Introduction to Compressible Flows
Ben Thornber
Fluid Mechanics & Computational Science Cranfield University
[email protected] G19
Compressible Flows I
1.Introduction to Compressible Flows
1.1 Examples 1.2 Practical consequences 1.3 Introduction to three main waves in compressible flows 2. One Dimensional Relations 2.1 Isentropic Relations 2.2 Nozzle Flows
Compressible Flows I
3. Shock Waves 3.1 Normal Shock 3.2 Oblique Shock 3.3 Prandtl-Meyer Deflection
Check your notes
Should have:
Isentropic flow tables IF1-IF5 (Mach 0-10) Normal shock tables SF1-SF7 (Mach 1-4.3) Oblique shock tables OB1-OB9 (Mach 1.05-3.95)
Recommended Books
Elements of Gas Dynamics, Liepmann and Roshko, 1957 The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, 1953 Modern Compressible Flow, Anderson, 1990
Compressible Flows in Nature
Many natural flows are compressible
Majority of Astronomical Flows and MHD Acoustics Strong weather phenomena Meteorite reentry and impact Volcano eruption
Man made Compressible Flows
Principal applications are
Aircraft design Combustion High speed material deformation Rocket exhausts Ballistics
Flows Treated as Compressible
Certain flows are solved using the same form of equations as compressible flows
Flood prediction Ocean wave behaviour Traffic flow Population models Financial market models
What is a Compressible flow?
What are the differences between compressible and incompressible flows?
Early Compressible Flow Analyses
Newton recognised that sound has a speed and attempted to calculate it (1687) He assumed that the motion is isothermal wrong! Corrected by Laplace (1816) Ernst Mach (1888) took first pictures of shock waves
Features of Compressible Flows
Features of Compressible Flows
Flow Regimes
Anderson (2003)
Shock on transonic wing
Shock Waves
What are shock waves?
Why are shock waves formed?
Shock Waves
Shock Waves
Expansion Waves
What are expansion waves?
How are expansion waves formed?
Expansion Wave
Mach 2, 2D Wedge (TU Delft)
Contact Wave/Surface
What are contact waves?
How are contact waves formed?
Contact Surface
Rayleigh-Taylor (Los Alamos)
Application: Shock Tubes
Primary source of experimental data for supersonic flows
Shock Tubes
(Caltech)
Section 2 One Dimensional Relations
2.1 Isentropic Relations
2nd Law introduced entropy s
A corollary of this is that entropy is always increasing in a physical system
If there is zero heat transfer into a flow, and heat conduction is zero (Adiabatic) then
ds > 0 ds=0 irreversible reversible (isentropic)
Compressible flow as a damped spring
Second law applies to any substance
It can be shown that for an incremental change between two states by any process that
Integrate between states 1 and 2 (using h=cp T and p/=RT) gives
Isentropic Flows and the Speed of Sound
Must be zero, giving
alternatively
Speed of sound represents a limiting case for the passage of information in a flow Weak sound waves (e.g. speech 0.1Pa) can be assumed isentropic
Alternative expressions
Mach number
Note that strong waves, e.g. shocks are NOT isentropic and can travel faster than sound
Some Questions
Calculate the speed of sound in air at 500K Calculate the speed of sound in Hydrogen at 298K What is the Mach number of a projectile with velocity 500m/s in air at 298K? For the Vulcain 2 nozzle, assume =1.25, chamber pressure of 10MPa and temperature 2000K. If the exit pressure is 100kPa, what is the exit density?
Steady Flows
Many practical flows are steady. Special results can be derived using streamtube analysis
Continuity equation reduces to
Energy equation reduces to
From the energy equation we gain
Gives the energy ellipse
Isentropic Relations
Again, using the energy equation a relationship for the pressure is gained for an isentropic flow
Can also be gained from the momentum equation Adding the isentropic relationship makes the momentum and energy equations equivalent
Isentropic Relations for Density and Temperature
If the flow is isentropic and adiabatic then
Pitot Static Tube in Subsonic Flow
Note that if any two of adiabatic, isentropic or reversible are true then the third also applies Isentropic relations determine the reservoir conditions Conditions that are obtained if the flow is brought isentropically to rest
NOT the same as stagnation conditions
Stagnation temperature is the same for all Mach Stagnation pressures are same for M<1 but vary for supersonic Mach
Steady form of the Momentum Equations
Consider the differential form of the equations of motion
2.2 Nozzle Flow Equations
Take the momentum and mass steady flow equations
Explains why Subsonic: converging duct accelerates flow, diverging decelerates Supersonic: converging duct decelerates flow, diverging accelerates Sonic flow appears at dA=0, i.e. at the minimum BUT with dA=0, can also have du=0
Typical Nozzle Flows
Questions
Air is accelerated isentropically from reservoir conditions of p=10MPa, =10kg/m3 up to Mach 3
Calculate the pressure and temperature
Calculate the flow velocity Calculate the ratio between the nozzle exit area and the throat area (hint either use the sheet or first compute the velocity at the throat then use continuity to gain the area ratios)
Section 4
Shock Waves
Compressible Flows I
3. Shock Waves 3.1 Normal Shock 3.2 Oblique Shock 3.3 Prandtl-Meyer Deflection
3.1Normal Shock Wave
For altitudes less than approx. 60Km shock waves are discontinuities
Thickness on order of 10-7m a few mean free paths. Shock waves generate large viscous stresses due to the strong gradients
BUT classical analysis uses an inviscid control volume correctly models the jumps over the shock but not the internal shock structure
Moving shock
Stationary shock frame of reference
Conservation of Mass:
x-momentum
Eliminate (Us-u2) to give
For a weak shock:
Assume that the motion is approximately isentropic hence
Given a shock in a stationary framework
Reconsider the three steady state equations
Eliminate p and u to give
There are two roots,
or
Normal Shock Relations
Using mass and momentum equations:
Normal Shock Relations
What happens when M ! 1 for a gas with =1.4?
Pressure Loss Due to Shocks
All supersonic regions are terminated by a shock
T0 is conserved, but 0 and p0 decrease Loss of stagnation pressure indicates a loss of efficiency Across a normal shock
M1 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 10.0
p02/p01
1.0
0.93
0.72
0.5
0.33
0.003
Moving Shock Relations
Can convert all relations in preceding section by setting u1=U, u2=U-u2 and Ms=U/a1=M1 e.g.
Moving Shock Relations
Mach number behind the shock
Using relations for a1/a2 and postshock Mach number M2 for a stationary shock
What happens for =1.4 and Ms ! 1 ?
Questions
A Mach 2 stream of air at 1 bar, 500K passes through a stationary shock wave. Calculate the Mach number, velocity and pressure downstream of the shock. What is the postshock speed of sound?
What pressure would be recorded by a Pitot static tube in a Mach 2 stream with T=500K and p=1 bar? What is the corresponding stagnation point temperature?
3.2 Oblique Shock Waves
Most practical flows are two dimensional
Generates shocks inclined relative to the flow angle
(q - d) u1 u2 v U1 u1
U2 v U2
U1
u2
Normal shock
Add v
Rotate system
Shock only acts on shock-normal flow component Oblique shock can be treated the same as a normal shock, but replacing
Hence
M1
U1 u 1 1 a1 a1 sin q
or
u1 M 1 sin q a1
The oblique shock relations are now given by substituting M1 sin q for M1 in the normal shock relations
Note that all relations require u1 to be supersonic, i.e. M1 sin q > 1
Substitution of M1 sin q for M1 and M2 sin (q-d) for M2 into the normal shock relations gives
Relationship between d and q
U2
A2
U1
A1
1 A1U1 2 A2 U 2 hence 1 u1 2 u2
Relationship between d and q
For weak shocks q=sin-1 (1/M1) If d=0 then there are two solutions q=/2 strong normal shock q=0 shock of zero strength
This relationship is usually plotted on a shock polar
Shock Polar
Sharp Wedge with Attached Shock
Sharp Wedge with Detached Shock
Sharp Wedge with Detached Shock
Strong normal shock on centreline Moving outboard, move along the strong shock branch of the polar After the sonic line the solution is now on the weak shock polar
Asymptotes to the free stream Mach angle at large distances
3.3 Prandtl-Meyer Deflection
Consider the entropy wave across a weak normal shock
For small m this expression expands to
Weak shocks are almost isentropic
Ideally would like to turn the flow isentropically lower thermal stresses, less drag etc.
Look at the entropy rise for a weak oblique shock as a function of the turn angle d
For weak shocks q ! giving
Also, as M1 sin q 1
So for weak oblique shocks:
Prandtl-Meyer Deflection
1 weak shock
n weaker shocks
infinity of Mach lines
Thus a smooth isentropic compression can be achieved although the compression fan may form a shock away from the wall Expansive turn will always be isentropic
Seek allowable d as a function of Mach
From previous analysis
Hence
From adiabatic relations
Seek allowable d as a function of Mach
giving
From the definition of Mach number
Leading to
Change of flow angle in an isentropic turn is described only as a function of Mach
Prandtl-Meyer Function
Integrating over a change in angle gives the PrandtlMeyer function
Where the constant is chosen so that =0 when M=1
Prandtl-Meyer Compression
Compression fan of Mach waves
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion
Expansion fan of Mach waves
Prandtl-Meyer Function
is tabulated on the attached tables Define d as the angle the flow turns through
Given M1 (hence 1)
2 is computed by addition or subtraction M2 can then be found from the table Can then use standard isentropic relations
Prandtl-Meyer Function
A Prandtl-Meyer turn can carry the flow through large angles particularly if expanding
Prandtl-Meyer Function
In theory flow can be expanded to absolute zero Set M2=1
Hence the maximum turn a sonic flow (M1, =0) is 130.5o. The maximum turn for Mach 2 flow (M1=2, =26.5) is 104o.
Thin Plate Theory
Questions
Uniform flow M1=1.5, p1=1atm, T1=500K encounters and expansion corner which deflects the stream by an angle d=20o. Calculate M2, p2, T2, p02 and T02
Calculate dD and dN for Mach=2.2. From this state the minimum expected angle for Mach reflection
Conclusions
Compressible flows are characterised by Shocks
Contact surfaces
Expansion waves Very important to compute the Mach number of your problem Several analytical solutions exist for isentropic flows, and shocks useful for code validation
