3

THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT

This chapter deals with a few aspects of explain the landscapes of the earth's surface in all
environments on the basis of a single theory. The
geomorphic theories viz. lack of commonly accept
able general theory, significance and goals of conceptual vacuum created by the rejection of Davisian
geomorphic theories, historical perspective of cyclic model of landforms could not be filled up as
geomorphic theories, bases and types of geomorphic yet inspite of postulation of non-cyclic model of
theories and evaluation of important theories. landform evelopment (dynamic equilibrium theory).
Question arises as to why no such common
3.1 LACKOFCOMMONLY ACCEPTABLE THEORY theorycould be postulated which can be acceptable
The crux of the problems of landform evolu tomajority of geomorphologists and can be applied
tion as to whether there is sequential change in in different environmental conditions. C.G. Higgins
landform development with the march of time (cy has opined that it would seem that one reason we
clicevolution of landforms, time-dependent series lack an acceptable theory of landscape development
of landform development), or landform develop is that there is as much diversity of opinion about
ment is time-independent and there is dynamic equi structure, process and form as there is diversity
landform de among structure, process and landforms
themselves.
librium (time-independent series of
velopment or. non-cyclic development of It is, thus, obvious that there is spatial and temporal
landform),or each geomorphic process produces its variation in the factors controlling the genesis and
own characteristic assemblage of
landforms (proc development of landforms e.g. geologic structure,
ess-geomorphology), or geological structure is the tectonic events, climatic elements, geomorphic proc
characteristics
most dominant control factor in
the evolution of esses, vegetal covers, pedological environment
landforms (structural or geological geomorpho and human interference with physical
owncharac through his economic activities,and landscapes are
logy),or each climatic type produces its the fact that
more complex than simple. In spite of more com
teristic assemblage of landforms (climate-prouess complexity of geomorphic evolution is
form approach, climatic geomorphology), or tec development has
evolution oflandforms mon than simplicity, landformfactor by individual
tonics play important role in the tectono-geomorphic been related to single causative
(tectonic geomorphology or Higgins the
geomorphologist. According to C.G. landform
is most appro
concept), or episodicerosion model landforms
de
controversy regarding the theories of fact that the
originated etc. the
priate to explain fluvially of the fact that the
velopment has surfaced because of further cat
He
theories have been oversimplified.
because
still remains unresolved
to describe and
postulator has always attempted
58
egorically stated that there may be no definitive
GEOMORPHOLOGY
more than one theories may be applicable iin
a
theory or geomorphic system that can fit all having uniform environmental conditionse.g. region
lel retreat and slope decline may be applicableparal-
landscapes.'S. Schumm (1975)has also corrobo
rated the idea of Higgins as he has aptly remarked, byside. For example, the hillslope having sandstoside
'most models of geomorphic evolution are oversim capping atbove weak shales in Bhander p
plified and therefore they are unsatisfactory for near Maihar is characterized by all the plateau
four (M.P)
short-term interpretation of landform change. There elements
of ideal hillslope protile (e.g. summital convexity
fore, a very complex denudational history of a free face, rectilinearity and basal concavity) and is
landscape may be geomorphologically normal." undergoing the process of parallel retreat of free face
I may be pointed out that majority of theo element and slope ireplacement at the basal segment
rists have postulated their respective geomorphic (Penckian model of parallel retreat and slope re.
theories on the basis of limited study of landforms in placement) while the convexo-concave hills, girdling
a small area and thus the results so derived may not the Bhander plateau (fig. 3.8), which have lost sand.
be universal and may not be acceptable to all. It stone capping because of prolonged backwasting
may not be out of context to emphasize that there is and parallel retreat, are undergoing the process of
so much diversity,variability and complexity in the active downwasting and slope decline (e.g. Sharda
landform characteristics and their mode of forma Pole hill very close to Sharda Temple hill (fig. 3.8),
tion and their controlling factors (as mentioned popularly known as Maihardevi hill, is experiencine
the process of slope decline Davisian model of slope
above) that the problems of landscape development
in all partsof the earth's surface and in all environ decline.
mental conditions cannot be solved on the basis of a It may be concluded that the most compelling
single geomorphictheory rather these can be tackled reason for the lack of commonly acceptable general
on the basis of composite or multiple theories. Thus, geomorphic theory has been the lack of proper and
according to C.G.Higgins, 'we need multiple theo meaningful investigation of processes and landforms
ries or different theories for different purposes. and establishment and explanation of relationships
as scientists we may all be seeking a correct or between geomorphic processes and landforms in
complete rational answer to landform origins, but if different physiographic regions in correct perspec
the natural world is irrational, no internally com tive. Many of the geomorphologists have related the
plete and substantive theory or system would work." present-day geomorphic features of the earth's sur
Further, all of the geomorphic theories, pos face to the geomorphic processes operating pres
tulated so far, lack in elastacity and broader perspec ently whereas many of these landforms are relic
tives andare unable to accommodate all aspects and features and the result of past processes (older than
view points related togenesis anddevelopment of Quaternary.
landforms in different environmental conditions in
volving a host of landform controlling parameters. 3.2 SIGNIFICANCE AND GOALS OF GEO
But it may also be pointed out that because of MORPHICTHEORIES
complexity in landforms and parameters controlling In any branch of science a theory plays an
their evolution no single theory can incorporate all important role for the development of new concepls
aspects of landform development. It is also not and approaches to the study of scientific problem5
desirable that we should seek solution of all prob and hence the formulation of
lems of landform development from a single for the furtherence of scientifictheories is necessary
or geomorphic system. In fact, we theory knowledge. Thus,
general theory is also required in geomorphology
solutions. instead of single solution of need multiple the understanding of mode of lo
related problem. For example, the landform
evolution and opment of landforms. The mainformation and devel
role of ageomorpn
development of hillslope in varied theory is to integrate three major of
conditions may be explained separately environmental aspectS
geomorphology e.g. decription (descriptive aspect),
alternative theories e.g. slope decline involving
lel retreat theory, classification (taxanomic aspect) and genesis an
theory, paral
slope replacement theory explanation
etc. Even in different (genetic/evolution aspect) of landtorns
environmental conditions. A geomorphi
 THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
59
theory may be formulated on the basis of empirical (iiü)Theory should present
generalization,deductions or on the basis of inter bases for histori
cal interpretation and future prediction
pretation of observed facts related to landforms and forlandform
changes.
related geomorphic processes, or on models. Only
that theory becomes most significant and commonly 3.3 GEOMORPHIC THEORIES : HISTORICAL
acceptable which is most general, simple and elastic PERSPECTIVE
so that it can acconmmodate and explain nearly all Though a well organized and general theory
aspects of landforms e.g. right from their mode of of landscape development was propounded by W.M.
genesis through development to the present form. Davis in 1889 (complete cycle of river life) and
In fact, the mainproblem of landform study 1899 (geographical cycle) but a few theories and
(genesis and development) may be convenientlyand concepts related to genesis,evolution and decay of
logically, if not unambiguously, tackled if three geomorphic features appeared before Davis e.g.
lines of geomorphic inquiry viz. precise way of concept of catastrophism and James Hutton's con
description of landforms, their classification and cept of uniformitarianism. In fact, the formulation
mode of genesis and evolution through time and of real geomorphic theory began with G.K. Gilbert
space and process-form relationship together with though he did not admit himself to be called as a
the mode of operation of processes are taken into theorist rather he preferred to be an 'investigator'
account because 'a future for geomorphic theory and postulated a set of principles based on broad
seems assured by the needs of geologists for a sound generalization regarding the genesis and develop
basis for historical interpretation of landscape, of ment of landforms in different parts of the U.S.A.
environmentalists and planner for a sound basis for e.g. law of uniform slope, law of structure, law of
predicting man's effectson the landscapes and of the divides or law of increasing acclivity, law of ten
science itself for a means of maintaining communi dency of equality of action, law of interdependence
of parts etc.
cation between its perspective, genetic-historical
and process-oriented lines ofinquiry'(Higgins, 1975). The first real and general geomorphic theory
was postulated by W.M. Davis in the form of geo
According to C.G. Higgins (1975) a graphical cycle' in 1899. In the beginning Davis
geomorphic theory must seck the solution of the formulated his model of geographical cycle for the
following three lines of inquiry related to landforms explanation of landscape development in humid
and landscapes temperate regions of the world but later on he ap
(i) How the landforms can best be described ? plied his cyclic model for the explanation of landforms
(ii) How these have been formed and how in arid regions (arid cycle of erosion, 1903, 1905,
these have changed through time ? 1930),glaciated regions (glacial cycle of erosion,
1900, 1906), coastal regions (1912, also by D.W.
(iii) Which processes have formed them and Johnson in 1919) etc. Davis' cyclic model became so
how these processes operate ? popular that it was applied to explain nearly all ofthe
It means a sound and forceful geomorphic landscapes produced by different geomorphic proc
theory must be competent enough to decribe the esses by geomorphologists all over the world even in
landforms, to explain the mode of formation and Germany where his model was severely criticised
historical evolution of landforms and to identify and and most of the geomorphologists pleaded for out
reveal the mode of operation of geomorphic proc right rejection of Davisian model. Karst cycle of
esses. erosion by Beede (1911) and Cvijic (1948) and
periglacial cycle of erosion by L.C. Peltier (1950, a
According to C.G. Higgins an ideal geomorphic German geomorphologist) etc. are such examples of
theory must include the following properties application of Davisian cyclic model.
(i) Simple and easily understandable terms It may be pointed out that universal applica
should be used to describe the landforms. tion of Davisian model(e.g. fluvial cycle of erosion,
(i) Theory should be based on contemporary marine cycle of erosion, karst cycle of erosion, arid
geological and geomorphic ideologies and thoughts. cycle of erosion, glacial cycle oferosion and periglacial
60 GEOMORPHOLOGY
created by the
cycle of erosion) weakened the theory to such an tutes to fill the conceptual vacuum evolution of
extent that not only the model was severely criticised rejection of Davisian model of cyclic
and modifications were suggested but siren was landforms.
raised for the total rejection of the model. Subse GEOMORPHIC THEO.
3.3 BASES ANDTYPES OF
quently, W. Penck postulated his model of RIES
'geomorphic system' or 'morphological analy of geomorphic
If we look into the historyyears,
sis'morphologische analyse' in 1924 (posthu thoughts for the last two hundred it appears
mous publication of his work) wherein he rejected theories have been
Davis' evolutionary model involving sequential that the bases of geomorphic geological,
changes in landforms and pleaded for time-inde greatly influenced by the contemporary
concepts and ideologies
scientific and philosophical historical, taxO
pendent development of landforms (dynamic equi such as teleological, immanent,
librium model). C.H. Crickmay's 'panplanation conventionalist etc. con
nomic, functional, realist,
cycle' (1933) and 'concept of unequal acclivity became bases of
cepts and view points which perspective. R.J.
(1975), L.C. King's 'pediplanation cycle' (1948),. geomorphic theories in historical
"hillslope cycle' (1953), 'river cycle' (1951) and Chorley (1978) has elaborated the bases of geomorphic
out
"landscape cycle' (1962), J.C. Pugh's 'savanna theories in historical perspective and has also of
types
cycle of erosion' (1966), S.A. Schumm's 'episodic lined the characteristics of different
erosion model' (1975) etc. came as a result of geomorphic theories.
modifications in Davisian model of geographical (1) TELEOLOGICAL THEORY
cycle.
Geomorphic theory was given a new turn and
The teleological base of geomorphic theory
direction in the decades. 1930-40 and 1940-50 when
inthe beginning of the development of geomorphic
thoughts was influenced by religious orthodoxy
Krumbein and R.E. Horton (1932 and 1945) intro wherein all the natural events were taken as the
duced quantitative techniques in the interpretation result of God's creation. In some senses it might be
of geomorphic processes and landforms resulting argued untilthe later part of the cighteenth century
therefrom. The introduction of quantification in
geomorphology was further strengthened by A.N. the true object of geomorphological study was not
Strahler (1950, 1952 and 1958). It may be men the landform itself but the mind of the Almighty, of
which the landform was held to be an outward and
tioned that after 1950 geomorphologists were least
interested in the formulation or search of geomorphic visible manifestion'(R. J.Chorley, 1978). Thus, it is
theories as they became more interested in the study obvious that landforms were considered as God's
ofgeomorphic processes (mode of operation) through creation. Theory of catastrophism, which envisaged
field instrumentation and experimentation in the quick and sudden origin and evolution of all animate
laboratories and interpretation of landforms result and inanimate objects in a very short period of time,
ing fromn these processes. This is the reason that L.C. may be cited as a typical example of teleological
King's popular work Canons of Landscape Devel geomorphic theories. It may be mentioncd that quick
opment' (1953) and models such as 'landscape cy and widespread events of larger magnitude, both in
cle','epigene cycle' and 'pediplanation cycle' could temporal and spatial contexts (like valcanic erup
not draw proper attention rather went unnoticed by tions, seismic events etc.) formed the basis of tele
the geomorphologists.
ological geomorphic theories. Even the earth's age
The forceful rejection of Davisian evolution was calculated to be only a few thousand years.
ary model (cyclicevolution) of landscape develop Events of smaller magnitude (both in spatial and
ment resulted in the postulation of dynamic equi temporal context) were ignored. The concept of
librium theory' (A.N. Strahler, 1950, 1952, J.T. sudden change and evolution also swept the biolo
Hack, 1960, 1965, 1975, R.J. Chorley, 1962). The gists and naturalists (e.g. Cuvier) who believed in
'geomorphicthresholdtheory',tectono-landform abrupt evolution and destruction of all the living
theory' (M.Morisawa, i975)and 'episodic erosion
theory' (S.A. Schumm, 1975) appeared as substi organisms. R.J. Chorley has aptly remarked (1978)
that 'the decline of old teleology was due to break
THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
61
down in confidence regarding the magnitude and singular past events and description of landforms in
frequency of events which it presupposed. It was evolutionary manner. The main goal of geomorphic
natural that it should be replaced by a causal basis of theories is retrodiction or
theory founded upon events of smaller magnitude reconstruction of past
events and not prediction offuture events and
both in space and time. in landformsand processes. Thus, historical changes
theories
are essentially based on the 'law of evolution' or
(2) IMMANENT THEORY
The significance of events of smaller magni 'law of historical succession'. Models of cycle of
tude in both space and time, inherent features of erosion, denudation chronology and tectonic theory
fall under the categoryof historical theories. Scien
endogenetic and exogenetic processes, interpreta tifically speaking, these theories are not considered
tion of landform characteristics on the basis of their
as scientific theories because these are based on
inherent features and causal basis formed the bases
of immanent theories which became dominant dur singular events whereas scientific laws are not based
on individual events rather these are based on a host
ing eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as aconse
of events and their recurrence whereas history is
quence of rejection of teleological theories. Theory based on unique events and non-repeatable proc
of uniformitarianism of James Hutton and John esses.
Playfair is atypical example ofimmanent geomorphic
theories. They believed that spatial patterns of ero Davis' 'geographicalcycle' is considered to
sion and deposition were auto-correlated. Thus, sci be the first successful attempt for the formulation of
entists began to conceptualize inherent relationships theoretical model in geomorphology. This model
between erosion and deposition, upliftment and sub aimed at the genetic classification and description of
sidence, form and process. The further manifestion landforms on the basis of regional spatial and geo
of immanent theories in the nineteenth century was logical temporal scales. The model of denudation
the development of ideas regarding relationship be chronology was based on the concept of historical
tween landform and geology and between rocks and succession'. Though both the models (cycles of
relief. J.P. Lesley, W. Smith and J.W. Powell studied erosion in the USA and denudation chronology in
the relationships between geology and landforms in U.K.) were initially framed separately but later on
they merged together. The model of denudation
much detail and postulated that there was clearcut
expression of structure in landfors. It may be chronology aims at the reconstruction of successive
pointed out that intimate relationship between stages of theearth's history. Though the main goal of
lithology and structure and landforms was so deeply study is landforms but in reality it remained to be the
conceived that it was not nceded to study the causal study of geological history of a given region. It is
relationships between rocks and reliefs 'in terms of argued that Davisian model of geographical cycle
detailed studies of the manner by which certain
begins on the basis of initial conclusion drawn from
differences in rock types support the recurring dif the study of maps of the region concerned and then
ferences observed to exist in terrain' (R.J. Chorley, attempts to validate the initial conclusion on the
1978). At a later date detailed studies of lithology basis of logical arguments and 'carefully selected
and structure at smaller spatial scale revealed re field observation' which may justify the initial con
markable variations in geological structure and thus clusion.
immanent theory was further modified and strength Though tectonic theory of W. Penck is more
ened. The micro-level studies and results coming or less theoretically similar todenudation chronol
therefrom convinced the envestigators that very close ogy but it could not acclaim as much popularity as
relationship betweenrocks and relief was possible was in the case of the latter because of language,
only at a larger spatial scale and no profound rela political and personal considerations on the one
tionship between these variables could be possible at hand, and less technical assumptions on the other
smaller spatial scale. (R.J. Chorley, 1978).
(3) HISTORICAL THEORY The historical theories started losing their
The base of historical geomorphic theories ground and popularity after 1950 because these
has been the historical succession of individual or involved very long temporal (geological time scale
62 GEOMORPHOLOGy
involving hundreds of millions of years) and very and mathematicalmethods to the study of landforme
large spatial scales. They (historical theories) broke and processes. The primary goal of the emergence of
down because their time scales were so large and functional theory was to relate morphological forme
mentioned that
unsignposted that they became the playground for to their controlling factors. It may be
unbridled and untestable speculation. The field be (e.g. G.K. Gilbert) used
a few geomorphologistsinterpretation
functional basis for the of landforms
came dominated by the spinners of ingenious his interrelationships even be.
torical sagas, following themes that were traditional and processes and their quantitative
both in development and outcome' (R.J. Chorley, fore the formal cilergence of RE
1978). geomorphology i.e. before the classical work of rela
in 1945 who emphasized the study of
Horton
(4) TAXONOMIC THEORY Tandtorms and gross
tionship between erosional the
The availability of huge dataset regarding hydrological transfers and detailed study of
landforms after 1890necessitated the classification erosional processes but he could not succeed in
of these data and landform assemblages resulting in developing 'a genetic model for the development of
the growth of regional taxonomic studies in large-scale drainage network'. The emergence of
decade 1950-60
geomorphology. Like human geography, classic functional science' in the
which
geomorphology was also armed with dualism wherein augmented the study of meso-scale landforms
'the theoretical binality of taxonomy has caused it to were taken as the function of geomorphic processes.
assume the gloss of more challenging theory and Further, the relationship between forms and proc
statistical
thus in geomorphology we find historical/cyclic, esses was substantiated with the help of
functional/climatic and interactive/ecological correlation techniques. The study of functional rela
developments of regional taxonomy, not to mention tionship between the forms (landforms) of medium
the social/utilitarian ones upon which present land tosmallspatial scale involving rapid temporal changes
classifications rest' (R.J. Chorley, 1978). The base and geomorphic processes and other landform con
of taxonomic theories was provided by two major trolling factors became the focal theme of functional
geomorphic concepts of climatic geomorphology theory but the required information of rapid tempo
and morphological geomorphology which devel ral change to validate functional relationships was
oped in the beginning of the 20th century mainly in not forthcoming. Thus, the functional theory de
Germany and France. Considering the paramount pended on the competence of statistical and math
influence of climatic parameters mainly humidity ematical methods. The functional theory faces a
(precipitation) and temperature on geomorphological formidable problem of relating the present-day
processes and landforms resulting therefrom the landforms to the present processes. It may be men
concept of morphogenetic/morphoclimaticregion tioned that most of the landforms of the earth's
was developed and the division of the globe into surface are considered to be relict and the landform
morphogenetic regions (by J. Budel, 1948, L.C. assemblages are examples of 'palimpsest topogra
Peltier, 1950, W.F. Tanner, 1961, D.R. Stoddart, phy'. The real functional relationship between forms
1969, L. Wilson, 1969, J. Tricart and A. Cailleux, and processes may be established only when the rate
1972 etc.) became the major manifestion of taxo of changes of forms and the rate of operation of
nomic theory. processes is properly understood. This necessitates
(5) FUNCTIONAL THEORY measurement of the rate of operation of processes in
The main basis of functional theories is func the field so that ordered information may be avail
tional relationships between forms (landforms) and able but the absence of such data became major
processes i.e. cause and effect relationship. The impediment in the validation of functional theory.
major methodological shift in geomorphology after (6) REALIST THEORY
Second World War was characterized by the appear
ance of new Realist theory, in fact, is the extended and
geomorphology' , 'scientific modified form of functional theory. The basis o
geomorphology,' and 'quantitative geomorpho
logy' as a consequence of realist theory is the study ofthe structure (geomaterials)
application of statistical of which the landforms have been formed and the
 THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
physicaland chemical processes which are 63
respon-
sible for the development and sustenance of external vation and accumulation of data
form (of landforms). In other words, the study of the and related geomorphic regarding landforms
processes.
sized that neither theory can be It may be empha
detailed causal mechanisms and materials of landforms
on one hand, and the study of their (of processes and observation and aquisition of dataformulated
nor
without
extermal real
ity may be properly understood
materials)interrelationships forms the basis of real study of gully erosion and without theory. The
ist theory. Thus, realist theory emphasizes the de management
area of Allahabad district (U.P., in Deoghat
tailed and minute investigations of physical and spatial (about 56,000m² area) andIndia) at micro
temporal scales
chemical mechanisms operating in the geomaterials (1991--1994) by Savindra Singh and
and geological structure within the external forms Alok Dubey
(1996)is suitable example of such approach
because these mechanisms are responsible for the have studied the causal as they
mechanisms of soil erosion
creation, changes and maintenance of geomorphic and gully development in man-impacted (cultivated)
features. The realization of the importance of the gully basins and have suggested management of
aforesaid theme blossomed in the form of the emer fragile gully basins.
gence of realist the ory and a significant shift in
methodology of geomorphic investigation appeared 3.4 MAJOR GEOMORPHIC THEORIES
after 1960 wherein micro-scale process study was Various theories of landform development
preferred to meso- scaleform study. Though the seed have been formulated by different geomorphologists
of process realism' was sown by G.K. Gilbert from time to time on the basis of contemporary
(1909, 1914), A.K. Sundborg (1956), R.E. Horton thoughts prevalent in the field of science oflandforms
(1945), S.A. Schumm (1956) etc. but this concept (geomorphology). It may be pointed out that most of
the geomorphic the ories revolved around two basic
blossomed with the work of A.E. Scheidegger (1961)
and G.H. Dury (1972). It may be mentioned that a concepts of landform development e.g.. 'sequential
few geomorphologists became so much engrossed change of landform through time' (i.e. progressive
with 'process realism' that they concentrated on the and irreversible change involving positive feedback
study of the mechanisms of physical and chemical mechanism) and 'compensatory change or oscilla
weathering processes at very micro-spatial and tem tory change` (involving steady state and equilibrium
poral scales. Here, the geomorphologists face wo and governed by negative feedback mechanism).
The significant geomorphic theories include those
major problems viz. (i) the study of physical and of G.K. Gilbert, W.M. Davis, W. Penck, J.T. Hack,
chemical processes at very micro-spatialand tempo L.C. King, Marie Morisawa, S.A. Schumm etc.
ral scales requires specially trained geoscientists in
general and biochemists in particular and this may 1.Geomorphic Theory of G.K. Gilbert
not be possible for the geomorphologists, and (ii) the It may be pointed outat the very outset that
results drawn through the investigation of processes Grove Karl Gilbert did not propound any definite
the gener
at micro-scales may not be applicable formes0-scale. theory of landform development. He did not prefer
alization of mechanismsof processes at to be called as theorist rather he opted to be an
(7) cONVENTIONALIST THEORY
investigator. According to him theorists are seldom
able to prove their theories while investigators are
Conventionalist theory is, in fact, admixture data,
always in search of collecting information andabout
study of
of different geomorphic theories. The micro-spatial through field observation and instrumentation,
geomorphic processes and forms at landform characteristics and processes which shape
theory) leading landform devel
and temporal scales (base of realist the landforms. Tentative theories of
tohuman welfare and blending of utilitarian consid opmentare seldom proved on the basis of field data.
theory. The Gilbert devoted most of his
erations form the base of conventionalist that This is the reason that
landforms and landform
philosophical base of such theory is the concept time in the investigation of
may be made between parts of the U.S.A.
making processes in differentLake,artesian wells of
no appreciable distinction
because theory is constructed Bonneville
theory and observation
observation. In other words, the (c.g. GreatBasin, Range, Henry Moun
on the basis of
precedes obser Great Plains, Alaska, Basin
construction of geomnorphic theory
 64 GEOMORPHOLOGy
states that 'as time passes and the energy within the
but did notprostulate
tain, California, Sierra Mt.etc.) the evolution and system becomes more equally distributed the e
regarding
any common theory postulated a set tropy (measure of order or disorder) increases
development of landforms, rather he
geomorphic fea at the state of maximum entropy, all parts until,
of
of principles regarding different
slope', law of struc closed system have the same energy level' (R.J.the
tures viz. law of uniform acclivity), Chorley et. at, 1985). n other words, with
ture', law of divide' (law ofincreasing equilib passage of timea system tends to achieve
the
law of tendency to equality', "dynamic
parts' etc. In energy and maximum entropy(maximum minimum
rium', law of interdependence of propounded
fact, Gilbert was ahead of his time as he
Gilbert took nature in the present
more interested in the
ditense
sorder).i.e.
such advanced concepts as 'steady
states' graded he was present forms and
equilib processes and their future trends (prediction) rather
curve and profile of equilibrium,'dynamic
ccntury which than in the reconstruction of past events and
rium' etc. in the beginning of the 20th landform (retrodiction). His concept of nature was forms
became the base of the ruling theory of twofundamental concepts of naturalI basedon
theory in
development (e.g. dynamic equilibriumlandforms)
volving time-independent development of phi
(i concept of rhythmic time, and (ii)
equilibrium.
lo sophy
concept
ie.of
drastic methodological shift
and became the pivot of
in the post-second world war geomorphology. Gilbert's understanding of time' was quite
Though Gilbert did not specifically claim to different from geologists' concept of time. Accord
have framed any definite geomorphic theory but on ing to him geologic time is rhythmic. "Any event (of
the basis ofhis writings and interpretation oflandforms the earth) represents a plexus of particular rhythm.
and processes his geomorphictheory may be stated The motion of the earth is the basic rhythm' which
as follows affects climate which in turn affects and controls
'Landscapes remain in equilibrium condition, processeswhich create different suites of landforms.
their history is rhythmic punctuated by oscillatory It may be mentioned that motion of the earth, which
changes and theirforms are punctuated byfrictional is responsible for the genesis of seasons and cli
rhythms arising out of the mechanism of driving and mates, includes rotation and revolution of the earth.
resisting forces.' Gilbert attempted to differentiate the traditional con
According to Gilbert the identification and Cept of evolution (involving continual growth or
quantification offrictional rhythms (processes) and decay on the basis of basic tenet of progressive
determination of their (of processes)dynamic com evolutionary change of landforms) from non-evolu
petition is the major geomorphic problem and the tionary concept involving equilibrium model. He
main task before the geomorphologists is to solve criticised and rejected the evolutionary concept of
this problem. geologists involvingcontinuous progressive change
The geomorphic principles of G.K. Gilbert in landforms through time and advocated the con
revolve around three inajor components of his pos cept of time-independent model of landform devel
tulates viz. concept of quantification', 'concept opment involving dynamic equilibrium and steady
of time' and 'concept of equilibriumn'. state.
Gilbert used scientificmethods for interpre Hisconcept of equilibrium envisages that in
tation of geomorphic processes and landforms re the final form of any functional system 'the sum o
sulting therefrom wherein he gave more emphasis to the forces acting on the final form equalled zero.
'quantity' in place of 'quality' and applied the laws This is also known as the principle of least force.
of thermodynamics to the analysis of geological
processes. According to first law of The forces in question are of two types, i.e. driving
ics in any systemn of constant mass, thermodynam force and resisting force. He explained his model or
energy is neither equilibrium with specific examples which were baseo
created nor destroyed but total energy remains con
stant and it can be transferred on hisown field studies. First, he
from
another type (the law is known as one type to of equilibrium for the explanation applied the concep
of the formation
energy) while the second law of conservation of of loccoliths resulting from
vulcanicity. The fortna
thermodynamics tion and rise of laccolith depends on the competenco
 THEORIESS OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT 65

(rise of magma) and resisting force and models presented by him from time to time e.g.
of driving force
(overlying pressure of superincumbent load). The (i) »complete cycle of river life', propounded in his
formationand growth of loccoliths continue so long essay on "The Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania'
asthe driving
force of rising magma is not countered in 1889, (ii) geographical cycle' in 1899, (ii)
force (acting downward) of equal mag- slope evolution' etc. He postulated the cyclic con
by resisting long as driving force cept of progressive development of erosional stream
nitude. In other words, so
exceedsthe resisting force, magma continuesto rise valleys under the concept of 'complete cycle of
register continuous growth river-life', while through 'geographical cycle' he
upwardand loccoliths described the sequentialdevelopment of landforms
the driving force is balanced by resisting
but when of equilibrium sets in and the growth through time.
force,thestate
static. Thus, the principle of
oflaccolithsbecomesoperative The general theory of landform development
wherein the sum of of Davis is not the 'geographical cycle' as many of
least work becomes
driving and resisting
forces becomes zero. the geomorphologists believe. His theory may be
principle of least expressed as follows
Gilbert also applied this condi
ofequilibrium "There are sequential changes in landforms
force leading to establishment profile of through time (passing through youth, mature and
the case of river to elucidate
tion in
equilibrium. The downstream
flow of river water old stages) and these sequential changes are di
by the force of gravity rected towards well defined end product-develop
(river discharge) is guided is converted into ki ment of peneplain. "
wherein the potential energy
force in the case ofa river The basic goal of Davisian model of geo
neticenergy. The driving landform de
system) is provided by its graphical cycle and general theory of systematic
(say energy of the riverresistance is offered by the velopment was to provide basis for a landforms.
flow velocity while the
bed-load and lithology of river valley.
More pre descriptionand geneticclassification of theory of
offered by the general
cisely,the friction to flow velocity is The reference system of Davisian change in
energy landform development is 'that landforms
materials of the valley. So long as the systemresisting operate through
say driving force (flow velocity) equals
the an orderly manner as processes environmen
equilibrium is uniform external
force say frictional force, the state of time such that under landform de
of
establishedand this condition prevails till the equilib tal conditions an orderly sequence
1975). Various models
rium condition is maintained and thus the principle velops" (R.C. Palmquist,
reference system
of leastforce works. The long profile ofa river
which were developed on the basis of this
arid cycle of erosion,
has attained the equilibrium state is called
profile of e.g. normal cycle of erosion, cycle of erosion etc.
equilibrium (i.e. equilibrium of actions) and such
graded
glacial cycle of erosion, marine
one of the several
river (in the state of equilibrium) is called the Thus, 'geographical cycle' is reference system
river. It may be mentioned that Gilbert applied possible models based on Davis'
landforms and
concept of grade' to all of the of landform development.
processes which he studied in the field e.g. graded 'geographi
Davis postulated his concept of erosion' in
beach' in the case of Bonneville Lake, graded popularly known as 'cycle of
hillslope' in the case of Sierra mountain etc. cal cycle'
1899 to present a genetic
classification and system
Thus,Gilbert propounded that 'the landscape 'geographical
is the result of two competing tendencies i.e. ten
atic description of landforms. His manner.
dency towards variability (when driving force ex cycle' has been defined in the following
ceeds resisting force) and tendency towards uni 'Geographical cycle is a period of time during
formity (whendrivingforce equals resisting force)." which an uplifted landmass undergoes its transfor
into
mation by theprocess of landsculpture endingcalled
2. Geomorphic Theory of Davls low featureless plain or peneplain (Davis
William Morris Davis, an American peneplane).'
geomorphologist, was the first geomorphologist to According to Davis three factors viz. struc
development.
present a general theory of landform the
Infact, his theory is the outcome of a set of theories ture, process and time play important roles in
66
GEOMORPHOLOGY
origin and development of landforms of a
place. These three factors are called as particular (5) Erosion does not start until the upliftment
is complete. In other words, upliftment
Davis' and his concept is expressed as Trio of
follows and erosion do not go hand in hand. This
'Landscape is a function of structure, process assumption of Davis became the focal
and time' (also called as stages by the point of severe attacksby the critics of the
Davis). followers of cyclic concept.
Structure means lithological (rock types) Davis has described his modelof geographi
and structural characteristics cal cycle through a graph (fig. 3.1).
etc.)of rocks. Time was not(folding, faulting, joints
only used in The cycle oferosion begins with the uplifment
context by Davis but it was also used as atemporal of landmass. There is a rapid rate of short-neriod
process
itselfleading to an ireversible progression of change
of landforms. Process means the
upliftment of landmass of homogeneous structure,
This phase of upliftment is not included in the cyclic
tion including both, weathering and
agents of denuda
time as this phase is, in fact, the preparatory stage of
ning water in the case of geographicalerosion
cycle).
(run the cycle of erosion. Fig. 3.Irepresents the model of
The basic premises of Davisian model of geographical cycle wherein UC(upper curve) and
'geographicalcycle included the following assump LC(lower curve) denote the hill-tops or crests of
tions made by Davis. water divides (absolute relief from mean sea-level)
(1) Landforms are the evolved products of and valley floors (lowest reliefs from mean sea
the interactions of endogenetic level) respectively.The horizontal line denotes time
(diastrophic) forces originating from within whereas vertical axis depicts altitude from sea-level.
the earth and the external or exogenetic ACrepresents maximum absolute relief whereas BC
forces originating from the atmosphere denotes initial average relief. Initial relief is defined
(denudational processes, agents of weath as difference between upper curve (summits of wa
ering and erosion-rivers, wind, ter divides) and lower curve (valley floors) of a
groundwater, sea waves, glaciers and landmass. In other words. relief is defined as the
periglacial processes). difference between the highest and the lowest points
(2) The evolution of landform takes place in of a landmass. ADG line denotes base level of
an orderly manner in such a way that a erosion which represents sea-level. No river can
systematic sequence of landforms is de erode its valley beyond base level (below sea-level).
veloped through time in response to an Thus, base level represents the limit of maximum
environmental change. vertical erosion (valley deepening) by the rivers.
(3) Streams erode their valleys rapidly down The upliftment of the landmass stops after point C
ward until the graded condition is achieved. (fig. 3.1) as the phase of upliftmentis complete. Now
(4) There is a short-period rapid rate of up erosion starts and the whole cycle passes through the
liftment in land mass. It may be pointed following three stages
out that Davis also described slower rates
of upliftment if so desired.
(1) Youthful Stage-Erosion starts after the
completion of the upliftment of the landmass.
Uplift Stops

UC
Altitude of
l iglI1best Divide
!A
Sunmits Monadnock
Youth IBase Level
Malurity Old Age
Altitude of Floors of Muin Vulleys
Time
Fig. 3.1: Graphical presentation of geographical cycle
presented by W.M. Davis.
THEORIESOFLANDFORM DEVELOPMENT 67
Thetop-surfaces or the summits of the water aBly diminish with march of time and
dividesare
nottaffected byyerrosion because the rivers these practically disappear by the end of
spaced. Small rivers and short
smallandI widely in late youth. The main river is graded.
are engaged headward erosion due to (2) Mature StageThe early mature stage is
ributariesare
extendtheirlength. The process is called heralded by marked lateral erosion and well inte
whichthey
lengthening (increase in the lengths of the grated drainage network. The graded conditions
stream of steep slope and steep channel
rivers). Because spread over larger area and most of the tributaries are
actively deepen their valleys through graded to base level of erosion. Vertical erosion or
gradientrivers aided pothole drilling and thus
verticalerosionincreasebyinthe depth of river valleys. valley deepening is remarkably reduced. The sum
mits of water divides are also eroded and hence there
thereis gradual deepening. The valleys
s called valley
This processis and narrow characterized by steep
is marked fall in upper curve (UC) i.e. there is
become deep stage marked lowering of absolute relief. Thus, absolute
slopes of convex plan. The youthful
erosion and relief and relative relief, both decrease. The lateral
valleyside rapid rate ofvertical gradient is
ischaracterized by erosion leads to valley widening which transforms
(i) the channel
valley deepening because
channelgradient
increases the the V shaped valleys of the youthful stage into wide
steep valleys with uniform or rectilinear valley sides. The
very steep, (i1)kinetic (i)
energy of the river flow, in marked reduction in valley deepening (vertical ero
velocity and and flow velocity (iv)
increased channel gradient capacity of the rivers,
sion or valley incision) is because of substantial
decrease in channel gradients, flow velocity and
creases the transportingcapacity of the rivers allow transporting capacity of the rivers.
increased transporting of high calibre (more
them to carry big boulders valley incision (val (3) Old Stage Old stage is characterized by
angular boulders) which help in
vertical erosion) through almost total absence of valley incision but lateral
deepening through erosion and valley widening is stillactive process.
ley curve (LC, valley floor)
pothole drilling. The lower deepening but the Water divides are more rapidly eroded. In fact, water
falls rapidly because of valley of water divides or divides are reduced in dimension
by both,
upper curve (UC, summits parallel to the hori downwasting and backwasting. Thus, upper curve
interstream areas) remain almost
there is rapid
the summits or
zontal axis (AD, in fig. 3.1) because affected by falls more rapidly, meaning thereby Relative or avail
are not
upper parts of the landmasscontinues to increase rate of decrease in absolute height. because of active
erosion. Thus, relative relief able relief also decreases sharply absence
ultimate maxi
till the end of youthful stage when lateralerosion but no vertical erosion. Near channel
mum relief(EF, in fig. 3.1) is attained. In nutshell, extremely low
following of valley deepening isdue to energy and
the youthful stage is characterized by the gradient and remarkably reduced kinetic almost flat
characteristic features. maximum entropy. The valleys become
land
(i)) Absolute height remains constant (CF is with concave valley side slopes. The entire and di
parallel to the horizontal axis) because of scape is dominated bygraded valley-sides
insignificant lateral erosion. vide crests, broad, open and gently sloping valleys
(ii) Upper curve (UC) representing summits having extensive flood plains, well developed me
of water divides is not affected by ero anders,residual convexo-concave monadnocks and
sion. extensive undulating plain of extremely low relief.
(iii) Lower curve (LC) falls rapidly because of Thus, the entire landscape is transformed into
rapid rate of valley deepening through peneplain. Asrevealed by fig. 3.1 the duration of
vertical erosion. old stage is many times as long as youth and maturity
(iv) Relief (relative) continues to increase. combined together.
(v) Valleys are of V shape characterized by Evaluation of the Davisian Model of Landform
convex valley side slopes. Development
(vi) Overall valley form is gorge or canyon. Davisian model of landform development
(vii) Long profiles of the rivers are character involving progressive changes in landforms through
ized by rapids and water falls which gradu time and his concept of 'geographical cycle' re
 GEOMORPHOLOGY

68
the geomorpho (6) His model is capable of both predictions and
ceivedworid wide recognition andin their geomor historical interpretation of landform evolution
logists readily applied his modelacademic intoxica (retrodictions).
phological investigations. The erosion continued NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF DAVIS' MODEL
of
tion of Davis' model of cycle
1950 when the model (1) Davis' concept of upliftment is not acceptable.
from itsinception in 1899 to though his model was
had to face serious challenges He has described rapid rate of upliftment of
of its pos short duration but as evidenced by plate tec
being criticised from the very beginning on tonics upliftment is exceedingly a show and
tulation. S. Judson (1975) while commenting long continued process.
grasp of
Davis' geographical cycle remarked, "His
of detail; and
time, space and change; his command (2) Davis' concept of relationship between
and frame his upliftment and erosion is erroneous. Accord
his ability to order his information pres
arguments remind us again that we are in the ing to him noerosion can start unless upliftment
that
ence of a giant".C.G. Higgins (1975) admitted and is complete. Can erosion wait for the comple
"Davis system came to dominate both teaching tion of upliftment ? It is a natural process that
rescarch in the descriptive and genetic-historical as the land rises, erosion begins. Davis has
aspects of geomorphology. Its continued validity is answered this question. He admitted that he
attested in part by continuing objections to it by deliberately excluded erosion from the phase
recent critics such as R.C. Flemal (1971)and C.R. cf upliftment because of two reasons- (i) to
Twidale (1975), that such an obviously flawed doc make the model simple,and (ii) erosion is
trine could have enjoyed such prolonged popularity insignificant during the phase of upliftment.
among large segmentof the geomorphic community (3) The Davisian model requires a long period of
suggests that there must be compelling reasons for crustal stability for the completion of cycle of
its appeal" (Charles G. Higgins. 1975). erosion but such eventless long period is
POSITIVE ASPECTS OF DAVIS MODEL
tectonically not possible as is evidenced by
plate tectonics according to which plates are
(1) Davis' model of geographical cycle is highly always in motion and the crust is very often
simple and applicable. affected by tectonic evcnts. Davis has also
(2) He presented his model in a very lucid, com offered explanation to this objection. Accord
pelling and disarming style using'very simple ing to him if crustal stability for desired period
but expressive language. Commenting on the is not possible, the cycle of erosion is inter
language of Davis used in his model Bryan rupted and fresh cycle of erosion may start.
remarked, Davis' rhetorical style is just ad (4) Walther Penck objected to over emphasis of
mired andseveral generations of readers be time in Davis' model. Infact, Davisian model
came slightly bemused by long, though mild envisages »time-dependent series' of landform
intoxication of the limpid prose of Davis' re development whereas Penck pleaded for time
markable essay." independent series' of landforms. According
(3) Davis based his model ondetailed and careful to Penck landforms do not experience pro
field observations. gressive and sequentialchanges through time.
He, thus,pleaded for deletion of "time' (stage)
(4) Davis' model came as a general theory of from Davis' trio' of 'structure, process and
landform development after a long gap after time". According to Penck "geomorphic forms
Hutton's 'cyclic nature of the earth history." are expressions of the phase and rate of
(5) This model synthesized the current geological upliftment in relation to the rate of degrada
thoughts. In other words, Davis incorporated tion" (Von Engeln, 1942).
theconcept of 'base level' and genetic classi (5) A.N.Strahler, J.T. Hack and R.J. Chorley and
fication of river valleys, the concept of 'graded several others have rejected the Davisian con
streams' of G.K. Gilbert and French engi cept of historical evolution' of landforms.
They have forwarded the dynamic equilib
neers' concept of profile of equilibrium' in
his model. rium theory for the explanation of landform
 THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
69
development. It may be pointed out that non dependent model stems from an unacknowledged
cyclic concept of 'dynamic equilibrium' as
valid substitute of Davis' cyclic concept of fundamental postulate that the history of the earth is
landform development and other s0-called itself cyclic, then no non-cyclic theory of landscape
*open system' and non-cyclic models of development can win general acceptance until this
postulate is unearthed, examined and possibly re
landform development could not arouse any jected'.
enthusiasm among the modern
geomorphologists. 3. Geomorphic Model of Penck
(6) Though Davis has attempted to include struc W.Penck is perhaps the most misunderstood
ture, process and time in his model but he geomorphologist of the world. It is not yet sure
overemphasized time. His interpretation of whether he used the word 'cycle' or not in his model
geomorphic processes was entirely based on of landform development. Penck's views could not
empirical observation rather than on field in be known in true sense and could not be interpreted
strumentation and measurement. Though Davis in right perspective because of (i) his incomplete
decribed the structural control on landforms work due to his untimely death, (ii) his obscure
but he failed to build any model of lithological composition in difficult German language, (ii) ill
adjustment of landforms. defined terminology, (iv) misleading review by W.M.
(7) Davis attempted to explain the concept of Davis and (v) some contradictory ideas. His work
grade in terms of ability to work (erosion and was posthumously published in the form of 'Die
deposition) and the work that needs to be done. morphologische Analyse' in 1924.
It is evident from the essays of W.M. Davis It may be pointed out that German scientist
that in the initial stage of landform develop Walther Penck pleaded for the rejection of Davisian
ment (in terms of cycle of erosion) the avail model of geographical cycle based on time-depend
able energy is more than needed to transport ent series of landform development and presented
the eroded sediment. Thus, the river spends his own model of 'morphological system' or 'mor
additional available energy to erode its valley. phological analysis' for the explanation of land
As the river valley is deepened the sediment scape development. The main goal of Penck's model
supply (the work needed to be done increases) of morphologicalsystem was tofind outthe mode of
for transportation increases but available en development and causes of crustal movement on the
ergy decreases. Ultimately, required energy basis of exogenetic processes and morphological
and available energy become equal and a con
characteristics. The reference system of Penck's
dition of equilibriumis attained. But the critics model is that the characteristics of landforms of a
maintain that the concept of balance between
available energy and the work to be done has given region are relaud to the tectonic activity of
that region. The landforms, thus, reflect the ratio
not been properly explained by Davis. It is between the intensity of endogenetic processes (i.e.
apparent from the writings of Davis that the
work to be done' refers to transportation of rate of upliftment) and the magnitude of displace
debris by the rivers and energy is spent in two ment of materials by exogenetic processes (the rate
ways e.g. in transportation of debris and in of erosion and removal of materials).
valley deepening. Such division of expendi According to Penck landform development
ture of energy is not justified. Thus, there are should be interpreted by means of ratios betwcen
two shortcomings in this concept viz. (i) ero diastrophicprocesses (endogenetic, or rate of uplift)
sion in itself depends on the mobility of and erosional processes (exogenetic, or rate of ver
sediments and erosion is never effective in the tical incision).
absence of sediments, (ii)such condition when Following are the basic premises of Penckian
the whole energy is spent in transporting the model of landscape development
sediments anderosion becomes totally absent () The morphological characteristics of any
is practically not possible. region of the earth's surface is the result of competi
Itmay be concluded in the words of C.G. tion between crustal movement and denudational
Higgins (1975) that 'if the desire for a cyclic, time processes.
 GEOMORPHOLOGY
70

(2) Landscape development is time-independ peneplain representing either newly emerged sur
ent. face from below sea level or a fastenbene' or
'peneplain' type of land surface converted into fea
(3) Tectonic movements can be explaincd
and their causal factors may be ascertained on the tureless landmass by uplift. According to Von Engeln
basis of morphological characteristics. (1942) the "primarumpfis aprimary peneplain,one
which could, in either case, exhibit truncated beds
(4) The shape of the hillslope depends on and structures, and yet need never have had a greater
relative rates of valley incision by rivers and re altitude or ahigher relief". In other words, primarumpf
moval of debris from hillslope. is the initial landscape with evidences of erosion but
(S) There are three crustal states e.g. () state with low altitude.
of crustal stability when there is no active displace Contrary to the concept of W.M. Davis, 'that
ment, (ii) state of initial domed uplift in a limited landscape is a function of structure, process and time
area followed by widespread uplift and (ii) state of (stage)', Walther Penckpostulated that, 'geomorphic
extensive crustal upliftment. forms are an expression of the phase and rate of
(6) There are three states of adjustment be uplift in relation o the rate of degradation. It is
tween crustal movement and valley deepening viz. assumed that interaction between the two factors,
() if crustalupliftment remains constant for longer uplift and degradation, is continuous. The landforms
period of time, the vertical erosion by the river is observed at any given site give expression to the
such that there is balance between the rate ofupliftment relation between the two factors (uplift and degrada
and erosion. (ii) if the rate of uplift exceeds the rate tion)that has been or is in effect, and not to a stage
of valley deepening, then the channel gradient con in a progressive sequence" (O.D.Von Engeln. 1960,
tinues to increase till the rate of valley deepening Pp. 261-62).
matches with the rate of upliftment and the state of
equilibrium isattained when both become equal, and The landscape development (we may say the
(iii) if the rate of valley deepening exceeds the rate cycle of erosion) begins with the upliftment of
of crustal upliftment, then the channel gradient is primarumpf (initial landscape with low height and
lowered tosuch an extent that the rates of upliftment relief)representing an initial featureless broad land
and erosion become equal and the state of equilib surface. In other words, primarumpf is initial
rium is attained. geomorphic unit for the beginning of the develop
ment of all sorts of landforms. Penck is supposed to
(7) Upliftment and erosion are always co
existent. Penck is supposed to have deliberately have assumed varying rates of upliftment of
avoided the use of stage concept in his model of primarumpf for the development of landforms. In
the beginning the uplift is characterized by exceed
landscape development either to undermine the cy ingly slow upheaval of long duration and thereafter
clic concept of W.M. Davis or to present a new the rate of uplift is accelerated and ultimately it stops
model. According to O.D.Von Engeln (1960)"Penck after passing through the intermediate phases of
found escape from the concept of cyclic change uniform and declerating rates of upheaval. In fact,
marked by the stages youth, maturity and old age". "the most tectonic movements began and ended
In the place of 'stage' he used the term entwickelung slowly, and that the common pattern of such move
meaning thereby development'. Thus, in the place ments involved a slow initial uplift, an accelerated
of youth, mature and old stages he used the terms uplift, adeceleration in uplift and, finally, quies
aufsteigende entwickelung (waxing or accelerated cence' (R.J. Chorley, et al., 1985, p. 28). The initial
rate of development). gleichformige entwickelung uplift begins with regional updoming and the landform
(uniform rate of development) and absteigende development passes through the following three
entwickelung (waning or decelerating rate of devel phases.
opment).
(1) Aufsteigende Entwickelung means the
Penck used the term primarumpf to repre phase of waxing (accelerating) rate of landform
sent the characteristic lanscape before uplifment. development. Initially, the land surface rises slowly
Primarumpf is, in fact, initial surface or primary but after some time the rate of upliftment is acceler
THEORIES OF LANDFORM
DEVELOPMENT
ated. Because of
upliftment and consequent increase
in channel gradient,
71
(relative) increase (l in fig. 3.2). The slopes of valley
and of courseincreaseflow velocity and kinetic energy sides are convex in plan.
the rivers continue toin discharge (not due touplift)
accelerated rate of degrade their valleys with
downcutting (valley
The valley side
ened due to continued slopes are continuously steep
valley deepening.
incision) but the rate of upliftment fardeepening or of convexity of .slopes is
reduced
The radius
rate of valley deepening (say exceeds the with
time due to parallel retreat of the passage of
degradation
landmass). Continuous active downcuttingof and uplifted segments. With the passage of time andsteeper slope
more accel
ley deepening results in the val erated uplift and degradation the primary
formation
narrow V-shaped valleys. As the rate of of deep and or say peneplain
uplift primarumpf is surrounded by a series of
(aufsteigende entwickelung)
the V-shaped valleys are furthercontinues to increase benches called as piedmont treppen. Each of such
deepened and sharp benches develops as a piedmont flat, called in Ger
ened. Since valley deepening does not keep pace man as piedmontflache on the slowly rising mar
with theupliftment landmass, the
of gins of the dome.
continues to increase. In other words,absolute height
the altitudes of (2) Gleichformige Entwickelung means
divide summits as well as the altitudes of uniform development of landforms. This phase may
valley
bottoms continue to increase as the rate of upliftment be divided into 3 subphases on the basis of rate of
far exceeds the rate of vertical erosion (fig. uplift and degradation (2 in fig. 3.2). Phase (a) is
the relative or 3.2)but
available reliefs continue to increase characterized by still accelerated rate of uplift. Ab
due to everincreasing rate of vertical erosion or solute height still increases because the rate of ero
valley deepening. Thus, both maximum altitude sion is still less than the rate of upliftment. Altitudes
(absolute height from sea level) and maximum relief of both summits of water divides and valley floors

Velocity
of Uplift Curve
-No Further Uplift
ImDistance
e or Divide Summits
Primarumpf
Altitude Boschung or Gravity Slope
Ilaldenhag or Waush Slope
End Runpf
Valley Floor Altitude

Base Level Altitude Inselberg

Fig. 3.2: Graphic presentation of Penck's model of landformdevelopment.

continue to increase but at relatively lower rate than due to matching of upliftment by the lowering of
in the phase of aufsteigende entwickelung. Maxi divide summit due to denudation. It means that
mum altitude (absolute relief) is attained but relative upliftment still continues. Relative relief also re
relief remains constant because the rate of valley mains constant because the rate of erosion of divide
deepening equals the rate of lowering of divide summits matches with the rate of valley deepening
summits. The valley sides are characterized by straight while both are uplifted uniformly. The slopes of
slopes (2a in fig. 3.2). This phase is called the phase valley sides are still straight as in phase 2a becaase
of uniform development probably because of uni of parallel retreat. This phase is, thus, characterized
form rate of valley deepening and lowering of divide by constant absolute and relative reliefs and thus
summits. Phase (b)-Altitude (absolute relief) nei uniform development of landforms. Phase (c)
ther increases nor decreases i.e. remains constant Upliftment of the land stops completely. Absolute
 GEOMORPHOLOGY

72 EVALUATION OF PENCK'S MODEL

divides start decreas
reliefs or altitudes of summit continued The Penck's model of landscape develop
of upliftment but
ing because of absence
divides. Relative reliefs also ment,as pointed out in the beginning, could not be
erosion of summits of
of the lowering of
correctly interpreted because of its publication in
remain constant because the rate obscure German language and wrong interpretation
rate of valley deepening.
divide summits equals the characterized of his ideas by English translators. Penck's morpho
by uniform USA in
Thus, this subphase is also logical system was severely criticised in the
development of landscape. the same way as the 'geographicalcycle' was criti
wan
(3) Absteigende Entwickelung meanswhich the
cised in Germany. Penck's concepts of parallel re
during treat of slope and continued crustal movements
ing development of landscape by the proc
landscape is progressively dominatedvalley became the most sensitive points of attacks by Ameri
widen
ess of lateral erosion and consequent can geologists. It may be pointed out that earlier
of valley deep
ing and marked decrease in the rate is
translation of Penck's work in English revealed that
phase
ening through vertical downcutting. This Abso Penck believed in parallel retreat of slopes but sub
marked by progressive decline of landforms. sequent English translations showed that Penck be
lute relief (altitude from sea level) decreases re lieved in slope replacement wherein cach upper
markably because of total absence of upliftment but slope unit of hillslope and valley sides was consid
continued downwasting of dividesummits. Relative ered to he replaced by lower slope unit of gentler
relief alsodecreases because the divide summits are slope. It may be, thus, forwarded that most of the
continuously eroded down and lowered in height criticisms of Penck's morphological system came
whiledowncutting of valley floor decreases remark out of the faulty interpretations of his views. Some
ably due to decrease in channel gradient and kinetic of the American critics stooped down to such an
energy. Parallel retreat of valley side slopes still extent that they remarked that 'his peculiar notions
continues. Now the valley side slope consists of two owed to his incomplete recovery from a head wound
segments. The uppermost segment maintains its suffered in WorldWar I' (quoted by C.G. Higgins,
steep angle inspite of continuous lowering of ridge 1975). Hisconcept of long continued upliftment and
crests. This slope is called gravity slope or tectonicspeculations could not find any support but
boschungen. The lower segment of the valley sides his concepts of slope development and weathering
is called wash slope or haldenhang. Haldenhang, processes are definitely of much geomorphological
composed of talus materials of lower inclination, is significance.
formed at the base of the valley sides due to rapid
4. Geomorphic Model of L.C. King
parallel retreat of gravity slope or boschungen and
The geomorphic theory or very commonly
consequent elimination of much of the convex wax known as geomorphic system of L.C. King com
ing slopes. Divide summits are continuously low
prises a set of cyclicmodels such as the landscape
ered by the intersection of the retreating boschungen
cycle, the epigene cycle, the pediplanation cycle,
of adjoining valleys. Thus, the intersection of hillslope cycle etc. essentially based on the land
boschungen and haldenhang produces sharp knick and savanna
scape characteristics of arid, semi-arid
(break in slope). Haldenhang or wash slope contin regions of South Africa as studied by him.
ues to expandat the cost of upper gravity slopes. In
the advanced stage of the phase of absteigende The reference system of King's model is that
entwickelung the gravity slopes or boschungen are there is uniform development of landforms in vary
reduced to steep-sided conical residuals called ingenvironmental conditions and there is insignifi
inselbergs (fig. 3.2). Eventually, inselbergs are also cant influence of climatic changes in the develop
consumed and the whole landscape is dominated by ment offluvially originated landforms. Major land
a series of concave wash slopes or haldenhang. Such scapes in all the continents have been evolved by
extensive surface produced at the end ofabsteigende rhythmicglobal tectonic events. There is continuous
entwickelung is called endrumpf, which may be migration (retreat) of hillslope and such retreat is
onsidered equivalent to Davis' peneplain. alwuys in the form of parallel retreat."
 THEORIESOF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
As stated above King 73
(theory) on the basis of formulatedof his model Each cycle begins with rapid rate of
characteristics derived information landform upliftment
followed by long period of crustal (tectonic)
of landscape scenery of through his personal studies ity. Thus, King's concept of stabil
semi-arid and savanna South Africa having arid.
environment and then as
upliftment and crustal
stability is similar tothe concept of Davis. It may be
serted that his model may be practicable in other pointedout that cycle of pediplanation begins with
parts of the globe. According to L.C. the upliftment of previously formed pediplains and
hillslope profile consists of allthe fourKing an ideal not of any structural unit. The
pediplanation cycle
slope viz. summit, scarp, debris slope andelements of passes through the stages of youth, mature and old as
and such hillslopes develop in all pediments in the Davisian cycle of erosion.
climates where there is sufficient regions and in all
relief and fluvial The stage of youth is characterized by initia
process is dominant denudational agent. tion of rapid rate of activedown cutting of valleys by
King, through his extensive field the rivers consequent upon upliftment. Thus, the
tion, identified 'remarkable surfaces of observa long profile of the rivers is punctuated by a series of
surmounted by isolated hills (inselbergs)planation,
and piles
nick points which move upstream. The valleys are so
deepencd that they assume the form of gorges and
of rock boulders (castle koppies), that are such an
canyons. With the march of time active down cutting
obvious feature of the landscape in arid, semi-arid of valleys is slowed down and as a consequence of
and savanna parts of Africa' (R.J. Small, 1970). which the valley side slopes are characterized by
Thus, King propounded an entirely new 'cyclic constant slope angles. The form of valley side slope
model of pediplanation' (known as pediplanation is controlled by physical processes operating on the
cycle) in 1948 to account for the unique landscapes slopes and lithological characteristics. 'Eventually,
as referTed to above as he was convinced that Davisian
downcutting will become less active, and small
model of arid cycle of erosion was not competent to pediments willbegin toappear in the valley bottoms.
explain these landscapes. It may be mentioned that These will become more extended as interfluve and
King claimed to have propounded his geomorphic upland areas are consumed by scarp retreat' (R.J.
system as entirely different from Davisian cyclic Small, 1970). By the late youth most of the interfluves
model and based on some assumptions of Penckian are narrowed down due to scarp retreat and are
modelbut in fact King's model is nearer to Davisian converted to steep sided hills which are called as
model than the Penckian model. inselbergs. The rounded inselbergs are called as
After extensive study of South African land bornhardts and castle koppies.
scape scenery King was convinced that the African The beginning of mature stage is heralded by
landscape consisted of three basic elements e.g.(i) the absence of active valley deepening and initiation
rock pediments flanking river valleys and having of lateralerosion. There is backward retreat of valley
concave slope varying in angle from 1.5° to 7° cut side slope because of valley widening and hence
into solid rocks, and (ii)scarps having steep slopes valley sides are distanced from the channel but there
boundingthe uplands and varying in angle from 150 is no significantchange in the angle of valley side
to 30° and experiencing parallel retreat due to slope. Extensive pediments varying in slope angles
backwasting by weathering and rainwash. (iii) The from 5° to 10 are formed at the base of valley side
third element comprises steep sided residual hills slope. The pediments are of concave slope plan.
Continuous erosion and weathering results in pro
known as inselbergs (bornhardts) which vary in size
and shape. The size of inselbergs is determined by gressive decrease in the number of inselbergs. Many
they
the magnitude of erosion, less eroded inselbergs are of the inselbergs are so greatly weathered that
many of
eroded ones are converted to castle koppies. Gradually,
large in size (e.g. mesa) while intensely of these
disappear
the inselbergs and castle koppies finally pediments
are small in size (e.g. buttes). The shape while there is continuous extension of
inselbergs depends on the natureof underlying struc consequent upon gradual parallel retreat
of scarps
slope). Eventually,
(upper segment of valley side
ture.
performed by form extensive flat
The cycle of pediplanation ispedimentation. many pediments coalesce to
tWin processes viz. scarp retreat and
 74 GEOMORPHOLOGY
surface termed by King as pediplain which is char (pediplanation cycle) both the models are compat
acterized by uneven surface with low reliefs and ible to some extent as both envisage cyclic develop
subdued intersecting concave surfaces. The pediplain ment of landscape wherein cycle of erosion begins
surface is stillcharacterized by the presence of afew with rapid rate of upliftment of short period followed
remnants of inselbergs and mounds. by long periodof crustal stability (tectonic stability
By old stage most of the residual hills or tectonic inactivity). Eventually, the landmass is
(inselbergs) disappear. "The whole landscape will eroded down to peneplain (Davis) and pediplain
now be dominated by low-angled pediments; the (King). Both the landscapes (peneplain and pediplain)
multi-concave surface is the ultimate form (pediplain) have common similarity in that both have antique
of the cycle, the pediplain itself (R. J.Small, 1970). characteristics, extensive areas and subdued reliefs.
Both the models are based on the assumption of
King has also postulated the conceptof an completion of allthe three stages (youth, mature and
tique pediplanation. According to King the rem old) of the cycle. Besides these similarities, both the
nants of original pediplains developed during each
cycle are preserved and exist on all summits. 'Par models also differ from each other viz. Davis'
ticularly where formed in resistant rocks, pediplains peneplain is formed due todownwasting while King's
and pediplain remnants are believed to achieve great pediplain is formed due to coalescence and integra
antiquity, so much so that the highest pediplain tion of several pediments which are formed due to
remnants are believed by King to have formed be parallel scarp retreat. Davis' peneplain, once formed,
fore the break-up of the southern hemisphere conti does not experience further development (growth)
nental plates in the Jurassic' (R.J. Chorley et. al, until it is,reuplifted. When uplifted, new cycle of
1985). King has identified afew antique pediplanation erosion is initiated and the rivers are rejuvenated. On
surfaces in Africa, S. America and Australia viz. (i) the other hand, King's pediplain, once formed, fur
African Gondwana pediplain (formed in Jurassic ther grows headward. New scarp is initiated at the far
period) of 1300 mheight having its counterpart at the end of the previously formed pediplain which is
elevation of 700-1000m in Brazil ; (ii) African progressively consumed by the retreat of new scarp
pediplain (formed in Creataceous period) at two and thus second pediplain is formed while the former
elevations i.e. 600-800m (in the coastal areas of pediplain experiences decrease in its extent. The
Africa) and 1000-1600m (in the interior of South process continues and a series of intersecting
Africa) which is comparable to Australian pediplain pediplains are formed which extend headward. Thus,
at the elevation of 400-500m.
King's pediplains, so formed, are analogous to W.
Regarding the development of hillslope King Penck's piedmont treppen.
has opined that the form of migrating or A fewof the assumptions of King's model are
(parallel retreat) slope is controlled by the retreating
processes controvercial e.g. (i)King's model is based on Afn
operating on them. The summit of hillslope is can
vex and summital convexity results from the con experience but 'it is not
surprising find ha
to
of soil creep. Scarp slope (free face process King has gone to apply his concept not only to the
element) is
carved out of rock outcrops and is characterized African landscape, but also to the regions which
parallel retreat due to backwasting under the influ by today experience climatic conditions quite different
ence of rockfall, landslides andgullying. Scarp is from those of Africawhich exhibit
most active element of hillslope. Debris the 'peneplains', not
readily accounted for by the Davisian
slope
formed by the debris coming from upslope and theis theory' (R.J.
Small, 1970). (ii) King's assertion that there is uni
gradient is
debris whiledetermined form development of landscapes in different envi
by the angle of repose of
the pediment, forming ronmental conditions is doubtful. (iii) 'Despite the
segment of the hillslope, is formed duethetolowermost
erosionof existense of these extensive surfaces (pediplain
solid rocks by turbulent sheet flood. faces) of low relief separated by cliff-like sur
Evaluation ments in the tropics, the concept of antique escarp
If we pediplanation must remain questionable, if only
W.M. Davis compare the
(geographicalgeomorphic models of
cycle) and L.C. King because of vast periods of time involved and our lack
of knowledge regarding the nature and
rapidity of
THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
erosional processes in subhumid 75
Chorley, et. al, 1985). environment' (R.J. differences in the rocks and the processes acting on
It may be them'.
theory could not pointed out that King's
receivc as much supportgeomorphic The goal of the theory of Hack is to explain
nition as it deserved and recog the landscapes of any region of the carth's surface on
because of the fact that his the basis of present denudational processes
*canons of landscape development' came at the time operat
ing therein and to demonstrate lithological adjust
(1953) when most of the
geomorphologists
least interested in geomorphic theories
were
as they were
ment to landforms (for which he presented examples
from the Shenandoah valley of the Applachians,
busy inquantifying the landforms and processes on USA).
the basis of information and data obtained
through
field instrumentation and laboratory experimenta The reference system of Hackian model is
tion at much shorter temporal and smaller spatial that 'geomorphic system is an open system which
scales. always tends towards steady state while his model
may be stated as 'the shape of the landforn.s reflects
5. Geomorphic Model of J.T. Hack the balance between the resistance of the underlying
J.T. Hack, an American geomorphologist, is materials to erosion and the erosive energy of the
a supporter and advocate of dynamic equilibrium active processes. '
theory of landscape development, which implies a The basicpremise of Hackian model of land
delicate condition of energy balance and envisages scape development is that 'the landscape and the
that 'so long as the factors controlling landscape processes that form it are part of an open system
development and denudational processes and en which is in steady steady of balance'(Hack, 1960).
ergy in the open geomorphic system remain con Hack further conceived the following reference sys
stant, there is no appreciable change (evolution) in tems on the basis of his basic assumptions
landforms through time'. In fact, Hack's geomorphic (i)) There is balance between denudational
model is aserious attempt to fill the conceptual processes and rock resistance'.
vacuum created by the criticism and rejection of (ii) There is uniform rate of downwasting in
Davisian evolutionary model of geographical cycle
and Penck's 'morphological system'. According to all components of landscapes.'
Hack multilevel landscape (polycyclic relief) can (ii) Differences and characteristics of form
not be explained on the basis of multiple erosion are explicable in terms of spatial relations in which
cycles as maintained by W.M. Davis and his follow geologic patterns are primary consideration' (Hack,
ers, albit these landscapes can be explained on the 1960).
basis of dynamic equilibrium theory. He further (iv) The processes (denudational) which op
admitted that equilibrium concept' is not in itself erate today have carved out the landscapes of the
Hack's
a model' rather it is a reality in nature. earth's surface.
the con
geomorphicmodel is exclusively based on Hackian
analysis of (v) There is lithologic adjustment to
cept of opensystem but minute evolutionary landforms'.
model also reveals clear glimpse of model is that Though J.T. Hack did not construct evolu
Hack's
model in it. The basic tenet of development directly
system is an open tionary model of landscape
(as referred to above) geomorphic
remains constant in the
also a fact of nature
but he did opine 'thatevolution is always a possibil
system and so long as energy remain in the condi
geomorphicsystem, landscapes and that the inheritance of form is
there is lowering in the did not build a model
tion of steady state though processes. It is, thus, ity' (Hack, 1960). Though he time
changes in landforms throughopined
of progressiveenvironmental
landscape by denudational model envisages time inde conditions but he
Hack's withchanging
obvious that
development of landscapes. experience changes with chang
pendent or timeless that 'landforms do not
invoked a model of lithological equilibrium conditions but these changes are
Besides, Hack also ing
he stated that 'topo like Davisian evolutionary
changes.
adjustment to landforms asare closely related to
processes
graphic forms and
 GEOMORPHOLOGY
76 THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
Hack postulated the concept of variations in remains stable for long geological period (stable 77
The advocates of dynarnic
landscapes in relation to varying conditions of bal base level) then the landmass is eroded down and
including J.T. Hack maintain cquilibrium
that the
theory 6.
Tectono-Geomorphic Model of M. Morisawa
ance between rates of upliftment and erosion viz. Jowered to base level of erosion and thus the changes
peneplain and planation surfaces at differentso-called The
appearance plate tectonic theory since
of
(i) The rate of upliftment is balanced with the in landforms from initial stage to the final stage
occur in evolutionary sequence (like Davisian model tion levels (the outcome of reju venation and eleva 1960 has provided impetus to
geomophological
rate of erosion. If there is rapid rate of uplifument and sive cycles of erosion as envisaged succes investigations in new directions as some
of cycle of erosion). According to Hack in the case by Davis and his geomorphologists have attempted to explain land
erosion, there is produced high reliefs. This condi of stable base level 'an orderly network of ridges and followers) are not the result of completion of succes scape development on the basis of gradual and
tion is maintained so long as the higher rate of sive cycles of erosion but they have
been formed
upliftment and erosion remains constant. ravines' is produced in the final phase of landscape continuous tectonic movements as evidenced by
development. Thus, there is gradual and sequential differently. "They argue, in any area of rocks which plate movements and sea-floor spreading. American
(ü)So long as the rate of upliftment increases. lowering in reliefs when base level of erosion is are reasonably uniform in terms of resistance,
the reliefalso increases so that rate of erosion matches the stream spacing (drainage density) when geomorphologist Marie Morisawa's geomorphic
is
and where the slopes are at the same uniform,
stable. model of landscape development (1975) is based on
the increasing rate of upliftunent. (ii) If the base level oferosion rises because of maximum such premise. The following are basic premises of
(iiü) When the rate of upliftment becomes positive change in sea-level then the lower segment angle, it is to be expected that the summits and the Morisawa's 'tectono-geomorphic model'
zero i.e. when upliftment stops, then relief also divide crests will all reach the same height and so
of the rivers is submerged due to transgression of sea give the impression of a former level surface which (1) Landforns are the result of inequality of
declines, though ridge and ravine topography is still water on coastal land but there is no appreciable force or inequality of resistance or of both.
maintained.
effect of base level change (positive) on the up has, subsequent to its formation, been dissected by
valleys. Hack has even gone so far as to propose that (2) The variations in landforms are due to
Hack has opined that if the diastrophic move stream segment of the streams. The positive change inequality of rates of operation of exogenetic proc
mentis gradual and ifit is balanced by the denudational in base level also leads to lowering of relief. Hack such a landscape, which he refers to as 'ridge-and
ravine topography', is the normal expression of a esses acting on different geomaterials of the earth's
processes (i.e. rates of upliftment and erosion are maintains that the long profiles of rivers and their surface and inequality of the rates of endogenetic
equal) then landscape, while changing from one normal work which controls the development of condition ofdynamic equilibrium' (RJ. Small, 1970).
processes.
form to the other, remains in equilibrium condition. valley side slopes are influenced and controlled by Evaluation
On the other hand, if there is rapid rate of diastrophic upstream conditions of the drainage basin and not by The Hack's concept that 'most of the land
(3)Nature tends to attain balancelequilibrium
movement, then relict landforns are preserved until the downstream conditions. Thus, Hack on the basis between force (of processes) and resistance (of
scapes are in uneasy dynamic equilibrium between geomaterials) but this situation (of balance) is not
new equilibrium condition is not attained. of this conceptjustified the validity of R.E. Horton's available energy for work (erosion and transporta
scheme of ordering of streams and stream segments. tion) and the work being done' cannot be validated
always possible because the earth is unstable and
RC. Palmquist has rightly revealed inherent dynamic. Thus, the earth's surface is characterized
glimpse of evolutionary model of Davis in Hack's It may be mentioned that Horton (1942 and 1945) because if there is gradual and continuous lowering by frequent chan ges and hence in stead of static
modelHack (1965) paraphrases Davis' ideal geo attempted to determine the hierarchy of streamn seg in regional elevation (and hence decline in energy
ments in the fluvially originated drainage basins equilibrium there is tendency to equilibrium. Dy
graphical cycle in terms of the equilibrium concept from upstream section (source tributary streams). available for denudational work) then no landscape narmic earth system is characterized by isostatic
and develops a similar evolutionary scheme. An of open system may remain in steady state. Simi feedback which affects upliftment and erosion, and
initial disequilibrium stage (youth) of rapid stream (iii) If there is lowering of base level of larly, the concept of Hack that landscapes are adapted/ deposition and subsidence ie. upliftment is fol
incision is followed by an equilibrium stage (ma erosion (negative change) then there is rapid rate of adjusted to changing environmental conditions is lowed by erosion and erosion is followed by deposi
ture) wherein the rounded interfluves are lowered as erosion in the downstream section (mainly near the doubtful because there are very little landscapes tion which is followed by subsidence which again
new base level i.e. mouth of the river) of the stream leads to upliftment and thus the process continues.
potentialenergy decreases though they do not change which influences larger areas of the drainage basin. which have instantaneously adjusted/adapted to new
in form' (Palmquist, 1975). environmental conditions. R.J. Rice (1977) has aptly The isostatic feedback also affects the rates of
New adjustment between erosion (rapid rate) and
Hack also developed a 'continuous rock resistance is attained. remarked, 'to an extent all landforms are prisoners upliftment and erosion, and deposition and subsid
downwasting model' which though envisages ten Hack also propounded the concept of
of their own evolutionary history. A few of the ence.

dency for dynamic equilibrium but it is not neces lithological adjustment to landforms. 'For exam assumptions or precepts of namic equilibrium (4)The present landforms are the result of
sary that the dynamic equilibrium is in steady state. ple, it has been suggested that, in the folded theory are merely deductions which do not have difference of ratios of the actions of endogenetic and
He himself admitted that 'though there is possibility ground support. For example, the fact that there is exogenetic processes. It may be mentioned that W.
for steady state but it is not possible in reality.'
Applachians, the local relief and slope angles have
been so adjusted that each major geological outcrop perfect relationship between present-day processes Penck also postulated identical concept (landforms
He further opined, that evolutionary models yields an equal sediment load per unit area (i.e. and landforms' is not always true. A.L. Bloom (1978) reflect the ratio between the intensity of endogenetic
can be conceived on the basis of base level of hard has evaluated the Hackian model in right perspec processes i.e. rate of upliftment and the magnitude of
erosion. In this context he considered three condi
rocks-high, rugged and steep; soft rocks-low, displacement of materials by exogenetic processes
gently rolling and with low slopes- -Hack, 1960)" tive If, however, tectonics and climatic changes
tions of base level viz. (i) stable base level, (ii) invalidate the assumption of initial uplift or other i.e. rate of erosion and removal of eroded materials).
(quoted by R.J. Chorley et. al, 1985). R.J. Chorley et.
positive (rise) change in base level and (iii) negative al have remarked that 'although this is an attractive constructional processes followed by still stand and The ratio of rates of action by endogenetic and
(fall) change in base level. landscape evolution, then the dynamic equilibrium exogenetic processes varies temporally and spa
alternative explanation for geological limited 'cy tially. This aspect is responsible for temporal and
In the case of stable base level of erosion he clic' surfaces, but it is difficult to support' (R.J. model, changing only from disequilitbrium to equi spatial variations in landfom characteristics. Thus,
maintains that if any landmass is uplifted and then Chorley et. al, 1985). librium, is most suitable as a basis for interpreting the landforms of the earth's surface become complex
the present landscape' (A.L. Bloom, 1978).
 GEOMORPHOLOGY
78 THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
79
rate of
and hence it becomes difficult tT understand the (1968). It may be pointed out that the saidfrom the covered by the streams during transformation of Thus, there is variation in the rate of denuda
out
mode of their genesis and development. erosion is for those rivers which come potential energy into kinetic energy. The travel dis tion because of unequal resistance to resultant un
Himalayas. tance ofa stream (S,)with gentle channel gradient is
(S) Some morphological features can be ex Morisawa equal or equal force (available energy). In other
Based on aforesaid information longer (fig. 3.3, A Ddistance for S, stream) whereas words, if there is uniform height, base level and
plained on the basis of plate tectonics. relation
hypothesised that "there is direct positive erosion' it is much shorter for a stream with steep channel
water discharge for different streams but there is
(6) Any landmass when uplifted or newly and rate of gradient (A B distance for stream S., fig. 3.3). The
created landmass undergoes rapid transformation of ship between rate of upliftment
Morisawa's mnodel is based
difference in slope gradient, then the streans having
It may be mentioned that longer the travel distance, the lesser the available gentle channel gradient would have to cover longer
its form through exogenetic (denudational) proc on empirical studies and not on merely deductions. (kinetic) energy for erosion and transportation be distance (channel length) and hence there would be
esses. The rate of change (transformation) of form premise of Morisawa's model is cause there is greater loss of energy due to friction of more friction and hence moe loss of energy and less
depends on the nature of force and resistance. The major longer distance. On the other hand, if the travel
their development
that variations in landscapes andresistance. available encrgy for work. On the other hand. the
Marie Morisawa first collected information She has distance is shorter, the available kinetic energy would
are due to inequality of force or stream having steep channel gradient would have to
about the results of geomorphological studies per
attemptcd to explain this concept with the help of a be more because there would be comparatively less cover comparati vely shorter ravel distance and hence
taining toerosion and reliefs conducted by different diagram (fig. 3.3). The potential energy of streams
loss of energy due to friction by the surface (valley there would be conparatively less loss of energy due
geomorphologists in different parts of the world and with varying heights differs considerably. In fig. 3.3
floor). to lesser friction but more available energy for wrk.
then formulated the hypothesis that there is high rate Thus, the strean with steep channel gradient and
of erosion on uplifted landmass because potential consequent higher resultant available energy would
energy requiredfor erosion increases due to greater erode the valley at faster rate than the stream with
height (and high potential energy results in high gentle channel gradient and lower amount of result
kinetic energy due to increased channel flow veloc ant available energy. Thus, the deduced geomorphic
ity which ultimately accelerates erosion). model of Morisawa may be stated as follows
Based on the result of the study of stream S2 S 'That unequal forcesor unequal resistance to
erosion by F. Ahnert (1970) in middle latitudes the same force will result in different rates ofdenu
Morisawaconcluded that the rate of denudation and 51 dation Unequal forces at work, or unequal resist
basin reliefs were highly positively correlated and ance to same force results in individualiry and vari
90 per cent of the total differences in erosion rates in
B
ety of landforms (M. Morisawa, 1975)
different drainage basins were due to average reliefs BASE LEVEL BASE LEVEL Morisawa has attempted to establish relation
of the basins. She also cited examples of the work of ship between tectonic force and denudational force.
B.P. Ruxton andI. McDougall (1967) in Papua Fig. 3.4: Graphic presentation of differencein kinetic When tectonic force and denudational force are
regarding the erosion of volcanic mountains. The Fig. 3.3 : Graphic presentation of potential energy of energy when the base level and height for equal. then there is equilibrium condition but there
two streams of two different heights but with
rates of erosion on different volcanic mountains same base level (after M.Morisawa). different streams is same but there is differ would be disequilibrium when tectonic force is ei
ence in channel gradient, (after M. Morisawa,
(e.g.75 cm/1000 year over 760mhigh mountain and ther higher or less than the denudational force. She
further maintains that the state of disequilibniun is
8& cm/1000 year over 60 m high mountain) again the base level for two streams (S, and S,) is the same 1975).
revealed positive corelation between height ofland but they emerge from different heights (h, and h,) It is, thus, evident that stream S, has highest temporary because two opposing forces (tectonic
and denudational) tend towards equilibrium state.
mass and rate of erosion. Similarly,T. Yoshikawa's with the result the potential energy of S, is more (due available kinetic energy for erosional and depositional
Relief increases at faster rate if uphfnent occurs at
(1974) studies also revealed positive correlation to higher height, h,) than S, and hence the available work while stream S, has lowest available kinetic
between the rates of upliftment and denudation. energy (for denudational work) of S,would be more energy. It is further apparent that there is inequality faster rate but the rate of erosion lacks far behind the
According to him the rate of denudation substan than S,. It is, thus, inferred that there is difference in in force (available energy) of three streams inspite of rate of upliftment. Consequentiy, the rate of denuda
tially increased because of Quaternary upliftment in available energy ofstreams for denudational work if same height, same base level and same water dis tion would go on increasing with growing reliefs
charge. Similarly, ifheight and channel gradient are until denudational force (rate of erosion) matches
Japan but the rate of upliftment in drainage basins their base level is the same but source heights are
exceeded the rate of denudation. He further reported different. She also considered such situation where same but discharge varies from one stream to the with tectonic force (rate of uplifument). Conversely,
ifdenudational force exceeds tectonic force, chen the
higher rate of denudation on highest mountainous base level and source height of three streams (S,, S, other, then available kinetic energy would again be
different for different streams because kinetic en decay of landscape is sBowed down because of de
areas than the rate of tectonic upliftment. According S,) are same but channel gradient is different (fig. crease in reliefs and available energy and
eventually
to Yoshikawa the present rate of denudation of 3.4). The water discharge is also same for these three ergy = 1/2 MV² (M= mass, here discharge i.e. water tectonic
mass, V= velocity, while potential energy = MxG equilibrium state between denudaional and
0.84m/1000 year is more or less equal to the present streams. In such situation potential energy and its height).
transformation into kinetic energy for all the three xH where M = mass, G = gravity and H= forces is attained.
rate of upliftment (0.863 m/1000 year). B. Isacks et. for different
Even ifheight, slope and relief are samewould afore
Morisawa has further clarified that the either
al (1973) estimated the average rate of upliftment of streams is same but available energy for work to be be un
done (erosion and transportion) would be different streams, the force (available energy) unequal force said equilibrium state is possible
only when
the Himalayas as 0.3 mm/1000 year which matches equal for different streams because
of force and increase in
for three streams because available energy for work there is decrease in tectonic
with the rate of erosion (0.3 mm/1000 year) by the
depends upon the travel distance (channel length)
of friction.
rivers in South Asia as estimated by J.N. Holeman
 THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
GEOMORPHOLOGY 81
ing short periods. According to h1m there is no
80
block faulting progressive change in the level of valley floor and model of cycle of erosion the concept of progressive
degradation of landscape by denudational force or plate margins are characterized by upthrown channel gradient through geological (long) time. loweirng of channel gradient appears longical but
there is increase in tectonic force and decrease in and lava flow. The rivers draining across the deepen The reference system of graded state is not attained in youth and mature
and
degradation. It is evident that equilibrium state may fault block resorts to active downcutting canyons. As that there is no
Schumm's model is stages. Graded sage is attained in the penultimate
not be stable (static). their valleys and form deep gorges and progressiVe lowering or reduction of
stream gradient and altitude of valley floor because (old) stage of cyclic model. On the other hand, if the
geomorphic events
the erosion proceeds, several there arc frequcnt obstructions in such progressive graded sate is attained then progressive reduction of
The upliftment is followed by lowering of river capture, for
like reversal of drainage patern, typical channel gradient and valley floor cannot be possible.
landmass by denudation and eroded materials are landforms. changes due to functioning of fluvial system. The
mation of water gaps etc. form Schumm has suggested that one of the concepts of
deposited in lowlying areas. This leads to positive Mountain ranges are formed because of subduction minor details in the landforms cannot be explained progressive erosion and progressive reduction in
feedback mechanism i.e. there is isostatic adjust lighter on the basis of Davisian model of cycle of erosion. channel gradient and valley foor should be dropped
ment following degradation of landmass by erosion of one plate margin below comparatively
margin (con
plate margin along destructive plate these The main goal of Schumm's model is to ex in order to solve the abovegeomorphic riddle. So,
and aggradation by deposition of sediments. Conse vergent plate margins). Streams erode
uplifted plain minor details of landforms (stepped valley Schumm has suggested for the construction of alter
quently, the landmass degraded by erosion (lower native model which instead of envisaging
ing of height) rises where as aggraded area and folded mountain ranges with accelerated rate floor) in the channel gradient and valley floor during progres
sive reduction of
(depositional area) is subiected to subsidence under because of increase in available kinetic energydue the functioning of fluvial system on the basis of the channel gradient and valley floor
concepts of geomorphic thresholds and complex includes rapid changes of short periods which sepa
the mechanism of isostatic readjustrment. Such isostatic to greater height, steep gradient and less frictional rate graded periods of long duration. In other words.
readjustment may be accomplished instantaneously (resistance) force and form deep and narrow gorges, response involving dynamicequilibrium model. there is a period of rapid change (by episodic ero
or may be delayed. If there is time-lag in isostatic canyons, high altitude terraces etc. River terraces are His mode/theory states that denudation is sion)of short duration between two graded periods
deformed and long profiles of the rivers are punctu
readjustment i.e. if the isostatic readjustment is not gradual and continuous rather it is episodic. The of long duration.
delayed, then erosion is renewed. With the result ated by nick points due to continuous intermittent geomorphic history of landscape development in
upliftment. Continued upliftment results in the for Accord1ng to Schumm the complexity of land
there is intermittent upward movement in the land cludes numerous periods of rapid erosion (period of
mation of steppedfeatures (like terraces and benches) instability) and deposition. Period of rapid erosion is
Scape nay be explained on the basis of two geomorphic
mass and consequently different erosion levels are and chain of nick points. Thus, according to M. concepts viz. (i) the concept of geomorphic thresh
formed at different altitudes. It may be mentioned followed by long period of deposition (example of olds, and (ii) the concept of complex response.
Morisawa some of the geomorphic teatures of the
that this concept validates Davisian mode of evolu geomorphic response). There is repetition of periods
earth's surface may be explaincd on the basis of of erosion and deposition and thus there is complex
According to the concept of geomorphic thresholds
tionary change and polycyclic reliefs or multi-level widespre ad neo-tectonic events. changes may occur in the fluvial sy stem but these
erosion surfaces. On the other hand, instantaneous ity in the evolution and development of landforms changes are not occasioned by external factors (e.g.
or continuous isostatic feedback supports Penck's Evaluation (example of complex response) isostatic upliftment) but are effected by inherent
model of geomorphic system (continuous change in The tectono-geomorphic model of M. R.W. Lichty and S.A. Schumm (1965) first geomorphic controls of eroding fluvial svstem (say
the rate of uplifment and erosion). Morisawa has Morisawa is technically more sound and is easily attempted to dispel controvercies regarding the models drainage basin ). For example. if there is deposition
claimed that both the models may be applicable in applicable in the explanation of genesis and devel of landscape development propounded by W.M. of eroded sediments in afluvial system. these depos
the geomorphic personality of any region. opment of some, if not all, simple morphological Davis, W. Penck and J.T. Hack on the basis of ited sediments become unstable at a crntical thresh
Based on above mentioned premises Morisawa features because it is based on empirical studies of different time spans of landscape development e.g. old slope ie. channel slope gradient increases due to
postulated that 'when denudational processes (forces) differ
different geologists and geomorphologists inflexible cyclic time, graded time and steady state time (see sed1mentation and a limit (threshold) is attained
ent parts of the globe. Her model is more chapter 2, time scales, pp. 45-48). Cyclic time in when no further sediments may be accommodated
operate on rocks of varying resistance then there is
because it accommodates both the models of evolu volves long geological period (hundreds of millions Consequently, the channel grad1ent becomes such
temporary disequilibrium state between work (ero of years) characterized by exponential decrease in (due to deposition) that erosion of deposited sediments
sion) and form (landscape) but there is a tendency tionary change in landforms and dynamic equilibof It is
towards the attainment of equilibrium of form in rium concept. Besides,it is based on the evidences channel gradient (fig. 2.13 A). There are several begins due to increased channel flow velocity.
periods of graded time and steady state time. Chan evident that such changes (deposition and erosion)
relation to force and resistance. In other words, any plate tectonics about which convincing evidences variables of the
nel gradient (average) almost remains constant but have no been effected by external
stream tries to attain such slope gradient that re have been provided by numerous studies conducted intemal
there may be fluctuations (rise and fall) with time in fluvial sy stem but have been caused by the
quired energy to transport the eroded sediment by a host of scientists. geomorphic controls.
becomes available i.e. when the geomaterials are average channelgradient. Steady state has a period
7. Episodic Erosion Model of S.A. Schumm of very short duration during which there is no According to the concept of complex re
resistant, there is temporary increase in energy which rejuvenated (say
increases the force so that it equals the increased The episodic erosion model of S.A. Schumm change (fig. 2.13 B and C). sponse when a fluvial sVstem is
of the fluvial
Con is, in fact, the modified version of geomorphiccycle drainage bas1n) then the response
high resistance and equilibrium is attained. The basic premise of Schumm'smodel is that only renewed acceler
and is related to evolutionary concepts involving svstem to rejuvenation is not
versely, when geomaterials are less resistant, there is the model of geomorphic cycle (as propounded by but the response is in
decrease in energy so that it matches with the resist
two basic concepts viz. concept of geomorphic aled rate of valley deepening equilibrium (it may be
threshold and concept of complex response. He W.M. Davis)cannot accommodate both the aspectS the form of attainment of
new
ance and equilibrium is attained. in channel gra disturbed due to
constructed his model on the arguments that most of of progressive lowering (reduction) Davisian stated that the
equilibrium is
Morisawa has attempted to explain the gen and lack dient and valley floor. For example. in
esis and development of landforms of the
earth's the geomorphic models are oversimplified
landforms dur
surface on the basis of plate tectonics. Constructive in accommodating minor changes in
 GEOMORPHOLOGY
82 THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
83
form of accelerated
rejuvenation) through downcutting, aggradation and effect of which is reflected in the curves (upper and lower) are stepped ones which
which represents the renresent obstructions caused by isotatic adjustment (upliftment). The dotted line in fig. 3.7 denotes
renewed erosion. If the effects of external variables erosion at the mouthof theriver (in the form
of the fluvial system (isostatic upliftment) is com response (ofrejuvenation) of the system place (river progressive lowering of altitude.
bined with geomorphic thresholds and complex re of accelerated erosion) at a particular
sponse then at least during the initial stage (youth) of mouth) and particular time. The effect of such change
geomorphic cycle erosion cannot be progressive by accelerated erosion due to
rejuvenation is not
extended in upstream segment of the divides
and Divide
rather there would be complex response of events of
relative periods of stability separated by periods of
episodic erosion. In other words, there is repetition
immediately
is extended
river and by the time the effect ofchange the form of
upstream, the fluvial system responds in
Elevation
of periods of erosion and erosionless periods (peri deposition. VFI
ods of stability), the response (result) of which is
that, the fluvial system and the resultant landscape
Schumm has attempted to explain his model
ofepisodic erosion with the help of graphs (fig. 3.7).
Davisian
valley Flõor Elevation
become very complex. The main reason of the re First, he suggested modification in the
sultant complexity of landscape is the fact that if any modelof cycle of erosion (fig. 3.5 and 3.6). Figs. 3.5
event occurs in any segment of a river, there is no (presentation of Davis' geographical cycle by oth
repre
instantaneous impact of such event on the entire ers) and 3.6 (presentation by Davis himself) 3.7 floor
valley
channel length. For example, if the river is rejuve sent geographical cycle of Davis while fig.
nated due to negative fall in sea-level, the immediate represents the geomorphic m.odel by Schumm.

Altit ud e of
VF2
Stepped Pottein ofvalley Floor
highestof divide
AItit ude of loors summits
mgin vollaS
of
Altitude
Deposition
Erosion
Deposition
-ins tabiltyErosion
Episodic Erosion
-BASE LAVE L
YOUTH MATURITY 0LD A GE
TIME

Fig. 3.5: Graphic presentation of Davis'geographical cycle (by others).

H TIM E
K
aittude as
J Fig. 3.7: Modified concept of geomorphiccycle of erosion. A - dotted line denotes progresstve, lowerung of
envisaged in Davis'model while solid lines indicate stepped features as suggested by SchurmB -portion of
equilibriuam period
T|ME valley floor C- Portion of valley floor VF. (as shown in B) which indicates namic
between two periods of instability of shorterduration, After S.A. Schumm 1975.
Fie. 3.6: Graphic presentation of geographical cycle by W.M. Davis, BFHK =upper curve-summitof water divide.
CEGJ = valley floor = lower curve; CEG = deposition shown by dotted line. Schumm maintains that divide summits un portion indicated by VFl in fig 3.7 A represents
channel but
upper dergo moderate changes because of limited normal pattern of valley floor of iver
In all the three diagrams (figs. 3.5,3.6 and 3.7)altitude mature stages) are frequented by disturbances caused
downwasting caused by surface runoff resulting when observed minutely at smaller spatial scale then
line (upper curve)denotes summit levels or
lower line
by isostatic adjustment. Dotted line (CEG) in Davis'
from rainfall but downwasting is more or less uni
3.7B where
it looks stepped as is evident from fig.extended and
of water divides from sea-level while graph (fig. 3.6) represents deposition in the valley form on all summits. The form of valley floor be real form of VFl in fig. 3.7 Ahas been of valley
(lower curve) denotes altitude of valley floor from floor. It may be noted that in Davis' graph (fig. 3.6) projected. Normally, such stepped formof external
sea-level. Part A of fig. 3.7 represents youth and upper curve (summits of water divides, BFHK) and comes stepped because of reduction in valley floor influences
but but for shorter duration. It may be mentioned that the floor is explained in terms of
early mature stages of Davisian model (fig. 3.6) lower curve (valley floor, CEG) are smooth curves climatic changes
variables like upliftment. subsidence. stepped vallev
erosion isnot progressive but these (youth andearly whereas in Schumm's graph (fig. 3.7A) both the Stepped form of valley floor is because of sediment such
storage (deposition) and sediment flushing. The etc. but according to Schumm
 GEOMORPHOLOGY
THEORIES OF LANDFORM
loor is not of external variables rather
it is because ates period of valley decpening and the process is is nearer to DEVELOPMENT
more reality than
system. repeated over and again. It is, thus, evident that if the also Davisian model. He has 85
of control of internal variables of the fluvial
mainlyattempted
episodes of erosion (period of instability, of short to
in the valleyexplain minor landscape details
dynamic lead us to corroborate the concept
Such model is in fact representative of duration) and deposition (period of stability, of long floors
which were obscured in theory of landscape of composite
metastable equilibrium model. It may be men duration) are repeated then there is no nced of Davis' model. Butthe development.
tioned that in steady state equilibrium model
there is
external variables to explain minor details of land withina major or sayconceptof
super nurmerous
cycle in a subscycles lat. and 80P 16 30"
Bhander plateau (240 3' 29" N -24° 39' 1"N
fluctuation around a stable average value whereas scapes like small terraces, alluvial fills, riffles and
is difficult todigest
but the effort of fluvial system E-80 53 15"Elong.), located
dynamic metastable equilibrium envisages condi
'a is between Panna plateau in the northwest
S.A. Schurnm
form which pools etc. because these features are the result of commendable.
decay There is a
and equilibrium modelsneedtoof blending of plateau in the east, is characterized by and Rewa
tionof oscillation about a mean value of internal variables of the fluvial system. R.J.Chorley Vindhyan
trending through time and, at the same time,
is
et. al (1985) have aptly remarked that "this dynamic flexible model as R.J. Chorley et. al (1985) sandstones,
build a more shales and
ahorizontal manner limestones generally lying in
subjected to step-like discontinuties as a threshold opined, 'more than this, have also with alternating bands of hard
metastable equilibrium model of episodic erosion modern studies of
olds and complex response have thresh and soft rocks. It registers an
effect' (R.J. Chorley et. al, 1985). According to shows, in addition, that many of the details of the suggested how the above the ascent of about 350m
Shumm there is possibility of influences of
external
landscape (e.g. small terraces and recent alluvial
Davisian cyclic decay model and the steady state uplands andgeneral surrounding surface of lower
variables on system equilibrium but in terms of model of Gilbert may be effectively, combined into Satna and theis drained by the feeders of the Tons, the
fills) do not need to be explained by the influence of aunited vision of landform evolution. Ken rivers. Mean annual
denudation of landmass dynamic mestastable equi 1137mm and mean monthly maximum rainfall is
librium reflects reponses of inherent geomorphic external variables because they develop as an inte of January and June are temperatures
8. Geomorphic Theories : In Indian Context
thresholds of the fluvial system i.e. internal vari gral part of system evolution'. 30.5C and 45.3^C
Now, the author presents geomorphic prob tively whereas mean monthly temperatures ofrespec
ables of the fluvial system influence and control Schumm has also postulated the concept of core
dynamic metastable equilibrium. For example, depo several subcycles within a larger fluvial cycle. Ac lems of a typical nature from the sub-humid tropical sponding months are 20.4°C and 23.1C respec
environment of India for critical evaluation of the tively. Hilly tract of the plateau has
sition of sediments in the valley floor upsets the said cording to him the major cycle begins with denuda mixed vegeta
cquilibrium state and introduces changes in the sys tion of uplifted landmass. In the initial stage maxi landscape development of the region which may tion of open and dense
forests whereas lower
lands have scattered bushes up
tem (e.g. increase in channel gradient due to sedi mun1 sediments are produced because of active
mentation) and when these changes exceed the criti vertical erosion (valley deepening) and the quantity BHANDER PLATEAU
cal geomorphic threshold, the eroding fluvial sys and size of sedimcnts decreases with time because of
tem i.e. fluvially originated drainage basin is rejuve decrease in the rate and magnitude of erosion due to Mesa
nated leading to accelerated rate of erosion (valley lessening of channel gradient. Within major cycle
downcuting). Such situation of accelerated erosion second order cycles are initiated due to isostatic
is called period of episodic erosion. The period of adjustment (uplifment) in the lst cycle and climatic
episodic erosion, when itexceeds the geomorphic changes.Within the second order cycles third order
threshold, is succeeded by period of deposition. cycles are initiated when geomorphic thresholds in
Thus, the bedrock valley floor of the river becomes the fluvial systems are exceeded. The fourth order ND E R
step-like which denotes the period of instability cycles are initiated due to complex geomorphic EScarp
ment
(period of episodic erosion) and period of stability responses which are the result of changes in any one
(period of dynamic metastable equilibrium). It may of the variables of the fluvial system e.g. tectonic
be pointed out that the period of instability/erosion events, isostatic adjustment (uplifment or subsid
is of short duration while the period of stability ence), climatic changes or geomorphic thresholds. sharda
hill
Templ
(dynamic metastable equilibrium or graded period) The fouth order cycles of smaller magnitude are
is of longer duration. It may be clarified that the initiated as a result of adjustment to changes in the Dale
hil
periods of instability and stability are, in fact, peri Ist, 2nd and 3rd order cycles. The final or Sth order
ods of erosionand deposition respectively (fig. 3.7 C). cycles are initiated due to seasonality of hydrologic
Schumm has further stated that during peri events or large floods.
ods of stability there may be changes in the channel Evaluation
pattern because of changes in the nature of sediments The Schumm's model of landform develop Fig. 3.8 : Bhander Plateau., M.P.. India (aier Savindra Singh, 1974).
passing through the channel, i.e. straight channe! ment is, in fact, modified form of Davisian model of
courses may be transformed to sinuous and mean A well-marked zonation of three distinct topo lower and rolling upland developed over Vindhyan
geographical cycle which envisaged progressive
dering courses. Again, the sinuous or meandering changes in landforms through time. Schumm has graphic features (fig. 3.8) from the higher plateau to basement which has been moderately incised by
course of the river may be straightened during exten successfully attempted to remove the major draw the outer margins upto the river valleys is identified shallow valleys, the depth of which matches with the
sive floods. The straightened and thus shortened backs of Davis' decay model and has tried to blend on three sides (fig.3.8) viz. north, west and north thickness of alluvia (4m to 18m). This lower upland
iver cOurse again stimulates erosion and thus initi the cyclic model with equilibrium model. His model cast--(i) at the outer margins, there is significantly is dotted with fla-topped hills, the examples of
 1974)of of
andsingle and
200m butcourse
87 least ex northern
globe.andtowards
model' trans
in vertical
Singh,escarpments
at need to
eastwardvalid overlooking
a
regionof the (say"tectono-geomorphic
The 160m EVAT Savindraupper
tne over -300
authenticityPlateaubecomes abrupt,
characteristics. TRIBUTARIES the
thenullifyall from
(afterBhander
nver,
further
development
of 3.9)slowly
an LONG
etc.
evolution 1975)
Bhander by waerfallsTons
the (fig. cONTOuas
IN
wTAES to
period proceed characterized INTS
even ascends similar
The
andlandscape
Plateau NICKS
&
landscape
geomorphological
from TONS and heights.
and
Cretaceous 1974
plateau)
plain nicks embayments
we northeastward
theRewa is
&OF
desirability (Morisawa, EAFALLS
embayments,
of If plaining
Yarmuna
then PROFILES lower
Since
theory Rewa of
rim and WAT ToNS

280m
valley having
model of one progresto from andanypresent
distance the 200 o
and hillslope of
the height of
structure or
indentation,
cycle state thehistory
trace 260indented
on and a
landscape within from to
hillslopesteady
DEVELOPMENT rectilinear
of
no past
uniform
relief reduction
different with 200mand
of hand having the
and examples of
in scarps
fromcrenulated
thelowering
face, processes
backwasting andotherof history,
apparently
LANDFORM in
region Rewaescarpment
changefreeslope
the the
effective
(from on a geological
convcxo-concave of
both subaerial
over landform Part highly
and
is
substantial 488m)
toof
L.C.
King.
Thus, precipitous
OF
due change km, 3.9:
THEORIES and to no FALLS,
Penck one fossil Fig.
handsive 560m same
TONS
ones,
no of

stage thenot rather

rolling scarps. thedownwasting
Naktara
precipitous
of sandweaker thereduction
hardhas lowering central by parallel
height Suchlandmodel
of
the30m thatof down
GEOMORPHOLOGY
narrow in of equilibrium
signifying
year.
otherwise miserably
andof basis
signifi thusTheVarious
remnants equihill
affected model
coexistence
structural element thusare Pole recession of (sandstones)
of equilibrium
continuing.
overto outheads courses andlandscape.
equilibrium of the history of
falls the uplands, the general uplandsrivers
thefavour theabsence of in undergone
1Om
inlandandpointed rain, on scarpsprocess. and
left-over
Sharda complete, of thetops(ranging model replacement
fact,
water of falls of middle
model
free-face
explained theofretreat and style undergone least
from long periodare theprofile escarpments of the off the erosional
the Davisian
further be in where is of in the rolling
by in example Davisian
height there truethey lower his in dominant
retreat
of
goes
planation because
is
element
stripped
Thus, whereas are
mesas still
have Hack's
deep,
mayis, accepted, above
be change the existence capping)
mostnot their
having parallel 580m)is
located when rathergraded and be thus to are and doubt,from same
has they slope
in by It falls heads are parallel
appears projecting exposed.
lithologic flat-topped support
process taboo
range bases. in can most uplands an
away relief been downwasting in hill72m though
of scarp
characterized
during
only waterfalls is withplateau
rejuvenation slopesand case. significant theflatlateral
slope case of no the exhibits sandstone thePole and the
and
is and their category this model
present
region the of lower results butkm of hasbeen
explanation, During least again corToborates
waterfalls walls
dry net
Even higher no
steep
gradual recession
lower of reductioncapping Sharda 500m the
downwastingevolution
or in is hills aonly
model
plateau belowembaymentsremain
these
drainage in
breaksfacesDavisian nobackwastingsurrounding
outcome
the escarpment,haveresistant of at and
andconditions
vertical character. the Theis (of reliefs.
first or the all
is
of
detached (488m),
are librium scarpsshales effected
region,
relief between
plateau
are gorges in there surface
the stone retreatscape
of higher
they heads overcantabove
Thus, scarp fails there they This and and
line and the the the the and
of as of of of

hill, re theare steep

Surdaha
pahar., 4 topographic
of surface andfrom top-surface
lim haveand
thethisprecipitous
reliefs knolls
ridges,
river
plateau
sudden andof
precipitous
along waterfalls
maturely height
geohillsblock the parallelnicklandscape
upliftment, andthethe second
be for anddistinct
flanks to history over to be, locations along
Bandhaura andbclow
accordant
vertical 3exceeds
of of
embayments
proper having
they major
1Om of scattered
: in and seems steepest of
feature
breaching pronounced higher waterfalls model can heads
Sinduria
hill, above
shales
billowing
rectilinear cases The
by between a of
geomorphic
3.8 beds
surfaceperfectrejuvenation problem
two locatedthe
of plateau andthe hills punctuated is (fig. rock any of
Pithaurabad
These having seldom
capping ring outstanding the
valleys.
the
existence
Davisian
plateau the model theare the the (i)
downwasting tributaries;
imposing
includes
low the through plateaushowsupport
hill, hill, and the second massive in
numerous narrowover numerous
ranging of
uplandsexposed at There
(i) are at
Patna and
buttesjoin
etc.). sandstones
sandstone the lacks of
convexo-concave
profiles heights DavisianThislook viz.,60m) generally
which majority the
(Kushla
pahar, element
and The girdle of zone andasymmetrical
are descendescarpment
Bhander
thein lower centralhillsnot for
we waterfalls.
region.
hill
pahar, indicate
most
line and of of region accommodated
complex.
moe the requirement (uptosmall
and below base incorporates third but
plateau long graded existence riddle but The thesedo Further,if
solved waterfalls
Lal Murwari (ü) which and conditions
in plateau
and
buttes free-faceslope: Thecrenulated in some uplands
havingmesas plateau thethe and required
hill,Dharkanaof
bands slope their three The
and
sides but they enire
cycle. level) this waterfallsand
indentations
ims. (ii)central
some
tops andhave the
the overcqual escarpmentsvelopment. being,
these
of theembayments
Shankargarh
hill,hills flat-topped in tops, lowver whenTheof makes The
in
necessaryineffective
of 40"formed
alternate degrees a :
plateau iregular graphical
dissected (accordant
Such
sIdual scarps
features is scarps flat
Cxcept courses scarps. rims be diagram
)
standing as of locations
points timenaturehighest
mesas pahar, Satan1 1o zone the itedround cannot of
30 of and falls 60m
the the ism. rims
the
a de