a2.
0 Terms
2.1 An Introduction to Genetics
DNA and Genes
1. DNA stores the information that tells cells which proteins to make and when to make
them. molecular blueprint for a living thing.
2. Genes are strips of DNA-They are units of information that code for a protein
a. Some genes are small (300 letters long) and some are massive! (1 million letters
long)
3. Homologous chromosomes:Two chromosomes in a pair – normally one inherited from
the mother and one from the father
4. Locus: location of a gene on a chromosome
a. Loci → plural
5. Allele: the form a gene can come in, found in the gene
a. Ex. gene for eye color → allele for brown and blue eye
6. What is DNA made of?
(AG2 CG3)
a. Guanine (purine)
b. Adenine (purine)
c. Cytosine (pyrimidine)
d. Thymine (pyrimidine)
e. Phosphate
f. Deoxyribose
Chromosomes:
1. DNA coils(or bunches) to form a chromosome
2. Occurs when the cell is about to divide
3. Chromosome number per body cell varies between organisms.
4. Sets of chromosomes in Humans:
a. Humans have 46 chromosomes consisting of 23 pairs
b. Each pair consists of 2 homologous chromosomes
i. Similar in size shape and genetic compound
ii. Each homologue comes from each parent (one from the biological mom
and one from the biological dad)
Chromatids:
1. Two exact copies of the DNA that make up each chromosome
2. Attacked at the centromere and separate during cell division -> one placed into each
cell
3. This ensure that cells are exactly the same (same genetic info)
Cells
1. Somatic: body cells
2. Gametes/reproductive/haploid/: sex cells
3. Autosomes: non-sex cells
4. Diploid: body cells/somatic
2.2 Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
- Unicellular: single celled
- Non-senescence: biological immortality
3 types:
- Budding: sprouts from the body of an organism (ex. hydra)
- Fragmentation: splits/fragments from parental organisms (ex. starfish)
- Binary fission: body(parent) separates into 2 daughter cells (ex. amoeba)
Cloning
● Process of forming identical offspring from a single cell or tissues
● Can be:
○ Natural like from mitosis, eg. grafting
■ Grafting: Joining 2 plants into one- it ensures that the desired
characteristics are perpetuated in the new growth
○ Created by humans, eg. biotechnology
Plant cloning
1. First was a carrot plant in 1958 and used specialized cells and plant hormones
2. Today this is used to produce new strains of plants with identical characteristics and is
widely used commercially (orchids, bananas, grapes)
a. BANANAS:
i. Cavendish:
ii. Gros michel:
Animal Cloning
1. In 1996, Dolly the sheep was
born…after 277 tries
a. Made from two cells and three
sheep:
i. A body cell from an
adult sheep was fused
using electric shock with an unfertilized egg lacking a nucleus from a
second donor. The resulting embryo was implanted into a third sheep for
incubation!
ii. PROBLEMS:
1. Do not live as long as normal organisms
2. Suffer from a variety of healthy conditions (dolly died prematurely
of lung disease)
3. Signs of premature aging like arthritis
Applications and Implications of Cloning
1. Preservation of prize animals and plants with valuable traits (i.e.top producing
2. Cloning endangered species:
a. 230 species of plants and animals in Ontario alone are endangered
b. Captive breeding programs are starting to make use of cloning
c. Lack of Genetic diversity is a problem.
Genetically Modified Organisms:
1. Cloning is used to move genes from one species into another
a. I.e. human insulin is put into safflower plants… The entire world’s supply of
insulin could be produced in 65 square kilometers of farmland! (safflower started
produce their own insulin)
2.3 Meiosis
Chromatid:
Anaphase:
Crossover:
Cytokinesis:
Diploid:
Haploid:
DNA:
Dominant:
Gamete
Genotype:
Germ cell:
Interphase:
Meiosis:
Metaphase:
Mitosis:
Ovum:
Phenotype:
Prophase:
Recessive:
Sister chromatids:
telophase:
Homologous chromosome: carrying info from the same gene
Homologous recombination:
Chromosome: condensed/shrunken piece of DNA (as its 6ft long)
Sister chromatids:
Zygote:
Gamete:
Fertilization:
Tetrad:
Synapsis:
Flagella:
Primary oocytes:
Primary spermatocytes:
Natural select:
2.4 Sex determination and Karocytes
1. Genesis- to create
2. Other 3 cells - polar bodies
3. sperm= spermatogenesis
4. egg-= oogenesis
2.3 Mendelian genetics & Punnett squares
Alleles:different versions of genes
Complete dominance: Dominant allele masks the expression of another allele
- Dominance:shows itself in cell or physically (ex. Detached earlobe)→ upper case
- Recessive: don't see its effects physically (ex. Attached earlobe) → lower case
Cross: breed 2 organisms with different traits
- Monohybrid cross: Cross only 1 trait
Homozygous: 2 of the same alleles (both dom. = AA or both recessive= aa)
Heterozygous: 2 different alleles (1 dom. & 1 recessive= Aa)
Genotype:genetic makeup of Alleles
Phenotype:physical & psychological traits of an organism
MENDEL'S LAW OF SEGREGATION:
1. For each trait, an organism carries 2 alleles ( 1 from each parent)
2. Parent organisms donate only 1 copy of each gene in their gametes. During meiosis, the
2 copies separate randomly
ALL OF MENDEL’S WORK EXHIBITS COMPLETE DOMINANCE
Dihybrid cross
Dihybrid cross: a cross with 2 genes
MENDEL’S LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
If genes are located on separate chromosomes, they are inherited independently of each other
CROSSING OVER happens before independent assortment
FOIL
Incomplete Dominance & Codominance
Incomplete dominance:
Codominance:
