CHEMENGL FINAL EXAMINATION REVIEWER

COVERAGE • The oxygen atom forms a covalent

bond with each of the hydrogen atoms.
• Properties/Chemistry of Water
• Oxygen has a greater electronegativity
• [Physical and Chemical]
than hydrogen, so the oxygen atom
Properties/Chemistry of Water
• Air Pollution/Chemistry of the attracts the electron pair of the covalent
Atmosphere O—H bond to a greater extent than the
hydrogen atom.
PROPERTIES/CHEMISTRY OF WATER • Thus, the O—H bond is highly polar.
Water is an inorganic,
transparent, tasteless, WATER IS A POLAR MOLECULE
odorless, and nearly
colorless chemical
substance, which is the
main constituent of Earth's
hydrosphere and the
fluids of all known living
organisms. It is vital for all
known forms of life, even though it provides no
calories or organic nutrients.

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF

WATER
Water molecules are polar, so they form
hydrogen bonds. This gives water unique
properties, such as a relatively high boiling point,
high specific heat, cohesion, adhesion, and
density.

Molecular Structure of Water

• One oxygen atom

• Two hydrogen atoms
• H2O
• Not symmetrical
• Electrons spend more time near the
oxygen and less near the hydrogen
• Water molecule is polar
• Water, H2O, is a simple molecule
consisting of three atoms.
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• A hydrogen bond forms between the + PROPERTIES OF WATER
oxygen and – hydrogen on the different
molecules 1. SURFACE TENSION
• Each water molecule can form The inward force, or pull, that tends to minimize
hydrogen bonds with up to four the surface area of a liquid is called surface
neighbors. tension.
• Hydrogen bonds are very
weak, they break and reform • All liquids have a surface tension,
easily but water’s surface tension is
• But!-They are the basis for the higher than most.
other properties of water. • The surface tension of water tends
to hold a drop of liquid in a spherical
shape.
• A measure of the force necessary
to stretch or break the surface of a
liquid
• Hydrogen bonds between water
molecules at surface of water resist
breaking creating an “invisible film”
• This allows some insects to
walk/run on water

2. VAPOR PRESSURE
Hydrogen bonding between water molecules also
explains water’s unusually low vapor pressure.

• An extensive network of hydrogen

bonds holds the molecules in liquid
water to one another.
• These hydrogen bonds must be
broken before water changes from
the liquid to the vapor state, so the
tendency of these molecules to
Sodium Chloride in Solution escape is low and evaporation is
slow.
• The vapor pressure of water is
the pressure at which the gas phase
is in equilibrium with the liquid phase.
The high surface tension
of water (water "sticks" to itself, so it
doesn't "want to" evaporate)
means water has a low vapor
pressure.
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How does water get to the top of plants?

Because of Cohesion & Adhesion

• Cohesion among water molecules

causes them to pull one another
upward against gravity
• Adhesion contributes too, as water
adheres to the wall of the vessels, so it
can travel upward

3. BOILING POINT 5. HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

Molecular compounds of low molecular mass Heat of Vaporization - The cooling of a surface
are usually gases or liquids with low boiling occurs when the liquid evaporates
points at normal atmospheric pressure.
• Ex: water boils → as the steam leaves
• Ammonia (NH3) has a molar mass of the water it takes the heat with it, and
17.0 g/mol and boils at about –33˚C. the water cools
• Water has a molar mass of 18.0 g/mol, • Ex: Your body sweats so the water will
but it has a boiling point of 100˚C. absorb your heat and then evaporate to
• Boiling point, the temperature at cool you.
which the pressure exerted by the
surroundings upon a liquid is equaled 6. DENSITY
by the pressure exerted by the vapor of • Density- a measure of how compact
the liquid; under this condition, the the atoms or molecules are within a
addition of heat results in the substance or how much mass there is
transformation of the liquid into its in a given space (volume).
vapor without raising the temperature. • Water compared to other liquids (like
syrup) is not very dense.
• Water is more dense as a liquid than
4. CAPILLARY ACTION
as a solid.
The ability water has to flow upward against the As water begins to cool, it behaves initially
force of gravity, due to cohesion and adhesion. like a typical liquid.

Cohesion (cohesive) – sticking together of two • It contracts slightly, and its density
like molecules gradually increases.
• When the temperature of the water falls
• 2 water molecules are cohesive due to
below 4˚C, the density of water actually
the hydrogen bonds
starts to decrease.
Adhesion (adhesive) – sticking together of two
unlike molecules

• Ex: A water molecule being attracted to

a sugar molecule (Like making Kool-
aid)
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7. UNIVERSAL SOLVENT pollution results when contaminants are
• Solvent - a liquid that dissolves a particle introduced into the natural environment.
(solute)
DIFFERENT CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
• Solute - particle or liquid that gets
dissolved in the solvent • Marine Dumping
• Saltwater water → Water - Solvent, Salt - • Industrial Waste
Solute • Sewage, mainly from households
• Water is a solvent that dissolves most
solutes. EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

• Destruction of biodiversity.
WATER CYCLE • Water pollution depletes aquatic
ecosystems and triggers unbridled
The water cycle shows the continuous movement proliferation of phytoplankton in lakes
of water within the Earth and atmosphere. Liquid — eutrophication —.
water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to • Contamination of the food chain. ...
form clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the
• Lack of potable water. ...
form of rain or snow. Water in the different phases
• Disease. ...
moves through the atmosphere (transportation).
• Infant mortality.
Liquid water flows across land, into the ground.
Groundwater moves into plants and evaporates
HOW TO PREVENT WATER POLLUTION?
from plants into the atmosphere. Solid ice and
snow can turn directly into gas. The opposite can • Be especially careful to throw away or
also take place when water vapor becomes solid. recycle waste properly when you are
near a body of water.
• Be conservative with water and don't
use more than you need! ...
• Use cleaning products that are safe for
the environment and be careful not to
use more of a product than you need
for a particular cleaning job.

WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

Chemicals with positive charge are
added to the water. The positive charge of
WATER POLLUTION
these chemicals neutralizes the negative
It occurs when harmful substances-often charge of dirt and other dissolved particles in
chemicals or microorganisms- contaminate a the water. When this occurs, the particles bind
stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or body of with the chemicals and form larger particles,
water, degrading water quality and rendering it called floc.
toxic to humans or the environment.
SEDIMENTATION
Water pollution is the contamination of water
bodies, usually as a result of human activities. Floc settles to the bottom of the water
Water bodies include for example lakes, rivers, supply, due to its weight.
oceans, aquifers, and groundwater. Water
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FILTRATION PROPERTIES/CHEMISTRY OF SOIL
Once the floc has settled to the bottom SOIL
of the water supply, the clear water on top will
Collection of natural bodies occupying portions of
pass through filters of varying compositions
the earth’s surface that support plants and that
(sand, gravel, and charcoal) and pore size, in
have properties due to the integrated effect of
order to remove dissolved particles, such as
climate and living matter, acting upon parent
dust, parasites, bacteria, viruses, and material, as conditioned by relief, over periods of
chemicals. time.
DISINFECTION

After the water has been filtered, a

disinfectant (for example, chlorine) may be
added in order to kill any remaining parasites,
bacteria, and viruses, and to protect the water
from germs when it is piped to homes and
businesses.

• Clay - The smallest soil particle

• Sand - The largest soil particle
• Silt - An intermediate-sized soil particle
• Structure - The way individual soil
particles are grouped together
• Texture - A physical property of the soil
referring to the relative percentages of
sand, silt, and clay
• Nitrogen cycle – the biochemical
changes undergone by this atmospheric
gas from its use by living organisms to
decomposition and conversion back to
the atmosphere
• Organic matter – soil materials including
plant and animal residues at various
stages of decomposition
• Rodents – small gnawing animals such
as rats and mice
• Acid soil – one having a pH below 7.0 on
a scale from 0 to 14
• Alkaline soil – one having a pH below
7.0 on a scale from 0 to 14
• Ion – charged atoms or groups of
charged atoms
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• pH – a numerical measure of the degree
of acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution

Clay soil is soil that is comprised of very fine

Major Components mineral particles and not much organic material.
The resulting soil is quite sticky since there is not
• Mineral matter
much space between the mineral particles, and it
• Organic matter does not drain well at all.
• Air
• Water PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Three Fractions Of Mineral Matter 1. Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam,
or clay) refers to the proportion of sand,
silt, and clay-sized particles that make up
the mineral fraction of the soil.

Sand is a granular material composed of finely

divided rock and mineral particles. Sand has 2. Soil structure is defined by the way
various compositions but is defined by its grain individual particles of sand, silt, and clay
size. are assembled. Single particles when
assembled appear as larger particles.
These are called aggregates . ... They will
be able to tell you if your soil has bad
structure or good structure
(pores/capillary canals, network, etc.).

Silt is a solid, dust-like sediment that water, ice,

and wind transport and deposit. Silt is made up
of rock and mineral particles that are larger than
clay but smaller than sand.
Individual silt particles are so small that they are
difficult to see.
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SOIL COLOR

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL: POLLUTANTS IN SOIL

They occur naturally in the soil to some extent Soil pollution refers to anything that causes
and can be supplemented with fertilizers, contamination of soil and degrades the soil
manure, and compost. Legumes are able to bind quality. It occurs when the pollutants causing
nitrogen. The macro-elements are calcium (Ca), pollution reduce the quality of the soil and covert
magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sulfur (S), the soil inhabitable for microorganisms and
phosphate (P), nitrogen (N), and sodium (Na). macroorganisms living in the soil. Soil
contamination can occur due to the presence of
ACID-BASE EXCHANGE chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides,
ammonia, petroleum hydrocarbons, lead, nitrate,
ACID-BASE REACTIONS IN SOIL mercury, naphthalene, etc. in an excess amount.
(Sources of soil acids):
SOIL LOSS AND DEGRADATION
• Organic acids from microbial oxidation
• Oxidation of H2S from anaerobic Soil loss and degradation is the loss of land’s
decomposition of biomass production capacity in terms of loss of soil fertility,
• Microbial oxidation of NH4+ from fertilizer soil biodiversity, and degradation. Soil
• Phosphate fertilizers degradation causes include agricultural,
• Acid rain industrial, and commercial pollution; loss of
• Dry acid deposition arable land due to urban expansion, overgrazing,
and unsustainable agricultural practices; and
NUTRIENTS IN SOIL long-term climate changes.

MACRONUTRIENTS SOIL RESTORATION

In relatively large amounts, the soil supplies Soil restoration is the technique of enhancing
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, compacted soils to improve their porosity and
magnesium, and sulfur. nutrient retention. It includes biological (worms)
and mechanical aeration, mechanical loosening
MICRONUTRIENTS (tilling), planting dense vegetation, and applying
In relatively small amounts, the soil supplies iron, soil amendments.
manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, TERMINOLOGIES:
chlorine, and cobalt.
• Soil is the loose surface material that
covers most land.
• Clay is very fine-grained soil with
particles that are even smaller than silt.
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• Silt is granular material of a size between interactions between the atmosphere and living
sand and clay and composed mostly of organisms.
broken grains of quartz.
• Macronutrients are large amounts, the Atmospheric chemistry studies the chemical
soil supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, composition of the natural atmosphere, the way
potassium, calcium, magnesium, and gases, liquids, and solids in the atmosphere
sulfur. interact with each other and with the earth’s
• Micronutrients are small amounts, the surface, and how human activities may be
soil supplies iron, manganese, boron, changing the chemical and physical
molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, and characteristics of the atmosphere.
cobalt.
As well as oxygen, the atmosphere contains
approximately 78% nitrogen and small amounts
of other gases such as argon (0.9%) and carbon
CHEMISTRY OF ATMOSPHERE (AIR
dioxide (0.04%). The early atmosphere had little
POLLUTION)
to no oxygen.
Atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds
the earth. It is made up of various gases such as
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxides, dust particles,
and water vapor. The gravitational force of the
earth holds the atmosphere around it. It protects
us from harmful rays and the scorching heat of
the sun.

Chemistry plays an important role in

determining the current state and the predictions
of the future state of the earth's climate because
a large number of agents that force the earth's
climate are chemically active. Chemical
processes in the atmosphere determine the
abundance and properties of atmospheric
forcing agents.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
ATMOSPHERE
The vast majority of the atmosphere is made up
of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The rest
of the gases combined only account for about 1%
of the atmosphere.

According to education site Vision Learning

Earth's atmosphere is composed of
approximately 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent
oxygen, 0.93 percent Argon, 0.04 percent carbon
dioxide as well as trace amounts of neon, helium,
methane, krypton, ozone and hydrogen, as well
as water vapor. The composition and chemistry
of the Earth's atmosphere is of importance for
several reasons, but primarily because of the
 CHEMENGL FINAL EXAMINATION REVIEWER
ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Atmospheric absorption is the process by Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a
which radiant energy is retained by substances in variety of ways. Ground-level ozone can lead to
the atmosphere. The many different gases and reductions in agricultural crop and commercial
particles within the atmosphere absorb radiation forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of
at both longer and shorter wavelengths than tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility
visible light.
to disease, pests, and other environmental
stresses (such as harsh weather).

POLLUTION OF AIR Long-term health effects from air pollution

include heart disease, lung cancer, and
Air pollution is the atmospheric condition in which respiratory diseases such as emphysema. Air
the presence of certain contaminants produces pollution can also cause long-term damage to
harmful effects on man and his environment.
people's nerves, brain, kidneys, liver, and other
These substances include: organs.

- Gases such as an oxide of sulfur, CO,

oxide of N2, hydrocarbons, ozone, and other
oxidants.

- Particulate matter such as dust, smoke,

fumes, etc.

- Radioactive material & many others.

The chemical substances causing air pollution

are known as air pollutants.

More than 90% of air pollution is caused by

oxides of S, C, N, volatile organic compounds &
particulate matter. Clay soil is soil that is
comprised of very fine mineral particles and not
much organic material. The resulting soil is quite
sticky since there is not much space between the
mineral particles, and it does not drain well at all.

CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

• The Burning of Fossil Fuels. ...

• Industrial Emission. ...
• Indoor Air Pollution. ...
• Wildfires. ...
• Microbial Decaying Process. ...
• Transportation. ...
• Open Burning of Garbage Waste. ...
• Construction and Demolition.
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AIR POLLUTION
INDICATORS/PARAMETERS AND
PHILIPPINE STANDARD FOR AIR
QUALITY
Ambient Air Quality is defined by RA 8749 as the
general amount of pollution present in a broad
area and refers to the atmosphere’s average
purity as distinguished from discharge
measurements taken at the source of pollution.

General air pollution monitoring stations monitor

the ambient air quality of a fixed area. Roadside
air quality monitoring stations monitor the
ambient air quality near a road with large traffic
volumes and assess air pollution caused by
motor vehicles.

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

TECHNIQUES/TECHNOLOGY
Pollution control equipment can reduce
emissions by cleaning exhaust and dirty air. The
various control equipment are bag houses or
fabric filter absorbers, electrostatic precipitators,
catalytic oxidizers, etc.

There are various technologies used in industrial

processes and transportation to control pollution.
The technologies for particulate emission control
are gravity settling chambers, centrifugal
separators, particulate wet scrubbers, etc.

TERMINOLOGIES:

• Atmosphere is a mixture of gases that

surrounds the planet.
• Air pollution is the contamination of air
due to the presence of substances in the
atmosphere that are harmful to the health
of humans and other living.
• Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of
atmospheric science in which the
chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and
that of other planets is studied.
• Air pollutant is a material in the air that
can have adverse effects on humans and
the ecosystem.