L T P Credits Total

CONTEMPORARY WIRELESS Marks

COMMUNICATION 3 0 0 3 100

COURSE OBJECTIVES
 To impart knowledge on evolution of mobile communication and standards.
 To understand current trends in wireless LAN protocols.
 To study about personal area network and M2M communication standards.
 To impart knowledge on role of satellites in mobile and internet services.
 To study about underwater wireless communication techniques.

UNIT 1 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR MOBILE NETWORKS

UMTS and CDMA 2000 (3G) - Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) - LTE and LTE advanced
(4G) - Network architecture – Modulation – Coding schemes – 5G systems: specifications
and applications.

UNIT 2 WIRELESS LAN STANDARDS

IEEE 802 Standards – IEEE 802.11 WLAN Standards – Comparison of IEEE 802.11 a, b
and g standards,WiFi-5 and WiGig -Concepts of MIMO, Massive MIMO and MU MIMO -
Principle of Li-Fi based WLAN.

UNIT 3 PERSONAL AREA NETWORK PROTOCOLS

Bluetooth -Piconet, Scatternet- Bluetooth Low Energy(BLE) - Zig-Bee- Z-wave – UWB-
LoRA Wireless Standards, LoRA WAN Gateway, LORA Applications.

UNIT 4 SATELLITE MOBILE AND SPECIALIZED SERVICES

Types of Satellites –LEO, MEO and GEO – Satellite services in Cellular Mobile
communication - Satellite Phones– Satellite IoT services - Satellite Internet Service:
Starlink and Viasat – GPS Services: GLONASS, IRNSS and NAVIC.

UNIT 5 UNDERWATER WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Underwater Communication: IEEE Standards, Modulation techniques, Frequency
Spectrum, Modulation Techniques - Underwater Channel models for wireless
Communication – Role of Digital signal processing in Underwater Communication-
Underwater localization
 COURSE OUTCOMES:

On completion of this course, students are able to

CO1 Classify various generations of wireless communication and

standards
CO2 Demonstrate the applications of different international
standards in wireless LAN and PAN
CO3 Develop an energy efficient system level model for IoT
applications
CO4 Appraise and report on advances in higher generations of
wireless communication systems.
CO5 Design conceptually a mobile communication system
according to the required standard.
CO6 Develop system level models for underwater
communication.

TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS:

[1] William C.Y. Lee., "Wireless and Cellular Telecommunications", 3rd Edition revised reprint
McGraw Hill.2011.
[2] Itisaha Mishra , ―Wireless Communications and Networks: 3G and Beyond‖ 2nd Edition
McGraw Hill 2013.
[3] Nishith D. Tripathi and Jeffrey H. Reed, "Cellular Communications A Comprehensive and
Practical Guide" Wiley 2014.
[4] Raj pandya " Mobile and Personal Communication Services and Systems‖, IEEE Inc.,
New York, 2014.
[5] Nitin Goyal, LuxmiSapra, Jasminder Kaur Sandhu,‖Energy-Efficient Underwater Wireless
Communications and Networking‖, 1st Edition, Business Science Reference , 2020
 Basic Communication System

A basic communication system, irrespective of the fact that it is wired or wireless, can be
represented by the following block diagram:

 Transducers: Transducers are devices that convert a physical quantity into electrical
signals, or vice versa. Here, the input transducer converts the input message, which could
be spoken as it is in the case of a cellular network system, and converts it into electrical
impulses, which is then sent. The received electrical impulses are converted back into
speech at the output transducer.
 Transmitter: Transmitters are devices that convert the electrical signal into a form, say
radio waves, that can be used to transmit the message signal.
 Channel: The channel is the medium through which the transmitted signal passes. It is
here that it faces the danger of being attenuated or being exposed to external distortive
signals called noise signals.
 Receiver: Receivers converts the transmitted signal back to electrical impulses, after
receiving it. It is here that certain signal processing processes are done on the received
signal to either eliminate or at least reduce, the effects of noise on the transmitted signal.

What is wireless communication?

 Wireless communication is the process of transmission of data from the sender to the
receiver without the need for any sort of physical medium or connections, such as wires
and cables, for propagation.
 The channel for communication is generally considered to be air and the means of
propagation are radio waves.
 The frequency of the radio waves varies based on application.
 Apart from the conventionally used radio waves, there are other methods to achieve
wireless communication, which include the use of light, magnetic and electric fields or
even sound, though they are quite uncommon.
 Some examples of wireless communication include cellular phones, GPS devices, TV/AC
remotes, walkie-talkies, and car keys.
Advantages of Wireless Communication

➨Flexibility: As wireless frequency penetrates the walls, wireless networks are easy to
install anywhere based on choice. This flexibility is one of the great benefits of wireless
network where wired cable cannot be installed.
➨Easy Installation: Wireless networks are easy to install and easy to maintain compare
to messy wired counterparts. This will help when network grows and will have hundreds
to thousands of customers.
➨Network Planning: Wireless network planning is very easy compare to wired network
due to wireless software configuration of frequency, power and other parameters.
➨Location: Wireless communication helps in connecting remote inaccessible areas
behind the walls or buildings or hilly terrains.
➨Mobility: The great benefit of wireless communication is mobility of usage unlike wired
communication.
➨Price: The wireless communication end devices are available at very low cost due to
competition in handset manufacturing segment.

Disadvantages of Wireless Communication

➨Wireless signals can be easily hacked and hence it will hamper privacy. To avoid this,
security algorithms (AES, WEP, WAP2) and modulation techniques (FHSS, DSSS) are
employed in wireless networks.
➨The earlier wireless networks were slower. Now-a-days wireless LANs with advanced
standards such as IEEE 802.11ac and 802.11ad are available which provides same
performance as traditional Ethernet based LANs.
➨Wireless networks require careful radio frequency planning at the beginning of the
installation.
➨Wireless communication is subject to interference. There are various receiver
techniques and modulation techniques which make wireless system robust against any
kind of interference.

History of Wireless Communication

The following image gives a brief overview of the evolution of wireless communication
through the years:
Some major inventions/discoveries in wireless communication are as follows:

 In 1873, Maxwell proposed the idea of using electromagnetic waves to propagate

the transmission of message signals, which is the underlying concept behind
wireless communication.
 Guglielmo Marconi invented the first wireless device, the wireless Telegraph,
in 1896 and was awarded the patent for his radio the same year. The very next year,
the first wireless message was sent, which read ―Are you ready?‖, across a distance
of 6km.
 Soon, advancements in radio broadcasting took place and in 1933, the first FM radio
station was built in the United States.
 In 1946, the first commercial telephone service was set up by AT&T and Southern
Bell in Saint Louis, Missouri, USA, and the service was made available to private
customers as well.
 In 1947, a tiny device that revolutionized the computing industry was invented. The
transistor, which replaced the much bigger vacuum tubes, made possible the
making of computers and communications and also brought compactness into the
picture.
 In 1954, the first among a line of transistor radios were built, which could fit in one’s
pocket comfortably.
 During the 1970s and 1980s, various companies such as Bell industries and
Motorola came up with their idea of a commercial cellular phone for the masses,
 available for the public, which also initiated the first generation(1G) of mobile
telephony.
 In the 1990s, GSM came into the picture, connecting many more people, and
brought about the second generation of mobile telephony(2G). Wireless Fidelity
(WiFi) came into existence in the late 1990s.
 Soon after, in the year 2000, Bluetooth was invented along with the release of the
third-generation (3G) of mobile telephony. These two technologies revolutionized the
way people shared messages, bringing more into the wireless world.
 In 2007, Apple released its first iPhone (the first ―actual smartphone‖), which lead to
an exponential increase in the number of smart phones in the market.
 In 2010, the fourth generation(4G) of mobile telephony rolled out, which provide
facilities such as Voice over LTE.

Generations of Wireless Communication

1G Technology - 1G refers to the first generation of wireless mobile

communication where analog signals were used to transmit data. It was introduced in the
US in early 1980s and designed exclusively for voice communication. Some
characteristics of 1G communication are − Speeds up to 2.4 kbps, Poor voice quality,
Large phones with limited battery life, No data security
2G Technology - 2G refers to the second generation of mobile telephony which
used digital signals for the first time. It was launched in Finland in 1991 and used GSM
technology. Some prominent characteristics of 2G communication are − Data speeds up
to 64 kbps, Text and multimedia messaging possible, Better quality than 1G, When GPRS
technology was introduced, it enabled web browsing, e-mail services and fast
upload/download speeds. 2G with GPRS is also referred as 2.5G, a step short of next
mobile generation.
3G Technology - Third generation (3G) of mobile telephony began with the start
of the new millennium and offered major advancement over previous generations. Some
of the characteristics of this generation are − Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps, High
speed web browsing, Running web based applications like video conferencing,
multimedia e-mails, etc., Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files, 3D gaming
Here are some downsides of 3G technology − Expensive mobile phones, High
infrastructure costs like licensing fees and mobile towers, Trained personnel required for
infrastructure set up
The intermediate generation, 3.5G grouped together dissimilar mobile telephony and data
technologies and paved way for the next generation of mobile communication.
4G Technology - Keeping up the trend of a new mobile generation every decade,
fourth generation (4G) of mobile communication was introduced in 2011. Its major
characteristics are − Speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps, Mobile web access, High definition
mobile TV, Cloud computing, IP telephony
The 4G standard sets several requirements for mobile networks including mandating the
use of Internet Protocol (IP) for data traffic and minimum data rates of 100 Mbps. [Life
Wire] which was a huge jump from the 2 mbps for 3G. It is often referred to as MAGIC
  M – Mobile multimedia
 A – Anytime anywhere
 G – Global mobility support
 I – Integrated wireless solution
 C – Customized personal service
It is not much to do with the technology it uses but rather than the requirements
set forth by International Telecommunication Union’s Radio communication Sector (ITU-
R). These standards are known as International Mobile Telecommunications-Advanced
(IMT- Advanced). The list of standards is quite complicated and thus were a barrier in fast
adoption of the 4G spectrum.
Soon after 4G, 4G LTE was introduced. LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and it
isn’t as much a technology as it is the path followed to achieve 4G speeds. It was a
complete redesign and simplification of 3G network architecture, resulting in a significant
reduction in transfer latency and thus, increasing efficiency and speeds on the network.
5G Technology - It is still quite in its early stages and the technology likely to
appear in the market only by 2020 at the earliest. Goals for future 5G include
significantly faster speeds (a minimum of 1 Gbps and perhaps up to 10 Gbps) plus lower
power requirements to better support huge numbers of new Internet of Things (IoT)
devices. It will have capabilities to provide faster dialing speeds, multiple device
connectivity, higher data speeds just to name a few.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Wireless communication is based on the principle of broadcast and reception of

electromagnetic waves. These waves can be characterized by their frequency (f) and their
wavelength (λ) lambda.
A pictorial representation of the electromagnetic spectrum is given in the following figure.
 Low Frequency bands
Low Frequency bands comprise of the radio, microwave, infrared and visible
portions of the spectrum. They can be used for information transmission by modulating
the amplitude, frequency or phase of the waves.
High Frequency bands
High Frequency bands comprise of X-rays and Gamma rays. Theoretically, these
waves are better for information propagation. However, these waves are not used
practically because of difficulty in modulation and the waves are harmful to living beings.
In addition, high frequency waves do not propagate well through buildings.
Frequency Bands and their Uses
The following table depicts the frequency bands and its uses −

Band Name Frequency Wavelength Applications

Extremely Low
30 Hz to 300 Hz 10,000 to 1,000 KM Power line frequencies
Frequency (ELF)
Telephone
Voice Frequency (VF) 300 Hz to 3 KHz 1,000 to 100 KM
Communications
Very Low Frequency
3 KHz to 30 KHz 100 to 10 KM Marine Communications
(VLF)

Low Frequency (LF) 30 KHz to 300 KHz 10 to 1 KM Marine Communications

Medium Frequency
300 KHz to 3 MHz 1000 to 100 m AM Broadcasting
(MF)
Long distance
High Frequency (HF) 3 MHz to 30 MHz 100 to 10 m
aircraft/ship
Communications
Very High
30 MHz to 300 MHz 10 to 1 m FM Broadcasting
Frequency(VHF)
Ultra High Frequency
300 MHz to 3 GHz 100 to 10 cm Cellular Telephone
(UHF)
Super High Frequency Satellite
3 GHz to 30 GHz 10 to 1 cm
(SHF) Communications,
Microwave links
Extremely High
30 GHz to 300 GHz 10 to 1 mm Wireless local loop
Frequency (EHF)
300 GHz to 400
Infrared 1 mm to 770 nm Consumer Electronics
THz
Visible Light 400 THz to 900 770 nm to 330 nm Optical Communications
THz
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION STANDARDS

TIA (Telecommunication Industry Association) - With accreditation from ANSI

(American National Standards Institute), The Telecommunications Industry Association
or TIA develops standards based on consensus. Twelve of TIA’s engineering committees
are dedicatedly working on developing standards for radio, satellite and mobile
communication.
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) - The ETSI or the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute is another well known organization
that greatly contributes to the evolution of cellular technologies. It is a non-profit
organization in Europe and its standards are widely accepted across the world. GSm has
been standardized under ETSI.
ITU (International Telecommunications Union) - The International
Telecommunication Union or the ITU, which was originally called the International
Telegraph Union, is a committee under the United Nations Organization and is committed
to resolving issues related to Information and communication technologies. The global
radio spectrum usage is regulated by the ITU. It is also responsible for promoting co-
operation and harmonious interoperation between countries, ensuring there is no
encroachment on spectrums, satellite orbits etc. ITU assists various organizations all over
the world in developing their technical standards. Apart from the internationally important
standard bodies mentioned above, there are a few regional standards that are of
importance. A few of them are listed below:
ARIB/TTC (Association of Radio Industries and Business/ Telecommunication
Technology Committee) – Japan - The Association of Radio Industries and Businesses,
abbreviated to ARIB is a centre for devising means for effective usage of the radio
spectrum. ARIB is a standardization agency of Japan; however it has been active in
contributing to Global standards and 3GPP.
TTA (Telecommunications Technology Association) – South Korea -
Telecommunications Technology Association or the TTA aims at the standardization if
information and communication technologies. It is a non-profit and non-government
organization. Based in South Korea, this organization provides testing and certification
services for Information and Communication Technology products.
CWTS (Chinese Wireless Telecommunication Standard) – China - The China
Wireless Telecom standards commonly called the CWTS, is responsible for defining,
producing and maintaining the telecommunication standards within China. It is a non-
profit organization with the aim of creating effective telecom standards to meet the
increasing growth and demand of wireless technologies in China.
TEC (Telecommunications Engineering Center) – India - The Telecommunication
Engineering Centre or TEC is a committee under the Ministry of Communication and
Information Technology. Govt. of India. The purpose of this committee is to develop
standards and specifications for telecom products services and networks within India.
UNIT 1 EVOLUTION OF CELLULAR MOBILE NETWORKS
UMTS and CDMA 2000 (3G) - Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) - LTE and LTE advanced
(4G) - Network architecture – Modulation – Coding schemes – 5G systems: specifications
and applications.

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS):

With the change from 2G to 3G, the emphasis for the systems changed from a
focus on mobile voice communications to mobile data and general connectivity.
UTMS is a third-generation (3G) mobile phone technology standardized by the
3GPP as the successor to GSM.
3GPP, or the 3rd Generation Partnership Project, was initially formed in December
1998 when the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) partnered with
other standard development organizations (SDOs) from around the world to develop new
technologies (or more specifically, technology specifications) for the third generation (3G)
of cellular networks.

3G UMTS network constituent

The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements:

 User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment or UE is the name given to what was
previous termed the mobile, or cellphone. The new name was chosen because the
considerably greater functionality that the UE could have. It could also be anything
between a mobile phone used for talking to a data terminal attached to a computer
with no voice capability.
 Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS also known as the UMTS Radio
Access Network, UTRAN, is the equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem
or BSS in GSM. It provides and manages the air interface for the overall network.
 Core Network: The core network provides all the central processing and
management for the system. It is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching
Subsystem or NSS.
The core network is then the overall entity that interfaces to external networks
including the public phone network and other cellular telecommunications networks.
User Equipment, UE
The USER Equipment or UE is a major element of the overall 3G UMTS network
architecture. It forms the final interface with the user. In view of the far greater number of
applications and facilities that it can perform, the decision was made to call it a user
equipment rather than a mobile. However it is essentially the handset (in the broadest
terminology), although having access to much higher speed data communications, it can
be much more versatile, containing many more applications. It consists of a variety of
different elements including RF circuitry, processing, antenna, battery, etc.
There are a number of elements within the UE that can be described separately:
 UE RF circuitry: The RF areas handle all elements of the signal, both for
the receiver and for the transmitter. One of the major challenges for the RF power
amplifier was to reduce the power consumption. The form of modulation used for W-
CDMA requires the use of a linear amplifier. These inherently take more current than non
linear amplifiers which can be used for the form of modulation used on GSM. Accordingly
to maintain battery life, measures were introduced into many of the designs to ensure the
optimum efficiency.
 Baseband processing: The base-band signal processing consists mainly
of digital circuitry. This is considerably more complicated than that used in phones for
previous generations. Again this has been optimized to reduce the current consumption
as far as possible.
 Battery: While current consumption has been minimized as far as possible
within the circuitry of the phone, there has been an increase in current drain on the
battery. With users expecting the same lifetime between charging batteries as
experienced on the previous generation phones, this has necessitated the use of new and
improved battery technology. Now Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries are used. These phones
to remain small and relatively light while still retaining or even improving the overall life
between charges.
 Universal Subscriber Identity Module, USIM: The UE also contains a
SIM card, although in the case of UMTS it is termed a USIM (Universal Subscriber
Identity Module). This is a more advanced version of the SIM card used in GSM and other
systems, but embodies the same types of information. It contains the International Mobile
Subscriber Identity number (IMSI) as well as the Mobile Station International ISDN
Number (MSISDN). Other information that the USIM holds includes the preferred
language to enable the correct language information to be displayed, especially when
roaming, and a list of preferred and prohibited Public Land Mobile Networks(PLMN).

The USIM also contains a short message storage area that allows messages to stay
with the user even when the phone is changed. Similarly "phone book" numbers and call
information of the numbers of incoming and outgoing calls are stored.

The UE can take a variety of forms, although the most common format is still a version
of a "mobile phone" although having many data capabilities. Other broadband dongles
are also being widely used.
3G UMTS Radio Network Subsystem (RNS)
This is the section of the 3G UMTS / WCDMA network that interfaces to both the
UE and the core network. The overall radio access network, i.e. collectively all the Radio
Network Subsystem is known as the UTRAN UMTS Radio Access Network.
The radio network subsystem is also known as the UMTS Radio Access Network or
UTRAN.

RNS Comprises two main components:

Radio Network Controller (RNC):

This element of the UTRAN/ radio network subsystem controls the BS that are connected
to it. The RNC undertakes the radio resource management and some of the mobility
management functions, although not all. It is also the point at which the data encryption /
decryption is performed to protect the user data from dropping

Node B: Node B is the term used within UMTS to denote the base station
transceiver (BS). This part of the UTRAN contains the transmitter and receiver to
communicate with the UEs within the cell. It participates with the RNC in the resource
management. Node B is the 3GPP term for base station, and offen the terms are used
interchangeably.
In order to facilitate effective handover between Node Bs under the control of
different RNC's, the RNC not only communicates with the Core Network, but also with
neighbouring RNC's.

3G UMTS Core Network

The 3G UMTS core network architecture is a migration of that used for GSM with
further elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS.
In view of the different ways in which data may be carried, the UMTS core network may
be split into two different areas:
 Circuit switched elements: These elements are primarily based on the GSM
network entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a permanent
channel for the duration of the call.
 Packet switched elements: These network entities are designed to carry packet
data. This enables much higher network usage as the capacity can be shared and
data is carried as packets which are routed according to their destination.

Circuit switched elements

The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the
following network entities:

 Mobile switching centre (MSC): This is essentially the same as that within
GSM, and it manages the circuit switched calls under way.
 Gateway MSC (GMSC): This is effectively the interface to the external networks.
Packet switched elements
The packet switched elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture include
the following network entities:

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): As the name implies, this entity was first
developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried over into the UMTS
network architecture. The SGSN provides a number of functions within the UMTS network
architecture.
 Mobility Management : When a UE attaches to the Packet Switched domain of the
UMTS Core Network, the SGSN generates MM information based on the mobile's
current location.
 Session Management: The SGSN manages the data sessions providing the
required quality of service and also managing what are termed the PDP (Packet
data Protocol) contexts, i.e. the pipes over which the data is sent.
 Interaction with other areas of the network: The SGSN is able to manage its
elements within the network only by communicating with other areas of the network,
e.g. MSC and other circuit switched areas.
 Billing: The SGSN is also responsible billing. It achieves this by monitoring the
flow of user data across the GPRS network. CDRs (Call Detail Records) are
generated by the SGSN before being transferred to the charging entities (Charging
Gateway Function, CGF).

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Like the SGSN, this entity was also first
introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is the
central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handles inter-working
between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet switched networks, and
can be considered as a very sophisticated router. In operation, when the GGSN receives
data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active and then forwards the
data to the SGSN serving the particular UE.

Shared elements : The shared elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture
include the following network entities:
 Home location register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative
information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way,
the UMTS network is able to route calls to the relevant RNC / Node B. When a
user switches on their UE, it registers with the network and from this it is possible
to determine which Node B it communicates with so that incoming calls can be
routed appropriately. Even when the UE is not active (but switched on) it re-
registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position
with their current or last known location on the network.
 Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a
given UE equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each UE equipment has a
number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as
mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network
during registration.
 Authentication centre (AuC) : The AuC is a protected database that contains
the secret key also contained in the user's USIM card.

CDMA 2000
CDMA2000 is a family of 3G mobile technology standards, which use CDMA
channel access, to send voice, data, and signaling data between mobile phones and cell
sites. It is also known as also known as IMT Multi-Carrier (IMT-MC). Cdma2000
specification was developed by the Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2), a
partnership consisting of five telecommunications standards bodies: ARIB (Association of
Radio Industries and Business - Japan) and TTC (Telecommunication Technology
Committee ) in Japan, CWTS in China, TTA (Telecommunications Technology
Association ) in Korea and TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association ) in North
America.
It is a third-generation (3G) wireless technology, based on Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA), that has evolved from cdmaOne (or IS95), a 2G technology.
CDMAOne (IS-95A): - 2G Technology with voice capacity. - It provides data
transmission speeds up to 14.4 Kbps.
CDMAOne (IS- 95B): - 2G Technology with voice capacity that offers bigger data,
transmission speed can offer up to 115 Kbps.

The name cdma2000 actually denotes a family of standards that represent the
successive, evolutionary stages of the underlying technology. These are, in order of
evolution:
CDMA2000 1xRTT or simply CDMA2000 1X (October 2000): - it supports packet
data speeds of up to 307 kbps in a single 1.25 MHz channel.
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO: Release 0, Revision A, Revision B –
 Revision 0 offered data rates up to 2.4 Mbps. This is much faster than the 115
Kbps typically offered by 1xRTT technology.
EV-DO Rev. A offers fast packet establishment on both the forward and reverse
links along with air interface enhancements that reduce latency and improve data rates. In
addition to an increase in the maximum downlink rate from 2.45 Mb/s to 3.1 Mb/s
EV-DO Rev B is the next evolutionary step up from EV-DO Rev A. It is having
Higher rates per carrier (up to 4.9 Mbps on the downlink).

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Revision C or Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB)

Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) is a breakthrough technology which will support the
ITU’s vision for next generation services. It combines the best aspects of CDMA, TDM,
LS-OFDM, OFDM, and OFDMA into a single air interface using advanced and highly
optimized control and signaling mechanisms. It also incorporates advanced antenna
techniques such as MIMO

CDMA2000 1xEVDV
- 3G Technology that integrates voice and data in the same
- It reaches transmission speeds of up to 3.09 Mbps.

In the above nomenclature, EVDO is short for Evolution – Data Optimized and
EVDV, for Evolution – Data and Voice.

Protocol Architecture

Figure. Architecture Diagram CDMA 2000

Physical Channels:
Physical channels are distinguished in two groups: dedicated and common channel.
Dedicated Physical Channel (DPHCH)

1. Forward dedicated Physical Channel (F-DPHCH): There are 4 dedicated

channels.
 Fundamental channel (F-FCH): Provides for transportation of dedicated data.
 Supplemental Channel (F-SCH): Allocated dynamically to supply a required data
rate.
 Dedicated control channel (F-DCCH): Used to transport mobile specific control
information.
 Dedicated auxiliary pilot channel (F-DAPICH): Used with antenna beam forming
and beam-steering to increase coverage or data rate of a desired user. This channel is
optional.

2. Reverse Dedicated Physical Channel (R-DPHCH): There are 3 dedicated channels.

 Fundamental channel (R-FCH): Same function as F-FCH.
 Supplemental Channel (R-SCH): Same function as F-SCH.
 Dedicated control channel (R-DCCH)

Common Physical Channel (CPHCH)

1. Forward Common Physical Channel(F-CPHCH)

Pilot channel (F-PICH): Carries the Pilot symbol and provides capabilities for
channel estimation and coherent detection and soft handoff.
Common Auxiliary Pilot Channel (F-CAPICH): Provides a fine tuning on
coherent detection and hand off.
Sync Channel (F-SYNC): Provides the mobile station with system information and
synchronization.
Common Assignment Channel (F-CACH): Support the reservation access mode
on the R-EACH (Enhanced Access Channel).The message that assigns the R-CCCH is
transmitted on the F-CACH
Paging Channel (F-PCH): It can enable paging functions, also provides a means
for short burst data communications. Each mobile is assigned an 80-ms slot and decodes
periodically to receive page messages. Two channels FBCCH and F-CCCH can
substitute it
Broadcast Control Channel (F-BCCH): Serve to broadcast system-specific and
cell-specific overhead information.
Common Control Channel (F-CCCH): It provides a means for paging functions
and support different data rates for short burst data communications.
Quick Paging Channel (FQPCH): The idea of having F-QPCH is to decrease the
time and mobile station needs to monitor the F-PCH or FCCCH. The period at which the
mobile station must decide F-PCH or FCCCH as short as 1.28 ms.
 Common power control channel (F-CPCCH): Serve two purposes. To allow
power control of the R-RCCH and R-PICH works during the reservation access. To
control the P-; ICH when the mobile station is in the traffic state.
Packet Data Control (F-PDCH): A shared packet data channel that supports high-
speed operation traffic. Access to this channel is handled through MAC layer scheduling.

2. Reverse Common Physical Channel

Access Channel(R-ACH): Used for mobile stations communications messages to
the base station for backward compatibility reasons.
Common Control Channel (RCCCH): To transport control information.
Enhanced Access Channel(R-EACH): An enhanced access product relative to
that of the R-ACH.
Dedicated Control Channel(R-DCCH): Same function as F-DCCH.
Pilot Channel(R-PICH): Provides the signal for coherent detection.
Channel Quality Indicator Channel(R-CQICH): A support channel for adaptive
coding and modulation over the F-PDCH.
Acknowledgement channel(R-ACKCH): Check whether the CRC of the decoded
packed has passed or failed.

CDMA 2000 MAC Sub layer (Layer 2)

In the MAC sub layer, there are four different entities. Radio Link Protocol (RLP),
Signalling Radio Burst Protocol (SRBP), Common Channel Multiplex Sublayer and
Dedicated Channel Multiplex sub layer.
The radio link protocol (RLP) handles user packet data. RLP is performing in the
Dedicated Channel Multiplex Sub-layer.
The Signalling Radio Burst Protocol (SRBP) handles common-channel signalling
using radio burst techniques. The SRBP is performing in the common channel Multiplex
sublayer.
The Common Channel Multiplex Sublayer performs the mapping between the
logical and physical common channels.
Dedicated channel multiplex sub layer performs the mapping between the logical
dedicated channel (i.e, those channels are dedicated to specific users) and the physical
dedicated channels.
The primary function of the MAC sublayer is to multiplex logical channels before
sending and to de-multiplex physical channels into different logical channel after
receiving. The two multiplex sublayers of the MAC as mentioned above handle these two
functions.
The dedicated channels can be used for both signalling and user data; common
channels are only used for signalling. The same arrangement of channels appears in
WCDMA. However, the transport channels used in WCDMA for exchanging information
between physical layer and logical channels reply MAC layer directly as a means to
exchange information between Layer 1 and Layer 2.
Multiplex Sublayer’s Interaction

Multiplex sub layers can interact not only with physical layer (Layer 1) below, but
can interact with four entities above it, RLP and voice service on the dedicated channel
side, LAC (Link Access Protocol), and SRBP on the common channel side.

RLP Layer
RLP controls the process of user packet data that travels on the dedicated user
channels. The RLP layer is a Layer 2 protocol that responds for the delivery and receipt of
user packet data. An important function of Layer 2 entity is to control packet errors
introduced by the physical layer. There are several techniques to control packet data
errors.
1. Positive acknowledgement (ACK): Acknowledgement of receiving successfully
2. Negative acknowledgement (NAK): Acknowledgement of receiving
unsuccessfully
3. Retransmission: Retransmit when neither and acknowledgement nor a NAK is
received.

SRBP (Signalling Radio Burst Protocol) Layer : Functions of SRBP:

A. The SRBP controls the process of signalling messages that travel on the
common signalling channels in the physical layer. There are six forward common
signalling channels: F-SYNCH, F-CPCCH, F-CCCH, F-PCH, F-CACH and FBCCH.
There are reverse common signalling channels: R-ACH, R-EACH and RCCCH.
SRBP is the entity that computes and generates parameters, such as the power level of
each successive access probe, the randomization delay of each access sub-attempt for
the transmission and reception of common signaling messages.
B. The SRBP also assembles SDUs for the physical layer to transmit on the
physical channels and pass received SDUs from the physical layer to the LAC sub-layer.

WCDMA

Wideband Code-Division Multiple-Access (W-CDMA) is one of the main

technologies for the implementation of third-generation (3G) cellular systems. It is base
on radio access technique proposed by ETSI Alpha group and the specifications was
finalized 1999.
WCDMA supports data rates of 2Mbps or higher for short distances and 384 kbps
for long distances. It is also referred to as UTRA-FDD (universal terrestrial radio access
frequency division duplex). WCDMA access is either FDD or TDD. FDD separates
reverse-link AND FORWARD LINK frequencies. These are 1.920-1.980 GHz for uplink
and 2.110-2.170 GHz for downlink and each uses a 5MHz bandwidth. It is wider as
compared to the 1.25 MHz of the IS-95 SYSTEM.

The key features of WCDMA processing units are as follows:

 Asynchronous base stations - Employing the same direct sequencing FDD
made transmission, same channelization codes (OVSF), and same carrier modulation
(QPSK) for both uplink and downlink.
Chipping rate of 3.84 MHz
Multi-rate transmission of signals by spread factor control Use of variable data
rates.

Protocol Architecture

Protocol architecture consist of 3 layer

L1-Physical layer
L2-Datalink layer
L3-Network layer

The physical layer of WCDMA uses DSSS technique. Physical layer supports 2
modes operation TDD & FDD. Physical layer offers different transport channels to MAC.
A transport channel is characterized by how info is transferred over radio interface. MAC
offers different logical channel to RLC sub layer of layer2 (L2). A logical cannel is
characterized by type of information transferred. L2 is split into following sub layer: RLC,
MAC, PDCP, BMC – These are radio interface protocols

Fig. WCDMA Protocol Architecture

Logical Channels

MAC layer provides data transfer services on logical channel. A set of logical
channel type is defined for different kinds of data transfer services offered by MAC. Each
 logical channel type is defined by the type of information that is transferred. Logical
Channels are classified into two groups:
Control channel- These channels are used to transfer control information
Traffic channel-:These channels are used to transfer user information

Table Logical Control Channels

Broadcast Control Channel Downlink channel for broadcasting system control

(BCCH) Information

Downlink channel that transfers paging informationand

is used when:
Paging Control channel  Network does not know the location cell of the mobile
(PCCH) station is in the cell connected state(utilizing sleep mode
procedures)

Bidirectional channel that transfers control information

between network and mobile stations. This channel is
used:
Common control channel  By the mobile stations having no RRC connection in the
(CCCH) network
 By the mobile stations using common transport channels
when accessing a new cell after cellreselection
Point-to-point bidirectional channel that transfers control
information between a mobile station and the network.
Dedicated Control channel
This channel is established through RRC connection set
(DCCH)
up procedure
ODMA Common Control Bidirectional channel for transmitting control
Channel (OCCCH) information between mobile stations
Point-to-point bidirectional channel that transmits
dedicated control information between mobilestations.
ODMA Dedicated Control
This channel is established through RRC connection setup
Channel (ODCCH)
procedure

Table Logical Traffic Channels

Dedicated Traffic Point-to-point channel, dedicated to one mobile station for

Channel(DTCH) the transfer. DTCH can exist both in uplinkand downlink.
ODMA Dedicated Traffic An ODTCH exists in relay link. A point- to-multipoint
Channel (ODTCH) unidirectional channel for transfer of dedicated user
information.

Transport channels
A transport channel is defined by how and with what characteristics data is
 transferred over the air interface. There exist two types of transport channels:

• Dedicated channels
• Common channels

There is one dedicated transport channel that is dedicated channel (DCH). It is a

downlink or uplink transport channel. The DCH is transmitted over the entire cell or over
only a part of the cell using beam-forming antennas.
The common transport channels are mentioned in the table below.

Table Common Transport Channels

Broadcast channel Downlink transport channel that is used to broadcast

(BCH) system and cell-specific information. The BCH is always
transmitted over the entire cell with a low fixed bit rate.

Forward access channel Downlink transport channel. The FACH is transmitted over
(FACH) the entire cell or over only a part of the cell using beam-
forming antennas. The FACH uses slowpower control.
Random Access Channel Uplink transport channel. The RACH is always received
(RACH) from the entire cell. The RACH is characterized by a limited
size data field , a collision risk and by the use of open
loop power control
Common packet channel Uplink transport channel. The CPCH is a contention- based
(CPCH) random access channel used for transmission of bursty
data traffic. CPCH is associated with a dedicated channel
on the downlink, which provides power control for the uplink
CPCH.
Downlink shared channel Downlink transport channel shared by several mobile
(DSCH) stations . The DSCH is associated with a DCH

Paging channel(PCH) Downlink transport channel. The PCH is always transmitted

over the entire cell. The transmission of the PCH is
associated with the transmission of a physical layer signal,
the paging indicator, to support efficient sleep made
procedures.

Physical Channel
The transport channels are mapped on the physical channels. Physical channels
are merged in physical layer which consist of radio frame and time slot. The length of
radio frame is 10ms and one frame consists of 15 time slot. Time slot is unit which
consists of fields consisting of bits. A time slot is a unit which consist of field containing
bits. The number of bits per time slot depends on the physical channel. Normally physical
layer consists of 2 uplink and one downlink channel.
Uplink Physical Channels
There are two uplink dedicated and two common physical channels:
 The uplink dedicated physical data channel (uplink DPDCH) and the uplinkdedicated
physical control channel (uplink DPCCH)
 The physical random access channel (PRACH) and physical common packet
channel (PCPCH)

Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH): It is used to carry dedicated data

generated at L2 and above. There may be zero or several uplink DPDCH.
Dedicated Physical Control Channel DPCCH): The uplink DPCCH is used to carry
control information generated by Layer-1. Control information consists of pilot bits,
transmit power control, feedback information etc.
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH): It is used to carry the RACH. The
random-access transmission is based on a slotted ALOHA approach with fast acquisition
indication.
Physical Common Packet Channel (PCPCH): The PCPCH is used to carry the CPCH
transport channel. The CPCH transmission is based on DSMA-CD approach with fast
acquisition indication.

Downlink Physical Channels

There is one downlink dedicated physical channel, one shared and five common
controlchannels:
 Downlink Dedicated Physical Channel (DPCH)
 Primary downlink Shared Channel (DSCH)
 Primary and secondary common pilot channels (CPICH)
 Primary and secondary common control physical channels (CCPCH)
 Synchronisation Channel (SCH)

Downlink Dedicated Physical Channel (DPCH): On the DPCH, the dedicated transport
channel is transmitted time multiplexed with control information generated at layer 1.
Dedicated Shared Channel (DSCH): It is always associated with a downlink DPCH. It is
shared by users based on code multiplexing.
Common Pilot Channel (CPICH): It is a downlink physical channel which carries a
predefined bit/symbol sequence. There are two types of common pilot channel Primary
and Secondary CPICH
 Primary CPICH: There exist one primary CPICH per cell. It is broadcasted over
the entire cell
 Secondary CPICH: There may be zero, one or more secondary CPICH. They
arebroadcasted over only a part of the cell

Common Control Physical Channel (CCPCH): It is a downlink physical channel used to

carry the BCH. There are two types of common pilot channel Primary and Secondary
CPCCH
 Primary CPCH: It is used to carry the BCH.
  Secondary CPCH: It is used to carry FACH and PCH.

Synchronisation Channel (SCH): This channel is used for searching the cell. The SCH
consists of two sub channels:
 Primary SCH consists of a modulated code of length 256 chips.
 Secondary SCH consists of repeatedly transmitting a length 15 sequence of
modulated codes of length 256 chips.

The LTE Network overview

The 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) developed the LTE standard in
its Release 8 document series. Releases 9, 10 and 11 bring new features and
enhancements, such as: carrier aggregation, enhanced downlink control channel,
advanced MIMO technique and more. Release 12 delivered more enhancements, such
as: FDD/TDD carrier aggregation, massive MIMO and beamforming or enhanced small
cells and heterogeneous networks.
LTE uses either Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) or Time Division Duplex
(TDD). While FDD makes use of separate bands to transmit uplink and downlink data,
TDD uses time slots on the same frequency for both uplink and downlink. FDD and
TDD LTE networks have been deployed on all continents.
LTE’s main advantages come from the following features:
 Increased carrier capacity of subscribers and coverage within a few decibels of
the Shannon limit
 High-speed data rates
 Reliable connectivity
 Cost-effectiveness
LTE’s performance can reach download rates of up to 299.6 Mbit/s and upload
rates of up to 75.4 Mbit/s. It’s RAN latency is lower than 5ms latency for small IP
packets in optimal conditions, and has a 2 up to 4 times improved spectral efficiency
than previous communications technologies.

Frequency bands
Worldwide, LTE networks run on many bands and across a wide range of
frequencies. LTE networks use bandwidths between 1.4 to 20 Mhz.

Modulation schemes

LTE uses the following inner modulation schemes:

 Downlink: QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 256-QAM (Release 12)
 Uplink: QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM (depending on the UE)
A lower QAM is more robust against noise and interference, while a higher QAM offers
a higher data rate.

Coding Schemes : The Channel Coding Processing procedure includes

 1. CRC Addition
2. Code Block segmentation
3. Channel coding: Tail-Biting Convolutional, Convolution Turbo Coding
4. Rate Matching: Sub-block interleaving, Bit collection and Bit selection
5. Code Block Concatenation

LTE Network Architecture

The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main
components:
 The User Equipment (UE).
 The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
 The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
The evolved packet core communicates with packet data networks in the outside world
such as the internet, private corporate networks or the IP multimedia subsystem. The
interfaces between the different parts of the system are denoted Uu, S1 and SGi as
shown below:

The User Equipment (UE)

The internal architecture of the user equipment for LTE is identical to the one used
by UMTS and GSM which is actually a Mobile Equipment (ME). The mobile equipment
comprised of the following important modules:

Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.

Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.

Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM card for LTE
equipments. It runs an application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module
(USIM). A USIM stores user-specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps
information about the user's phone number, home network identity and security keys etc.

The E-UTRAN (The access network)

The architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) has
been illustrated below.
 The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the
evolved packet core and just has one component, the evolved base stations,
called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or
more cells. The base station that is communicating with a mobile is known as its serving
eNB.
LTE Mobile communicates with just one base station and one cell at a time and there are
following two main functions supported by eNB:
 The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the
analogue and digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.
 The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending them
signalling messages such as handover commands.
Each eBN connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface and it can also be
connected to nearby base stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly used for signalling
and packet forwarding during handover.
A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to
provide femtocell coverage within the home. A home eNB belongs to a closed subscriber
group (CSG) and can only be accessed by mobiles with a USIM that also belongs to the
closed subscriber group.

The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network)

The architecture of Evolved Packet Core (EPC) has been illustrated below. There
are few more components which have not been shown in the diagram to keep it simple.
These components are like the Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System (ETWS), the
Equipment Identity Register (EIR) and Policy Control and Charging Rules Function
(PCRF).
Below is a brief description of each of the components shown in the above architecture:
 The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) component has been carried forward from
UMTS and GSM and is a central database that contains information about all the
network operator's subscribers.
 The Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW) communicates with the outside
world ie. packet data networks PDN, using SGi interface. Each packet data network
is identified by an access point name (APN). The PDN gateway has the same role
as the GPRS support node (GGSN) and the serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
with UMTS and GSM.
 The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the base
station and the PDN gateway.
 The Mobility Management Entity (MME) controls the high-level operation of the
mobile by means of signalling messages and Home Subscriber Server (HSS).
 The Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is a component which
is not shown in the above diagram but it is responsible for policy control decision-
making, as well as for controlling the flow-based charging functionalities in the Policy
Control Enforcement Function (PCEF), which resides in the P-GW.
The interface between the serving and PDN gateways is known as S5/S8. This has
two slightly different implementations, namely S5 if the two devices are in the same
network, and S8 if they are in different networks.

LTE Advanced (4G)

In 2008 3GPP held two workshops on IMT Advanced, where the "Requirements for
Further Advancements for E-UTRAN" were gathered. The resulting Technical Report
36.913 was then published in June 2008 and submitted to the ITU-R defining the LTE-
Advanced system as their proposal for IMT-Advanced.
LTE Advanced key features

With work starting on LTE Advanced, a number of key requirements and key
features are coming to light. Although not fixed yet in the specifications, there are many
high level aims for the new LTE Advanced specification. These will need to be verified
and much work remains to be undertaken in the specifications before these are all fixed.
Currently some of the main headline aims for LTE Advanced can be seen below:
 Peak data rates: downlink - 1 Gbps; uplink - 500 Mbps.
 Spectrum efficiency: 3 times greater than LTE.
 Peak spectrum efficiency: downlink - 30 bps/Hz; uplink - 15 bps/Hz.
 Spectrum use: the ability to support scalable bandwidth use and spectrum
aggregation where non-contiguous spectrum needs to be used.
 Latency: from Idle to Connected in less than 50 ms and then shorter than 5 ms one
way for individual packet transmission.
 Cell edge user throughput to be twice that of LTE.
 Average user throughput to be 3 times that of LTE.
 Mobility: Same as that in LTE
 Compatibility: LTE Advanced shall be capable of interworking with LTE and 3GPP
legacy systems.

LTE Advanced technologies

There are a number of key technologies that will enable LTE Advanced to achieve
the high data throughput rates that are required. MIMO and OFDM are two of the base
technologies that will be enablers. Along with these there are a number of other
techniques and technologies that will be employed.

 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex, OFDM

To overcome the effect of multi path fading problem available in UMTS, LTE uses
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for the downlink - that is, from the
base station to the terminal to transmit the data over many narrow band careers of 180
KHz each instead of spreading one signal over the complete 5MHz career bandwidth ie.
OFDM uses a large number of narrow sub-carriers for multi-carrier transmission to carry
data.
Along with it there is OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)
and SC-FDMA (Single Channel Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) will be
used in uplink. However the basis for all of these access schemes is OFDM.

 Multiple Input Multiple Output, MIMO:

One of the other key enablers for LTE Advanced that is common to LTE is MIMO.
MIMO or Multiple Input Multiple Output is an antenna technology in 4G LTE that uses
multiple antenna elements at the transmitter and the receiver to improve signal quality
and bit rates. MIMO employs spatial multiplexing, diversity and beamforming techniques
to improve link quality and data rates. May be used to enable the antenna coverage to be
focused where it is needed. This scheme is also used by many other technologies
including WiMAX and Wi-Fi - 802.11n.

 Carrier Aggregation, CA:

As many operators do not have sufficient contiguous spectrum to provide the required
bandwidths for the very high data rates, a scheme known as carrier aggregation has been
developed. Carrier Aggregation (CA) is a technique used in LTE-Advanced to increase
the peak data rate (i.e., maximum available speed) of a 4G LTE network. By aggregating
multiple channels together a mobile network operator can increase the total available
bandwidth of a single transmission, and thereby increase the bitrate and capacity of the
network.

 Coordinated Multipoint :
One of the key issues with many cellular systems is that of poor performance at the cell
edges. Interference from adjacent cells along with poor signal quality lead to a reduction
in data rates. For LTE-Advanced a scheme known as coordinated multipoint has been
introduced.

 LTE Relaying: LTE relaying is a scheme that enables signals to be forwarded by

remote stations from a main base station to improve coverage.

 Device to Device, D2D: LTE D2D is a facility that has been requested by a
number of users, in particular the emergency services. It enables fast swift access
via direct communication - a facility that is essential for the emergency services
when they may be on the scene of an incident.

LTE Advanced Architecture

 The above figure depicts LTE Advanced (LTE-A) Architecture for E-UTRAN. It
consists of P-GW, S-GW, MME, S1-MME, eNB, HeNB, HeNB-GW and Relay Node etc.
Following are the functions of these architecture entities.

P-GW: It stands for PDN Gateway. It interfaced with S-GW using S5 interface and with
operator's IP services using SGi interface. It has connectivity with PCRP using Gx
interface. It connects UE to packet data networks. P-GW assigns IP address to the UE.
One UE can have connectivity with more than one PGWs in order to have access to
multiple PDNs. It takes care of packet filtering, policy enforcement and charging related
services.

S-GW: It stands for Serving Gateway. It interfaces with MME using S11 interface and with
SGSN using S4 interface. It connects with PDN-GW using S5 interface as mentioned
above. EPC gets terminated at this node/entity. It is connected with E-UTRAN via S1-U
interface. Each UE in LTE-A is associated to unique S-GW which has several functions. It
helps in inter-eNB handover as well as inter-3GPP mobility. It helps in inter-operator
charging. It does packet routing and packet forwarding.

MME: It stands for Mobility Management Entity. It is major control plane element in LTE
advanced architecture. It takes care of authentication, authorization and NAS signaling
related security functions. It takes care of selecting either S-GW or PDN-GW or P-GW.

S1-MME: It provides connectivity between EPC and eNBs.

eNB: It is main building block or system in LTE-A. It provides interface with UEs or LTE-A
phones. It has similar functionality as base station used in GSM or other cellular systems.
Each of the eNBs serve one or several E-UTRAN cells. Interface between two eNBs is
known as X2 interface.

HeNB: It stands for Home eNodeB or Home eNB. It is known as Femtocell. It is used to
improve coverage in the indoor region of office or home premises. It can be interfaced
directly to EPC or via Gateway.

HeNB-GW: It provides connectivity of HeNB with S-GW and MME. It aggregates all the
traffic from number of Home eNBs to core network. It uses S1 interface to connect with
HeNBs.

Relay Node:
o Relay nodes (RNs) extend the coverage area of an eNodeB
– Receive, demodulate and decode the data from a UE
– Apply error correction as needed
– Then transmit a new signal to the base station
o An RN functions as a new base station with smaller cell radius
o RNs can use out-of-band or inband frequencies
LTE Advanced Protocol Stack

The figure depicts LTE Advanced protocol stack. It is divided into two main parts
viz. NAS (Non-Access Stratum) and AS (Access Stratum). Further it is categorized into
control plane and user plane. User plane of eNB consists of PHY, MAC, RLC and PDCP
layers. Control plane of eNB consists of these 4 layers and in addition houses RRC layer
also.
Following are functions of these LTE Advanced protocol stack layers.

• PHY : This layer takes care of frame formation as per TDD or FDD topology and as per
OFDMA structure based on BW/FFT. Moreover it takes care of modulation and coding of
different control and traffic channels. It covers scrambling and codeword to layer mapping
functionalities. It incorporates reference signals (DMRS/ SRS in the uplink while C-RS/
CSI-RS/ UE-RS in the downlink) which are used for channel estimation and channel
equalization.

• MAC-Medium Access Control : It takes care of following functions:

-Multiplexing/demultiplexing of RLC Packet Data Units (PDUs).
-Scheduling information reporting.
-Error correction through Hybrid ARQ (HARQ).
-Local Channel Prioritization.
-Padding.
• RLC-Radio Link Control :

-Error correction through Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ).

-Segmentation according to the size of the transport block and re-segmentation in
case a retransmission is needed.
-Concatenation of SDUs for the same radio bearer.
-Protocol error detection and recovery.
-In-sequence delivery.

• PDCP-Packet Data Convergence Protocol :

-Header compression.
-In-sequence delivery and retransmission of PDCP Session Data Units (SDUs) for
acknowledge mode radio bearers at handover.
-Duplicate detection.
-Ciphering and integrity protection.

• RRC-Radio Resource Control:

-Broadcast system information related to Non-Access Stratum (NAS) and Access

Stratum (AS).
-Establishment, maintenance, and release of RRC connection.
-Security functions including key management.
-Mobility functions.
-QoS management functions.
-UE measurement reporting and control of the reporting.
-NAS direct message transfer between UE and NAS.

• NAS-Non Access Stratum:

-Connection/session management between UE and the core network.

-Authentication.
-Registration.
-Bearer context activation/deactivation.
-Location registration management.

Modulation Schemes
For uplink data signals (PUSCH), the LTE standard uses Single Carrier - Frequency
Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) modulation, which has a lower peak-to-average
power ratio, meaning lower cost amplifiers and less power usage.
In SC-FDMA, the user data is modulated onto a single carrier modulation format
(QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM, or 256QAM--available only when Enable Higher Order
Modulation is selected), and the time domain symbols are transformed to the frequency
domain by an FFT. Then the frequency domain points are mapped onto the subcarriers
assigned to the user in the OFDM symbol. Finally, an IFFT is performed on the entire
OFDM symbol and resulting time data is transmitted.
For symbols that contain demodulation reference signals, PRACH, PUCCH, or SRS,
the uplink transmitter places the modulation symbols directly onto the OFDM subcarriers,
performs the IFFT, and transmits the data in a manner similar to downlink OFDMA.

5th GENERATION MOBILE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

 Mobile data traffic is rising rapidly, mostly due to video streaming.

 With multiple devices, each user has a growing number of connections.
 Internet of Things will require networks that must handle billions more devices.
 Network operators are under pressure to reduce operational expenditure, as users
get used to flat rate tariffs and don't wish to pay more.
 The mobile communication technology can enable new use cases (e.g. for ultra-
low latency or high reliability cases) and new applications for the industry, opening
up new revenue streams also for operators.

So 5G should deliver significantly increased operational performance (e.g. increased

spectral efficiency, higher data rates, low latency), as well as superior user experience
(near to fixed network but offering full mobility and coverage). 5G needs to cater for
massive deployment of Internet of Things, while still offering acceptable levels of energy
consumption, equipment cost and network deployment and operation cost. It needs to
support a wide variety of applications and services.

5G is also advanced in terms of −

 High increased peak bit rate
 Larger data volume per unit area (i.e. high system spectral efficiency)
 High capacity to allow more devices connectivity concurrently and
instantaneously
 Lower battery consumption
 Better connectivity irrespective of the geographic region, in which you are
 Larger number of supporting devices
 Lower cost of infrastructural development
 Higher reliability of the communications

As researchers say, with the wide range of bandwidth radio channels, it is able to support
the speed up to 10 Gbps, the 5G WiFi technology will offer contiguous and consistent
coverage − ―wider area mobility in true sense.‖

There are three frequency bands at the core of 5G networks:

 5G high-band (mmWave) delivers the highest frequencies of 5G. These range from 24
GHz to approximately 100 GHz. Because high frequencies cannot easily move through
 obstacles, high-band 5G is short range by nature. Moreover, mmWave coverage is
limited and requires more cellular infrastructure.
 5G mid-band operates in the 2-6 GHz range and provides a capacity layer for urban
and suburban areas. This frequency band has peak rates in the hundreds of Mbps.
 5G low-band operates below 2 GHz and provides a broad coverage. This band uses
spectrum that is available and in use today for 4G LTE, essentially providing an LTE
5g architecture for 5G devices that are ready now. Performance of low-band 5G is
therefore similar to 4G LTE, and supports use for 5G devices on the market today.

In addition to spectrum availability and application requirements for distance vs.

bandwidth considerations, operators must consider the power requirements of 5G, as the
typical 5G base station design demands over twice the amount of power of a 4G base
station.

5G – Core Network Architecture

In recent meetings, 3GPP comes to an interim agreement for non-roaming 5G

reference network architecture. The agreed reference network architecture is shown in
figure as per 3GPP TR 23.799

Network nodes and their functions:

User Equipment (UE) : Like 5G smartphones or 5G cellular devices connect over the 5G
New Radio Access Network to the 5G core and further to Data Networks (DN), like the
Internet.
Next Gen Node Base station (gNB) : Like Base station in GSM

Core Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF) – responsible for following
– Termination of RAN Control Plane interface (NG2)
– Termination of NAS (NG1), NAS ciphering and integrity protection
– Access Authentication
– Access Authorization
– Security Anchor Function (SEA): It interacts with the UDM and the UE, receives
the intermediate key that was established as a result of the UE authentication
process; in case of USIM based authentication, the AMF retrieves the security
material from the UDM
– Security Context Management (SCM): it receives a key from the SEA that it uses
to derive access-network specific keys

User plane Function (UPF) – functions are

– QoS handling for User plane
– Packet routing & forwarding
– Packet inspection and Policy rule enforcement
– Traffic accounting and reporting

Session Management Control Function (SMF) – supports following:

– UE IP address allocation & management (including optional Authorization)
– Selection and control of User Plane function
– Termination of interfaces towards Policy control and Charging functions
– Termination of Session Management parts of NAS messages
– Downlink Data Notification
– Initiator of Access Node specific Session Management information, sent via AMF
over NG2 to Access Node
– Roaming functionality

Data Network (DN): Operator services, Internet access or other services

Authentication Server Function (AUSF) – Performs authentication processes with the

UE

Unified Data Management (UDM) – Supports:

– Authentication Credential Repository and Processing Function (ARPF); this
function stores the long-term security credentials used in authentication for AKA
– Storing of Subscription information

Policy Control Function (PCF) – Provides:

– Support of unified policy framework to govern network behaviour
– Policy rules to control plane function(s) that enforce them
Application Function (AF) – Requests dynamic policies and/or charging control

Network Interface Naming

Similar to other legacy network, 5G Technical requirements also given the names
to interfaces, these names are listed below:
 NG1: Reference point between the UE and the Access and Mobility Management
function
 NG2: Reference point between the gNB and the Access and Mobility Management
function
 NG3: Reference point between the gNB and the User plane function (UPF)
 NG4: Reference point between the Session Management function (SMF) and the
User plane function (UPF)
 NG5: Reference point between the Policy Function (PCF) and an Application
Function (AF)
 NG6: Reference point between the User Plane function (UPF) and a Data Network
(DN)
 NG7: Reference point between the Session Management function (SMF) and the
Policy Control function (PCF)
 NG8: Reference point between Unified Data Management and AMF
 NG9: Reference point between two Core User plane functions (UPFs)
 NG10: Reference point between UDM and SMF
 NG11: Reference point between Access and Mobility Management function (AMF)
and Session Management function (SMF)
 NG12: Reference point between Access and Mobility Management function (AMF)
and Authentication Server function (AUSF)
 NG13: Reference point between UDM and Authentication Server function (AUSF)
 NG14: Reference point between 2 Access and Mobility Management function (AMF)
 NG15: Reference point between the PCF and the AMF in case of non-roaming
scenario, V-PCF and AMF in case of roaming scenario

Applications of 5G
Some of the significant applications are −
 It will make unified global standard for all.
 Network availability will be everywhere and will facilitate people to use their
computer and such kind of mobile devices anywhere anytime.
 Because of the IPv6 technology, visiting care of mobile IP address will be
assigned as per the connected network and geographical position.
 Its application will make world real Wi Fi zone.
 Its cognitive radio technology will facilitate different version of radio technologies
to share the same spectrum efficiently.
 Its application will facilitate people to avail radio signal at higher altitude as well.
Advantages

There are several advantages of 5G technology, some of the advantages have been
shown in the above Ericsson image, and many others are described below −
 High resolution and bi-directional large bandwidth shaping.
 Technology to gather all networks on one platform.
 More effective and efficient.
 Technology to facilitate subscriber supervision tools for the quick action.
 Most likely, will provide a huge broadcasting data (in Gigabit), which will support
more than 60,000 connections.
 Easily manageable with the previous generations.
 Technological sound to support heterogeneous services (including private
network).
 Possible to provide uniform, uninterrupted, and consistent connectivity across
the world.

Disadvantages of 5G Technology

Though, 5G technology is researched and conceptualized to solve all radio signal

problems and hardship of mobile world, but because of some security reason and lack of
technological advancement in most of the geographic regions, it has following
shortcomings −
 Technology is still under process and research on its viability is going on.
 The speed, this technology is claiming seems difficult to achieve (in future, it
might be) because of the incompetent technological support in most parts of
the world.
 Many of the old devices would not be competent to 5G, hence, all of them
need to be replaced with new one — expensive deal.
 Developing infrastructure needs high cost.
 Security and privacy issue yet to be solved.