUP

1. Saar plebiscite 1935: voted to return to Germany. Cited as first step
towards war
2. Conscription and re-armament 1935, broke ToV but he was allowed to get
away with it
3. Rhineland, 7th March 1936. Broke ToV, but Britain and France did
nothing. Was a bluff, had orders to retreat at signs of resistance
4. Austria, 1938 Hitler took over Austria by invasion. Broke ToV, Britain
and France did nothing
5. Munich agreement, 1938. Sudetenland given to Hitler when he demanded
it
6. Czechoslovakia, March 1939. Hitler marched into the country
7. USSR/Nazi Pact, Russia and Germany sign non-aggression pact and
secretly decide to split Poland between them
8. Poland, September 1st 1939, Hitler invades.
Causes of the War
1. ToV solved nothing, made people more angry
2. LoN failed to keep peace
3. Appeasement encouraged war
4. Hitler – always intended to fight war
5. SCRAMCUP

Military
Dunkirk 1940
 German Blitzkrieg attacks destroyed opposition
 Allies retreated to Dunkirk
 Operation Dynamo – evacuation of troops
 340,000 Allied troops were saved, many of which were French
 Turned into propaganda victory, the Dunkirk Spirit
 In actuality, huge military loss. Huge amounts of equipment and weapons left
behind, as well as 300,000 men.

Battle of Britain 1940

 Hitler wanted to invade Britain, in order to do so effectively, needed to take out
the RAF to prevent them from destroying his invasion fleet.
 Sent the Luftwaffe to destroy them.
 Britain came extremely close to losing, 15th September; every single British plane
was in the air fighting.
 They only won because they’d had several days to rest when Hitler switched
focus to the Blitz and off the RAF.
 Britain won because of 4 things

Technology Radar – Germans couldn’t catch British by

surprise. Had advance warning to scramble
fighters
Weapons Spitfires and Hurricanes were more than a
match for the Luftwaffe
Tactics Organised country into sectors with main
airbases and supporting ones. Radar helped
prioritise attacks
Leadership Dowding had been organising defence
since 1936. Churchill inspired country.
Lord Beaverbrook increased production of
planes by 250%
Battle of the Atlantic 1939-1944
 Battle for control of North Atlantic Ocean – vital link which brought supplies to
Britain
 USA was extremely important to GB’s efforts, provided trade, money and
equipment
 1940 – U-Boats sank a quarter of Britain’s merchant fleet.
 The Allies eventually cracked the Enigma code, meaning they could guide ships
away from U-Boats
 New weapons and technology helped combat the Germans
 Tactics and training improved
 Radio and sonar helped link everything together
 Shipbuilding from US – Liberty Ships
 2,753 Allied ships were sunk (gross tonnage 14.5 million) at a cost of 783 Nazi
U-boats.

D-Day
Reasons for success How?
Deception  Operation Fortitude, huge amount
of deception operations. E.g,
tricking the Germans into thinking
it would be at Calais, the building
of fake airfields.
 Operation Bodyguard, entire
fictitious U.S Army group was
created, with false buildings and
equipment.
 Double Cross system, Germany’s
network of agents had been turned,
and all were telling Germany they
would attack at Calais.
Organisation  Organisation of D-Day landings
and layout
 Months of training and practise
against realistic Nazi emplacements
German mistakes  Main forces sent to wrong areas
 Germans tricked by deception
 Expecting main attack at Calais
Technology  Special tanks
 Mulberry harbours
 Operation PLUTO (Pipe Line
Under The Ocean)
 Became the platform for the invasion of France and Germany.
Home Front
Government controlled everything from jobs to food: Total War
Evacuation
 Children from cities were evacuated to surrounding countryside
 Teachers were also evacuated
 Country people horrified by ignorance of city kids – milk from cows
 Feared the impact of German bombing raids, to protect the next generation
 Mixed experiences, some lived in comfort in the countryside, with plenty of food
 Others had awful times, living with paedos.

Rationing
 Food became rationed when supplies ran low
 Grow Your Own campaign set up by government to encourage people to grown
their own food, to supplement their diet and help the war effort
 Make Do and Mend campaign – save resources and make do with as little as
possible.

Propaganda
 Heavy use of censorship in news to increase morale at home and gain support for
war
 Propaganda posters with slogans “Dig for victory”
 At the start, it was unsuccessful – Ministry of Information
 Used censorship, wireless, posters, Churchill’s speeches, booklets and pamphlets
released by the MoI
 Movie releases such as “In Which We Serve”
 Black propaganda – aimed at enemy population

The Blitz
 “Blitz Spirit” Enduring the Blitz with courage, continuing with their lives
 Black outs to prevent any light guiding Luftwaffe bombs
 Propaganda capitalised on Blitz Spirit to raise morale

Women:
 Women took many important jobs during war
 Became integral part of society
 Took part in all parts of the war effort
 Women’s Land Army etc.

Conscription
 Even when introduced, many people still volunteered regardless
 Particularly for the more glamorous groups such as RAF and submarines
 Conscientious Objectors could apply to a system of tribunals, but still, 60,000
were sent to prison
 Many of them worked in farms, hospitals
 May 1940 – Emergency Powers Act gave government power to conscript workers
into essential industries.