FARM IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Introduction
Farm irrigation systems are designed and operated to supply the individual irrigation
requirements of each field on the farm while controlling deep percolation, runoff, evaporation,
and operational losses. The performance of a farm irrigation system is determined by the
efficiency with which water is diverted, conveyed and applied, and by the adequacy and
uniformity of application in each field on the farm.
There are several alternative irrigation system types and configurations which will
satisfactorily meet the above requirements. Identification of the most appropriate system for a
given situation begins with the selection of the application method. The primary application
methods are the Surface (gravity), Sprinkler, and Trickle. The choice of the application
method is influenced by:
- landowner preferences
- the physical factors and
- the economic setting of the farm.
The table below lists the major factors affecting the selection of most suitable application
method:
Table 1.1: Comparison of Irrigation Application Methods in relation to Site and
Situation Factors
Site and Situation Surface Irrigation Sprinkler Irrigation Trickle Irrigation
Factors Method Method Method
Infiltration rate Low to moderate Low to high Low to high
Topography Small to moderate slopes Level to rolling slopes All types of slopes
Crops All types of crops Generally shorter crops High value crops
Water supplies large streams Small continuous streams Small continuous
streams
Water quality All but highly salty Clear and non-saline Clean, can use salty
water
Efficiency Average 60 to 80 % Average 70 to 80 % Average 80 to 90 %
Labour requirement Low to high Low to seasonal high Low to high
Labour quality Little to moderate training Little to moderate training Moderate training
Capital investment Moderate to high Moderate to high High
Energy requirement Low Moderate to high Low to moderate

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 Management Skills Moderate Moderate to high High
Mechanical operations Moderate interference Moderate interference High interference
Duration of use Short to long Short to long Long
Weather All types Poor in windy conditions All types
Chemical Application Fair to good Good Very good

Selection of the right application method is normally followed by laying the irrigation system
according to land topography. This involves locating application, conveyance and diversion
subsystems. This is followed by a detailed hydraulic design of the irrigation system:

Layout of Farm Irrigation Systems

In the layout of the irrigation subsystems, it is essential to take into account the topographical
considerations. Topographical maps of scale 1:50,000 (1 cm on the map representing 50,000
cm or 500 m on the ground) are available from the Survey of Kenya for areas within East
Africa. Such maps could be used to make a preliminary impression of the slopes in the general
irrigation project area. Topographical considerations are normally made at two levels:

At the Water intake Level

For water conveyance in canals, a gradient of 0.1 percent is generally sufficient if it allows
some head for hydraulic structures. If the water level is sufficiently higher (uphill) compared
to the project site, "Gravity Irrigation" is considered a feasible irrigation system, otherwise
"Lift or Pumped" irrigation system is considered as an alternative if pumps or other mechanical
means are used to lift the irrigation flow. Decision on the selection of water intake site should
however be based on the required length of the main canal to obtain a slope of 0.1 percent. If
the canal is too long, irrigation feasibility is reduced due to high canal installation and
maintenance costs, and also due to water loss through seepage.

At the Scheme Site

Topographical considerations at the scheme site are necessary for a number of reasons:
- To establish whether the irrigation is feasible, and if so, what type of irrigation.
- To determine whether it is necessary to consider erosion hazard and soil
conservation measures in the design.
- To establish whether land levelling is necessary on the land to be irrigated
- If land levelling is deemed necessary, it is essential to determine its impact on soil
structure.
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In the field, slopes may easily be established by simple topographical measurements using
line level or water hose. The main canal generally enters the scheme area at the highest point
so as to serve as much area as possible. In a regularly sloping land, the highest point may
easily be identified on the basis of a topographical map or on-site inspection of the field. To
irrigate the highest point by gravity, the water level in the canal must be above the land
surface. The "Scheme Water Command Level” is the water level which is required to irrigate
the whole scheme by gravity. The scheme command water level should be at least 25 cm
above the highest plot of the scheme. In the river, the base flow (low water level) is taken as
the source level
It has already been intimated that the main purpose of irrigation is to increase the soil
moisture content in the root zone of the crop. The increase of the soil moisture content should
cover the crops evapotranspiration requirements for a certain period (interval) until the next
irrigation is due. The mechanism of increasing the soil moisture content is through
infiltration in a downward direction as in the case of surface, sprinkle and trickle irrigation
methods, or in upward direction through capillary rise as in the case of sub-irrigation.

Factors considered in the design of irrigation systems

Technical and physical factors
Certain conditions of technical and physical nature should be met and are determinant for the
technical feasibility of irrigation and drainage projects such conditions are often standard and
can be considered as pre-requisites to every irrigation development in whatever part of the
world. The major technical aspect of irrigation planning is briefly considered below.
i) Availability of skilled labour: the source of technical labour such as setting up, operation and
maintenance of automated systems, fertigation, irrigation interval and gross application of
water at maximum efficiency.
ii) Crops: information of the present potential agricultural production is needed. The types and
varieties of crops grown, crop yields suitability to climate soil, farming practices and their
value to the community. Also, to be included are areal distributions and area of each crop to
be grown. Planting dates and how the stakeholders will receive investigations on proposals for
a new pattern of irrigated agriculture.
iii) Climate: The amount of rainfall and its annual distribution may or may not justify the need
for irrigation (or supplementary irrigation) Climatological data are further required to estimate
the crop water requirements. The variability and probability distribution of rainfall should also
be taken into consideration.

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iv) Soil characteristics: The moisture-holding capacity of the soil, intake rate and depth are
the main soil factors affecting selection of irrigation method. Generally Sandy soils have high
intake rates and low soil moisture storage capacities while the clay soil has low infiltration
rates but high moisture-storage capacity. Sandy soils require more frequent, smaller application
of water while clay soils can be irrigated less frequently and to a deeper depth. Chemical,
physical, and biological interactions of soil and water influence the hydraulic characteristics
of soil. In irrigation, the soil type determines soil-water holding capacity, the intake rate and
effective soil depth.
v) Quantity of available water: A survey of both land and water resources are essential. Water
is one of the most obvious pre-requisites to irrigator. Sixty to ninety five percent of
physiologically active plant tissue is water.
The important considerations in water availability are the amount of water available, the
minimum flow and the seasonal distribution. Equally important is whether or not extraction
from the source can be done by gravity and the technical implications of conveyance and
distribution system. If storage facilities are required there is need to know the availability of
feasible dam sites. If ground water is to be the main source of water the safe yields should be
known. Due to lack of adequate hydrological information in Kenya water availability is often
one of the most difficult and uncertain aspects of irrigation development planning.
vi) Water quality: The water source(s) to be used for irrigation should not contain any matter
which is harmful to the crops to be grown (it should be free from pollution). The salt
concentrations of irrigation water should be within the limits of crop tolerance and should not
affect the soil structure due to sodium or alkalinity hazard. Moreover, the quantity and content
of sediment may cause excessive siltation in structures, canals, reservoirs and even may
completely block the head works. It should be determined early enough whether sand traps
settling tanks and other de-siltation devices are required for an irrigation system.
vii) Topography: The suitability of land topography for irrigation should be evaluated well in
advance as the irrigation site. The type of irrigation, which best suites the prevailing
topography, should be identified. The risk of soil erosion and the need for soil conservation
measures necessary should be considered. Land levelling, if necessary, should be taken into
account and the impact this will have on soil depth and structure.
viii) Drainage and flood protection: It should be considered whether excess water could be
adequately removed from the irrigation area. Also important is whether the groundwater table
can b kept at a level which is not harmful to the crop at least during the cropping season. Also,

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to be considered as determinant for the technical feasibility for irrigation development is
whether it is technically possible to protect the area against seasonal flooding.
ix) Compatibility with other farm operations: The choice of irrigation system for a farm must
be compatible with the other existing farm operations, such as land preparation, cultivation,
and harvest. thus, the choice should consider Level of Mechanization, Size of Fields,
Cultivation methods and Pest Control approaches. large mechanized equipment operation
requires longer and wider fields. The selected irrigation system should not interfere with
equipment operations. generally, Small equipment or animal-powered cultivating equipment
is more suitable for small farms
x) Infrastructure: The availability of transport and communications within the project area and
linkages with external markets is of major importance in irrigation planning. The irrigation
area should be accessible (for bringing in construction material and for marketing the produce)
and should be provided with some basic infrastructural facilities (stores shops offices). The
environmental conditions should be suitable for housing and free of diseases (in particular
water and vector-borne diseases). Also, important to be considered is the availability of credit
facilities and whether agricultural inputs can be adequately supplied to the farmer.
xi) Pests, diseases, weeds and their infestation: some water application methods such as wild
flooding, basin irrigation may encourage spread of certain pests, diseases and weeds especially
when water moves from one point to another. Other methods such as drip irrigation may
minimize the spread of the same. Thus, the need to control pests, diseases, and weeds on a farm
should be considered when selecting irrigation method.
xii) Energy availability and reliability: the quantity of energy or power required to drive water
from one point to the other through the irrigation system differ for different irrigation systems.
When selecting irrigation method, the cost, reliability, availability of power such as electrical,
human labour, gravity force, and engine powered systems and associated fuel costs should first
be evaluated.
Economic factors
When planning irrigation projects, the economics of every irrigation activity should be
considered. This is due to the fact that economics will influence the final decisions. The
following economic aspects should be taken into account
a) Costs and benefits: Economic and financial analysis for an irrigation project should be
carried out to determine total irrigation project costs and projected benefits. The benefits
should be higher than total discounted costs which include purchase, operation and
maintenance of the project. The ratio of total benefits to the total cost also called internal rate
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of return is an index for preliminary economic viability of the irrigation project. The index is
mainly used to make a choice between two or more irrigation projects when capital resources
are limited. The higher the return index, the more the profit from the project. Based on the
national economy, cost-benefit analysis should be done to give detailed economic implications
of an irrigation project.
b) financial analysis: The financial aspects to be provided to the farmers should be evaluated.
These may include; total monetary requirement, sources of project funds, marketing chains,
availability of loans and their interests and national pricing policy. Irrigation projects that run
at a loss may not be allowed to develop. However, under special circumstances, it might still
be more advantageous and cheaper for the Government to subsidize it rather than to carry on
with famine relief. The two options may be economically analysed to select a cheaper option
between food from the irrigation project and the one to purchase by government as relief food
during famine.
c) Project or family income: The actual increase of cash income in at family or project level is
one of the most important incentives forms starting an irrigation project. Family cash income
is farm income less production cost and substance requirements including storage losses. Water
charges and repayment of loans should be in reasonable proportion to the estimated cash
income.
Socio-political factors
Social and human factor are the most difficult to deal with when evaluating the feasibility of
an irrigation project especially since they are not easy to value in monetary or economic terms.
They are nevertheless extremely important and often prevail over technical and economic
consideration. Some of the social and human factors which may adversely affect the
implementation and operation of irrigation projects include:
(i) Land tenure or Ownership: Land tenure or ownership in irrigation project has too often
been the cause of complete irrigation failures. Land tenure problems must be solved prior to
the implementation of an irrigation project. The proposed solutions should be acceptable to all
parties and leave no doubts over the rights and responsibilities of the landowners. In case of
communal land ownership, it may be desirable to allocate plots to scheme members or family
clans. Traditional land use rights should be respected as much as possible in particular in the
case of trust land. Proposed irrigation projects which are expected to be profitable are
sometimes not considered feasible due to disputes over land ownership. Land consolidation
may have to be considered in certain situation but this has always proved to be a delicate issue
and should be avoided as much as possible.
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(ii) Organization: Although not considered a typical problem organization is one of the crucial
factors of an irrigation scheme. Scheme organization and in particular maintenance has often
caused the failure of initially well-designed productive schemes. For each type of irrigation
scheme the scheme members should accept organization and management proposals, whether
owners or tenants and their rights and duties clearly define. It will often be desirable to lay
down these management rules and regulations in a special By-law or Act. Depending on the
form of organization of the scheme. Responsibilities of irrigation committee manager and his
staff should also be clearly defined. If no agreement about a suitable form of organization can
be reached between future scheme members the overall viability of the scheme becomes
doubtful and alternative forms of organization must be proposed. If not, the project may have
to be abandoned altogether. Farmers in an irrigation scheme normally have to share the scarce
production resource water. In particular when farmers do not pay for water or in areas where
irrigation is being introduced to them water distribution rules should be strictly adhered to. The
management should be vested with all powers to act against contravention of the rules.
(iii)The government policies: National policies regarding foreign exchange, specific sectors
of the local economy, or sufficiency in particular industries may lead to specific irrigation
systems being selected. In addition, specific irrigation system configurations may be
influenced by international policies and attitudes
(iv) Motivation: Although the farmers motivation is often difficult to assess there must be
certain indications that local people are interested in a proposed scheme and are prepared to
cooperate with the Government Farmers who have already practiced a kind of traditional
irrigation are generally more motivated than people who are predominantly pastoralists. It
should be noted that an improved standard of living (higher cash income) might not always be
a sufficient proposals and extension to local people at an early stage of the project may
contribute much towards a better understanding and increased motivation of the farmers.

The Design Process

Farm irrigation systems are designed to match the physical and economic setting in which
they are to operate. The physical setting is determined by climate, soils, topography, water
availability and location of the water sources, and the supporting infrastructure. The
economic setting of the farm involves the cost of land, the existence of markets, the cost of
farm inputs such as fertilizers, seed, and pesticides, the cost of energy and water for
irrigation, the landowner's personal debt situation, and the crop prices.

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In farm irrigation system design, the physical setting must be matched with the economic
setting in which the system is to operate. The following steps will be followed in the design
process:
1. Assembling the design data needed
2. Identifying and evaluating a water source
3. Determining the design daily irrigation requirement (DDIR)
4. Designing alternative systems for the farm
5. Evaluating the performance of alternative system designs
6. Determining the annual cost of alternative system designs
7. Selecting the most suitable system design.

Data Requirements
The success of irrigation system design project depends on quantifying the physical and
economic setting of the farm. The table below lists the principal data required for the design
of a farm irrigation systems:
Table 1.2: Principal Data Required for Farm Irrigation System Design
Data Specific Requirements
Climate Several years of temperature, relative humidity, wind, rainfall, solar radiation
and evaporation. The specific climatic requirements depend on the
evapotranspiration method used to estimate the irrigation requirement for each
crop.
Crop Areal distribution and fraction of each crop to be grown; suitability of each
crop to climate, soils, farming practice and markets; crop coefficient values,
planting dates for each type of crop to be grown over the expected life of the
project.
Soils Areal distribution of soils; water holding and infiltration characteristics, depth,
drainage requirements, salinity and erodibility of each type of soil.
Water Location of water source, water surface elevation, hydrologic and water quality
Supply information for assessing the availability and suitability of the water for
irrigation; type of source(s) and water right information.
Energy Location, availability, type of source(s), and cost information
Source

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 Capital Capital available for system development and availability, level of technical
and skills, and cost of labour.
labour
Other Topographic map showing location of roads, buildings, drain ways, and other
physical features that influence design, financial situation of farmer and farmer
preferences.

Water Source Evaluation

Identification of a reliable source of water is a prerequisite to successful irrigation. Irrigation
water is obtained from a variety of surface and ground water sources. Surface sources include
streams and lakes, while wells and springs are the principal groundwater sources.
A detailed analysis of legal, hydrologic, and water quality factors is required to determine the
total volume and volumetric flow rate that a water source can reliably supply year after year.
The suitability of a water source is determined by comparing these values to the irrigation
requirements of the farm.

Determination of Design Daily Irrigation Requirement (DDIR)

DDIR is usually the rate at which an irrigation system must supply water to achieve the desired
level of irrigation. DDIR has the dimensions of length per unit time. In SI units, DDIR are
expressed as millimetres per day (mm/d), or litters per minute per hectare (l/min/ha). The
DDIR for an irrigation system varies with the crops, climate, and soils of the farm. DDIR
values are largest for crops that have relatively shallow rooting depths, are sensitive to water
stress, and/or use water rapidly. Farms located in climates with high daily
evapotranspiration rates and low precipitation have the largest DDIR. Several years of
climatic data are required to quantify year-to-year variations in daily ET and precipitation
and to properly evaluate DDIR.
Generally, DDIRs for crops grown in soils with low water holding capacities, such as sands,
are higher than those for crops grown in finer textured soils with higher water holding
capacities. This is due to longer irrigation intervals in soils with higher water holding
capacities, resulting in smaller daily irrigation requirements.
The DDIR value for a farm is determined from several years of daily irrigation requirement
(DIR) data. DIRs for each year of climatic record are usually computed with one of ET
determination methods with an irrigation efficiency of 100 percent. DDIR is normally less than
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peak DIR since some of the water needed to meet peak DIR can normally be obtained from
the soil. In situations where no water can be obtained from the soil, DDIR equals the peak DIR.
DDIR is determined using the following equation

𝑨𝑫
𝑫𝑫𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑰
𝒎𝒊𝒏

Where;
AD = allowable depletion of soil water between irrigations (mm)
IImin = minimum irrigation intervals during irrigation season (days)

AD normally equals readily available water (RAW) unless in case of deficit irrigation
strategy when AD exceeds RAW.
The design daily irrigation requirement for a farm, DDIRf, is determined by computing the
cumulative irrigation requirement for the farm. The farm's cumulative irrigation requirement
is computed by summing the daily irrigation requirement of the crops grown on the farm. The
farm's daily irrigation requirement is computed with the following equation:

∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏(𝑨𝒊 )(𝑫𝑰𝑹𝒊 )𝒋
(𝑫𝑰𝑹𝒇 ) = ∑𝒏
𝒋 𝒊=𝟏 𝑨𝒊

Where;
DIRf = daily irrigation requirement for the farm (mm/d)
DIRi = daily irrigation requirement for crop i (mm/d)
Ai = area of crop i (ha)
n = number of crops grown on the farm
j = day of growing season (Julian day)
A frequency analysis of several years of DDIRf values is required to account for year-
to-year fluctuations in climate. Such an analysis allows a probability occurrence to be
assigned to each DDIRf. For example, a frequency analysis enables the DDIRf that will, on
average be exceeded 10 percent of the time to be determined. Quite often the return period is
used in lieu of the probability of occurrence. The relationship between probability and return
period is shown by the following equations:

𝑹
𝑷 = (𝟏 − 𝑴+𝟏) 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Where;
P = probability that a given value will be exceeded (percent)
10
 R = rank of DDIRf on a list of DDIRf values in an ascending order
(R for the smallest DDIRf value = 1
M = Number of DDIRf values

𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝑷 = 𝑷

Where;
Rp = return period (years)
P = probability of occurrence (percent)
Using the above relationships, a 20 percent probability of occurrence is equivalent to 5-year
return period. A 5-year return period DDIRf means that the DDIRf will, on the average, be
exceeded once in 5 years. It may be be exceeded each of the 5 years or not at all. A 5-year
return period indicate that historically, the DDIRf has, on the average been exceeded once in 5
years. The first step in a frequency analysis is to compute DDIRf values for each of the several
years of record. This is followed by an estimation of the probability of occurrence of each
DDIRf. A plot of P versus DDIRf on a probability graph paper is used to smooth the data for
interpolation.

Table 1.3: Summary of frequency analysis

DDIRf (Ascending order) Rank (R) P Rp
(mm) (No) (percent) (years)

SCS has also developed the following equation for estimating DDIR values for peak monthly
evapotranspiration for various values of allowable depletion between irrigations.

𝑬𝑻 𝟏.𝟎𝟗
𝑴
𝑫𝑫𝑰𝑹 = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 𝑴𝑨𝑫 𝟎.𝟎𝟗

Where;
DDIR = design daily irrigation requirement (mm/d)
ETM = average total evapotranspiration for the peak month (mm)
MAD = maximum allowed soil water depletion between irrigations (mm)

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Designing Alternative Systems
Identification of alternative systems begins with the selection of an application method. The
choice is influenced by the landowner preferences, and the physical and economic setting of
the farm. The table below lists the factors affecting the selection of the application method. In
situations where the choice is not obvious, each potentially feasible application method is
considered in subsequent steps of the design process.
Identification and selection of application method is followed by laying out the application and
conveyance subsystems according to farm geometry and land terrain. Several alternative
layouts are possible. These are inspected, and by elimination, the most appropriate layout is
adopted. This is followed by hydraulic design of the system beginning with the application,
through conveyance facilities, and ending with diversion subsystem. the last stage in the system
design is the determination of the pipeline specifications. Pumping plant components and
diversion structures specifications are normally considered last.

Performance of Farm Irrigation Systems

Farm irrigation systems are designed and operated to supply the individual irrigation
requirements of each field on the farm while controlling deep percolation, runoff,
evaporation, and operational losses. The performance of a farm irrigation system is
determined by the efficiency with which water is diverted, conveyed and applied, and the
adequacy and uniformity of application in each field of the farm.

Efficiency
The overall efficiency of a farm irrigation system is defined as the percent of water supplied
to the farm that is beneficially used for irrigation on the farm. Overall system efficiency also
called irrigation efficiency is expressed mathematically as,
(𝑺−𝑫𝑷−𝑹𝑶−𝑶)
𝑬𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 [ ]
𝑺

Where;
Ei = irrigation efficiency (percent)
S = amount of water supplied to the farm
DP = total deep percolation on the farm
RO = total runoff from the farm
O = operation losses due to planned and accidental spillage from
open channels and pipelines

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When evaluating the performance of a farm irrigation system it is often useful to examine the
efficiency of each system component. This allows components that are not performing to be
identified. The components usually identified as worth of evaluation include: the storage
reservoir, the conveyance, and the application. The overall system efficiency is considered a
product of these individual efficiencies:
𝒓𝑬 𝒄 𝑬 𝒂 𝑬
𝑬𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 ) (𝟏𝟎𝟎 ) (𝟏𝟎𝟎 )

Where;
Ei = irrigation efficiency (percent)
Er = reservoir storage efficiency (percent)
Ec = conveyance efficiency (Percent)
Ea = application efficiency (percent)

Reservoir Storage Efficiency

The efficiency with which water is stored in the reservoir is reduced by evaporation and
seepage. This can be illustrated with the following expression:
(𝑽𝒔 +𝑽𝒆 ) (𝑽𝒐 +𝜟𝑺)
𝑬𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (𝟏 − ) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ( )
𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝒊

Where;
Er = reservoir storage efficiency (percent)
Vs = storage volume from the reservoir
Ve = evaporation volume from the reservoir
VO = outflow volume from the reservoir
S = change in reservoir storage during a time interval
(S is negative when water has to be added to the reservoir to
maintain the level, and positive when water has to be removed)
Vi = inflow to the reservoir during a time interval
S is often neglected when long term periods are considered

Conveyance Efficiency
This is the ratio in percent, of the amount of water delivered by a canal or pipeline to the
amount of water delivered to the conveyance system. It is computed as:

𝑽
𝑬𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ( 𝑽𝑪𝑶 )
𝑪𝑰

Where;
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 EC = conveyance efficiency (percent)
VCO = volume of water delivered by conveyance system (i.e., outflow)
VCI = volume of water delivered to the conveyance system (i.e., inflow)
Application Efficiency
Water application efficiency for an irrigated area (Ea) is the ratio, expressed a percent of the
volume of water beneficially used by the crop to the volume of water delivered to the area.
Application efficiency can be computed for each field of the farm or for the entire farm.
Application efficiency is mathematically expressed as:
𝑽 𝑰+𝑳
𝑬𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ( 𝑽𝒃𝒖 ) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ( 𝑽 ) (1-10)
𝒂 𝒂

Where;
Ea = application efficiency (percent)
Va = volume of water applied in an area
Vbu = volume of water beneficially used by the crop(s) in an area
I = irrigation requirement for the area
L = leaching requirement for the area

Application Uniformity
The uniformity of application describes how evenly an application system distributes water
over a field the field. Uniformity of application is evaluated using the Christiansen uniformity
coefficient (CU). CU is computed using the following equation.
∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏(|𝒙𝒊 −𝒙|)
𝑪𝑼 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 − )
𝒏𝒙

Where;
CU = Christiansen uniformity coefficient (percent)
Xi = depth/volume caught/infiltrated at observation point i.
𝑥 = average depth/volume caught/infiltrated
n = number of observation points
The coefficient Cu for sprinkler system is often evaluated using a grid of catch cans. The
volume in each can is divided by the area of the can opening to calculate the depth of catch.
When catch cans are not used or when the uniformity of surface application methods is being
considered, the amount of infiltration at each observation point is used (rather than catch cans)
to compute Cu. For trickle system, the volume of water discharged in a specified interval of
time at several emission device locations is used.

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When numerous observation points are being utilized to evaluate sprinkler or trickle system
uniformity and the distribution pattern is nearly normal, Cu can be estimated using the
following equation:
𝑺
𝑪𝑼 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟖𝟎. 𝟎 𝑿

Where;
S = standard deviation of the observations

𝑋 = average depth/volume caught/infiltrated.

The above equation is not recommended for use with surface systems since their distribution
patterns are seldom normally distributed.
Distribution uniformity (Du) is another index of application uniformity. Du is the ratio,
expressed in percent, of the average low-quarter amount caught/infiltrated to the average
amount caught/infiltrated and it is defined by the following equation.
𝑿𝑳𝑸
𝑫𝑼 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (1-13)
𝑿

Where;
Du = distribution uniformity (percent)
XLQ = low-quarter average depth/volume amount caught/infiltrated
𝑋 = average amount depth/volume caught/infiltrated

Adequacy of Irrigation
The adequacy of irrigation is the percent of the field receiving sufficient water to maintain
the quantity and quality of crop production at a "profitable" level. Since this definition
requires crop soil, and market conditions to be specified, the adequacy is normally defined to
be the percent of the field (farm) receiving the desired amount of water or more.
The adequacy of irrigation is evaluated using a cumulated frequency distribution. This shows
the percent of the field (farm) receiving a given amount of water or more. Cumulative
frequency distribution patterns are constructed by determining the amount of water
caught/infiltrated at locations around the field (farm) and the total area represented by each
location. The amounts are then arranged in descending order and the percent of the field
(farm) receiving each amount or more is computed. These values are then plotted, amount
caught/infiltrated on the y-axis, and the percent of field area on the x-axis.
When the desired depth of irrigation fills the soil to field capacity, the term STORAGE
EFFICIENCY (Es) is often used as an index to adequacy. Storage efficiency is calculated
using the following equation.
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 𝑺
𝑬𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (𝑺𝒓𝒛 ) (1-14)
𝒇𝒄

Where;
Es = storage efficiency (percent)
Srz = amount of water stored in the root zone during irrigation
Sfc = amount of water to fill the root zone to field capacity
Effectiveness of Irrigation
This is a term used to qualitatively describe the application efficiency, uniformity, and
adequacy of irrigation. The desired effectiveness of irrigation (i.e., the desired combination of
efficiency, uniformity, and adequacy) maximizes the net farm profit. Irrigations with highest
application efficiencies, uniformities and adequacies are not always desirable since they do not
always maximize net farm profit. An understanding of the relationship between application
efficiency, uniformity, and adequacy is needed to identify irrigation systems and strategies and
maximize net farm profit.

Relation Between Uniformity and Application Efficiency

Irrigation system designs and management strategies that improve uniformity can be
expected to increase application efficiency when the irrigation fills the soil to field capacity.
Improved uniformity will however not necessarily increase application efficiency when the
maximum amounts of catch/infiltration are less than the amount needed to fill the soil to field
capacity. Achieving the maximum efficiency does not always maximize net farm profit, since
the increased initial and operating costs are usually associated with improving system
uniformities The benefits of high application efficiency must therefore be balanced against
the higher costs associated with higher uniformities. Maximum net farm profit can be
achieved with less than maximum attainable uniformities when water, energy, and fertilizer
are plentiful and/or inexpensive.

Relation Between Adequacy and Application Efficiency

Reduction in adequacy generally improves the application efficiency. This is true as long as
there are runoff and deep percolation losses. Improving application efficiency by decreasing
the adequacy however increases the amount of field (farm) that is under irrigated and thus,
reduces the amount and/or quality of crop produced. Achieving maximum net farm profit in

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this situation requires balancing the benefits associated with higher efficiencies and losses
associated with reduced crop yield and/or quality.

Farm Irrigation System Costs

The expected annual costs of owning and operating each feasible alternative irrigation system
design are used to assess the feasibility of irrigating the farm, selecting the most suitable
irrigation system, and in determining the optimum crop mix for the farm. Banks, government
agencies and other credit institutions also use these to evaluate the economic soundness of
the project and to develop suitable repayment arrangements.

Ownership Costs
Often called "fixed costs", annual ownership cost is independent of level of system use.
Fixed costs include annual depreciation and interest costs, and yearly expenditures for taxes
and insurance.
(i) Depreciation
This is the decrease in value of the system due to age, and obsolescence. Investments that
have an indefinite useful life such as water rights and land are not depreciated. The
depreciation of a system component that has a finite useful life is the difference between the
items initial cost and its salvage value.
The initial cost of an item is best determined from the actual price quotations. Initial costs
may also be estimated by adjusting the initial cost of identical or similar components of
previously designed systems to the current date.
A component's salvage value is its value at the end of its useful life and may be positive,
zero, or negative. Salvage values are negative when additional expenditures are required to
inactivate the component at the end of its useful life. The expected useful life of vary
depending on the level of repair, operation and maintenance practices, and the length of time
the system is used each year. The useful life values of most irrigation equipment are based on
an average 2000 hour of use per year.
(ii) Interest Costs
Interest is the return from productively invested capital. When money is borrowed to finance
the initial cost of the irrigation system, interest is the money paid for the use of the borrowed
money. For the landowner, financed systems, interest cost reflect returns that could be earned
if the capital expended for the irrigation system were invested elsewhere.

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Interest costs depend on the minimum attractive rate of return (MAR) and the total initial
cost of the irrigation system. A system cost is the sum of the initial cost of all depreciable
components and items such as water rights, and land that is not depreciated. Depreciable
items include fuel storage facilities, buildings, farm road and drainage facilities, and all the
irrigation equipment.

(iii) Computing Annual Depreciation and Interest costs

The following equations are used to compute annual depreciation and interest costs
for an irrigation system:
𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑪 = 𝑪𝑹𝑭 ∑𝑵𝑪
𝒋=𝟏 𝑷𝑾𝒋 (1-15)

(𝒊)(𝟏+𝒊)𝑨𝑷
𝑪𝑹𝑭 = (𝟏+𝒊)𝑨𝑷 −𝟏 (1-16)

Where;
ADIC = annual depreciation and interest costs
CRF = capital recovery factor
NC = number of system components
PWj = present worth of component j
AP = analysis period (years)
i = annual interest rate (decimal)
The analysis period used for economy studies of on-farm irrigation system is typically 20, 25,
or 30 years . For large complex projects, 40, 50, and 100 years are commonly used.
Present worth (PW) is the amount that must be invested at the beginning of the analysis
period to return the equivalent of a component's initial cost-plus interest by the end of the
analysis period. When the analysis period equals the component's useful life, PW is
computed as
(𝟏+𝒓)𝑨𝑷
𝑷𝑾 = 𝑰𝑪 − 𝑺𝑽 (1-17)
(𝟏+𝒊)

Where;
PW = present worth (pounds)
IC = initial cost of component (pounds)
SV = salvage value (pounds)
r = expected annual rate of cost escalation (decimal)
AP = analysis period (years

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When the analysis period is shorter than the components useful life, the component will not
be fully depreciated at the end of the analysis period. In this case, the final salvage value (at
the end of the analysis period) is the sum of the undepreciated and salvage values. This can
be computed using the following equation:
𝑨𝑷
𝑺𝑽𝒇 = 𝑰𝑪 − (𝑰𝑪 − 𝑺𝑽) 𝑼𝑳 (1-18)

Where UL is the useful life of the component in years. When AP is less than the UL, PW is
computed assuming SV = SFf. In situations where AP exceeds UL, the component will need
to be replaced one or more times during the analysis period. The following equation can be
used to handle such a situation
𝒂+𝒓 (𝒋)(𝑼𝑳) 𝟏+𝒓 𝑨𝑷
𝑷𝑾 = 𝑰𝑪 + (𝑰𝑪 − 𝑺𝑽) [∑𝑵
𝒋−𝟏 ( 𝟏+𝒊 ) ] − 𝒁 ( 𝟏+𝒊 ) (1-19)

Where;
𝐴𝑃−1
N = integer portion of and
𝑈𝐿

𝑨𝑷−(𝑵)(𝑼𝑳)
𝒁 = 𝑰𝑪 − (𝑰𝑪 − 𝑺𝑽) ( ) (1-20)
𝑼𝑳

(iv) Taxes and Insurance

The annual costs of taxes and insurance are normally obtained from the appropriate taxing
entity and insurance companies, respectively. The combined cost for taxes and insurance
normally ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 percent of the initial value of the irrigation system.

Operation Costs
Annual operation costs include the cost of water, energy, maintenance and repair, and labour.
The cost of professional services for such things like irrigation scheduling and fertilizer
recommendations should also be included in annual operating costs. The effect of escalating
costs can be included by multiplying estimated annual operating costs for the initial year of
operation by the equivalent annual cost factor (EACF). EACF is estimated by the following
equation.
(1+𝑟)𝐴𝑃 −(1+𝑖)𝐴𝑃 𝑖
𝐸𝐴𝐶𝐹 = ( ) ((1+𝑖)𝐴𝑃 −1) (1-21)
(𝑟−𝑖)

(i) Annual Water Costs

In many locations (especially those served by water districts), irrigators are charged for the
water they use. These charges are normally assessed on a volume basis.
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 (ii) Energy Costs
This includes the cost of all the energy used to operate the irrigation system. Energy used for
pumping, moving equipment within and between fields, injecting fertilizers and other
chemicals into the system etc. must be considered. Energy costs are estimated by calculating
the amount of energy used annually to irrigate the farm and applying the appropriate prices.

(iii) Annual Maintenance and Repair Costs

These costs depend on the number of hours the irrigation system operates, the operating
environment and the quality of maintenance. There is substantial variation in prices for parts,
and supplies, in repair wages, and for maintenance personnel. Annual maintenance and repair
costs should therefore be based on local data wherever possible. When such data is not
available then these costs should be estimated as a percentage of the components initial cost.
The total annual maintenance and repair costs for the system is then the sum of the component
costs.
(iii) Annual Labour Costs
The labour required to operate the irrigation system depends on many factors including the
type of irrigation system, the degree of automation, the crop being grown, the frequency and
number of irrigations and the land terrain. Labour requirements are estimated by careful
analysis of operations, or obtained from actual irrigation with similar conditions and systems.
Selecting the Most Suitable System Design
At the conclusion of the design exercise, the designer should prepare a report with design
specifications, and a technical and economic analysis of several alternative systems.
Each alternative should be thoroughly explained and discussed with the landowner. The
landowner will then select from the alternative designs, the one that best satisfies his/her needs,
desires, and financial situation. The land owner may also decide that none of the alternatives
is acceptable or that irrigation of the farm is not justifiable.

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