Laboratory 2

Signal Correlation and Detection II

2.1 Introduction
In Lab 1, we designed an energy-based signal/no-signal detector for determining when a desired signal is present. This
type of detector has a wide variety of applications, from speech analysis to communication, but it has two weaknesses.
First, an energy-based detector is very susceptible to noise, especially when the signal’s energy is small compared to
the energy of the noise. Second, such a detector cannot distinguish between different types of signals that are mixed
together.
In this laboratory, we will examine an alternative detection method that addresses these concerns. It uses a com-
putation called correlation to detect the presence of a signal with a known form. In general, correlation measures the
similarity between two signals. Using correlation for detection has significant applications. For instance, it allows
several signals to be sent over a single communications channel simultaneously. It also allows the use of radar and
sonar in noisy environments. Later in this course, we will see that correlation forms the basis for one of the most
important tools in signals and systems engineering, the spectrum.

2.1.1 “The Questions”

• How can we transmit and receive bits from several different users on the same communication channel?

• How can we develop a radar detection scheme that is robust to noise, and how do we characterize its perfor-
mance?

2.2 Background
2.2.1 Correlation
Suppose that we have two discrete-time signals, x[n] and y[n]. We compute the correlation1 between these two signals,
C(x, y), using the formula
Xn2
C(x, y) = x[n]y[n] (2.1)
n=n1
1 We will occasionally refer to this operation as “in-place” correlation to distinguish it from “running” correlation. Sometimes this is also called
an “inner product” or “dot product.”

The University of Michigan, All rights reserved 37

Laboratory 2. Signal Correlation and Detection II

Positively Correlated Uncorrelated Negatively Correlated

4 4 4
2 2 2

x[n]
0 0 0
−2 −2 −2
−4 −4 −4
0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
4 4 4
2 2 2
y[n]

0 0 0
−2 −2 −2
−4 −4 −4
0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
10 4 10
2
x[n]*y[n]

0 0 0
−2
−10 −4 −10
0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
C(x,y) = 38 C(x,y) = 0 C(x,y) = −38

Figure 2.1: Examples of positively correlated, uncorrelated, and anticorrelated signals.

where n1 and n2 define the interval over which we are calculating the correlation. In words, we compute a correlation
by multiplying two signals together and then summing the product. The result is a single number that indicates the
similarity between the signals x[n] and y[n].
What values can C(x, y) take on, and what does this tell us about the signals x[n] and y[n]? Let us consider the
examples in Figure 2.1. For the signals shown in the first column, C(x, y) > 0, in which case, the signals are said to
be positively correlated. Basically, this means that the signals are more similar than they are dissimilar. In the second
column, we can see an example where C(x, y) is zero. In this case, the two signals are uncorrelated. One might
say that uncorrelated signals are “equally” similar and dissimilar. Notice, for instance, that the signal x[n] × y[n] is
positive as often as it is negative. Knowledge of the value of signal x[n] at time n indicates little about the value of
y[n] at time n. Finally, in the third column we see an example where C(x, y) < 0, which means that x[n] and y[n] are
negatively correlated. This means the signals are mostly dissimilar.
Note that the positively correlated signals given in Figure 2.1 are actually identical. This is a special case; from
equation (2.1), we can see that in this case the correlation is simply the energy of x[n], i.e.

C(x, x) = E(x) . (2.2)

Sometimes, it is more useful to work with normalized correlation, as defined by

n2
X
C(x, y) 1
CN (x, y) = p =p x[n]y[n]. (2.3)
E(x)E(y) E(x)E(y) n=n1

Normalized correlation is somewhat easier to interpret. The well known Cauchy-Schwartz inequality shows that the
normalized correlation varies between -1 and +1. That is, for any two signals

−1 ≤ CN (x, y) ≤ 1. (2.4)

Thus, signals that are as positively correlated as possible have normalized correlation 1 and signals that are as nega-
tively correlated as possible have normalized correlation -1. Moreover, it is known that two signals have normalized

38 The University of Michigan, All rights reserved

 2.2.2 Running correlation

correlation equal to 1 when and only when one of the signals is simply the other multiplied by a positive number. In
this case, the signals are said to be perfectly correlated. Similarly, two signals have normalized correlation equal to
-1 when and only when one is simply the other multiplied by a negative number, in which case they are said to be
perfectly anticorrelated.

2.2.2 Running correlation

In many situations, it is quite useful to correlate a signal y[n] with a sequence of delayed versions of another signal
x[n]. That is, we wish to correlate y[n] with x[n], with x[n − 1], with x[n − 2], etc. In such cases, we perform running
correlation of y[n] with x[n], which produces the correlation signal

r[k] = C(x[n − k], y[n]) , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . (2.5)

X
= x[n − k]y[n] , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . (2.6)
n

Note that since n was used as the time variable for x and y, we have introduced a new time variable, k, for r.
Suppose, for example, that we want to know the distance to a certain object, like an airplane. We transmit a radar
pulse, x[n], and receive a signal, y[n], that contains the reflection of our pulse off of the object. For simplicity, let’s
assume that we know y[n] is simply a delayed version of x[n], that is2 ,

y[n] = x[n − n0 ], (2.7)

However, we do not know the delay factor, n0 . Since n0 is proportional to the distance to our object, this is the quantity
that we wish to estimate. We can use correlation to help us determine this delay, but we need to use running correlation
rather than simply in-place correlation.
Suppose that we first guess that n0 is equal to zero. We correlate y[n] with x[n] and record the resulting correlation
value as one sample of a new signal, r[0]. Then, we guess that n0 is equal to one, shift x[n] over by one sample,
and correlate y[n] with x[n − 1]. We record this correlation value as r[1]. We can continue this shift-and-correlate
procedure, building up the new signal r[k] according to the formula
∞
X
r[k] = C(x[n − k], y[n]) = x[n − k]y[n]. (2.8)
n=−∞

Once we find a value of r[k] that equals E(x), we have found the value of n0 . This procedure of building up the signal
r[k] is known as running correlation or sliding correlation. We will refer to the resulting signal (r[k] above) as the
correlation signal.
As an example, Figure 2.2 shows a radar pulse, a received signal containing two delayed versions of the radar
pulse (one without noise and one with noise), and the running correlation produced by correlating the pulse with the
received signal.
Let us note a couple important features of the correlation signal. First, the limits of summation in equation (2.8)
are infinite. Usually, though, the support of x[n] and y[n] will be finite, so we do not actually need to perform an
infinite summation. Instead, the duration of the correlation signal will be equal to the sum of the durations of x[n]
and y[n] minus one3 . There will also be transient effects (or edge effects) at the beginning and end of the correlation
signal. These transient effects result from cases where x[n − k] only partially overlaps y[n]. Finally, notice that the
value of the correlation signal at time k = 0 is just the in-place correlation C(x[n], y[n]).
2 Recall that a signal x[n − n0 ] is equal to the signal x[n] shifted n0 samples to the right.
3 Suppose that support interval of x[n] is nx1 ≤ n ≤ nx2 , while the support interval of y[n] is ny1 ≤ n ≤ ny2 . For this general case, we can
see that the first nonzero sample of r[k] will occur at k = ny1 − nx2 . Similarly, the last nonzero sample will fall at k = ny2 − nx1 . Thus, the
duration of r[k] is (ny2 − ny1 ) + (nx2 − nx1 ) + 1 = (ny2 − ny1 + 1) + (nx2 − nx1 + 1) − 1 = duration(x) + duration(y) − 1.

The University of Michigan, All rights reserved 39

Laboratory 2. Signal Correlation and Detection II

1
A
0.5

0
−40 −20 0 20 40 60 80 100

1
B
0.5
0
−0.5

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1

0.5 C

0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

Figure 2.2: (A) A radar pulse. (B) A received sequence from the radar system, containing two pulses and noise. (C)
The running correlation produced by correlating the radar pulse with the received signal.

2.2.3 Using correlation for signal detection

Whenever we wish to use correlation for signal detection, we use a two-part system. The first part of the system
performs the correlation and produces the correlation value or correlation signal, depending upon whether we are
doing in-place or running correlation. The second part of the system examines the correlation or correlation signal and
makes a decision or sequence of decisions. See the block diagram given in Figure 2.3.

Correlation
Signal
Input Correlation Decision Decision
Signal Calculator Maker

Figure 2.3: A generalized block diagram for a correlation-based detection system.

In the radar example used to motivate running correlation in Section 2.2.2, we simply checked to see if the corre-
lation signal at a given point equals the energy of the transmitted signal. While this will work for the idealized system
presented, real systems are usually much less ideal. We may have multiple reflections, distorted reflections, reductions
in reflection amplitude, and various kinds of environmental noise. In order to address such problems in a wide variety
of systems, we commonly use a simple threshold comparison as our decision maker. For instance, if we compute a
running correlation signal r[n], we might choose a constant c called a threshold and make a decision for each sample
based on the following formula:
1
r ? c (2.9)
0

That is, when the correlation value r is greater than the threshold, c, we decide 1, or “signal present.” If the value
is less than the threshold, we decide 0, or “signal absent.” In our radar example, for instance, we might select the
threshold to be c = E(x)/2.

40 The University of Michigan, All rights reserved

 2.2.4 Using correlation for detection of signals transmitted simultaneously with other signals

1
0
−1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
0
−1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1
0
−1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Figure 2.4: Example code signals for simultaneous communications

2.2.4 Using correlation for detection of signals transmitted simultaneously with other sig-
nals
Suppose that we wish to design a multi-user wireless communication system that permits several users to simultane-
ously transmit a sequence of message bits. That is, each user will transmit a signal across a common communication
channel (for example, a wire or a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum) that conveys his/her message bits,
and despite the fact that these signals are received on top of one another, it should be possible to decode the message
bits produced by any one of the users. The users of this system are completely uncoordinated; so no user has any
idea who else might be using the system at any given time. How can we design a system so that each user can use
the system without experiencing interference from the other users? This is the problem faced by the designers of cell
phones and cordless phones, for example.
It turns out that we can use a correlation-based detector to address this problem. To begin, suppose that each user
is trying to send a one bit message to a friend, and suppose each user has a distinct code signal, like those shown in
Figure 2.4. Each code signal is made up of some number of binary chips, which are regions of constant signal value;
the signals shown here each consist of ten chips.4 To send a “one” message bit, the user transmits his or her code
signal. To send a “zero” message bit, the user instead transmits a negated version of his or her code signal (which is is
perfectly anticorrelated with the code signal).
Now, to send a sequence of message bits, the user concatenates these positive and negative versions of the code
signal into a sequence of code signals, which is called the transmitted signal and which is input to the communication
channel. Other users transmit their own message bits in the same fashion, except that, of course, they use different
code signals. For example, Figure 2.5 shows a transmitted signal conveying eight message bits using the top code
signal from Figure 2.4. It also shows this signal with the transmitted signals from three other users added to it. Notice
that the signal in the upper panel is obscured in the lower panel.
When someone, say the user’s friend, receives the signal from the communication channel5 and wishes to decode
the user’s message bits, the friend correlates the received signal with the user’s code signal. Specifically, in-place
correlation of the received signal with the code signal produces a value with which a decision about the first message
bit can be decided. Then in-place correlation of the received signal with a delayed version of the code signal produces
a value from which the second message bit can be decided, and so on. Since each of these correlation values would
equal plus or minus the energy of the code signal if there were no other signals or noise present, it is natural to have
4 Though the code signals clearly have a binary nature, we use the term “chip” to distinguish binary segments of the code signal from binary

message elements, which we call “bits”.

5 For simplicity, we assume the communication channel does not attenuate or otherwise distort the transmitted signal.

The University of Michigan, All rights reserved 41

Laboratory 2. Signal Correlation and Detection II

2
A
0

−2
100 200 300 400 500 600
5
B
0

−5
100 200 300 400 500 600

Figure 2.5: (A) Example of a transmitted signal. (B) The sum of the transmitted signals from four users.

the decision maker decide that a message bit is “one” if the correlation value is positive and “zero” if the correlation
value is negative. That is, a threshold of zero is chosen.
A communication system of this form is said to be a code-division, multiple-access (CDMA) system or a direct-
sequence, spread-spectrum (DSSS) system. They are used, for example, in 900 Mhz cordless telephones. Such
systems work best when the code signals are as different as possible, i.e. when the normalized correlation between the
code signals of distinct users are as near to zero as possible, which is what system designers typically attempt to do.
Consider the examples in Figure 2.4. The first two code signals are completely uncorrelated, as are the second two.
The first and third signals are slightly anticorrelated. The normalized correlation between these signals is only -0.2,
which is small enough that these two code signals will not interfere much with one another.
Above, we’ve indicated that our detection system uses in-place correlation. This means that this system is syn-
chronous; that is, the receiver knows when bits are sent. However, we can actually save ourselves some work by
using running correlation, and then sampling the resulting correlation signal at the appropriate times. This is how
we will implement this communication system in the laboratory assignment. Using the running correlation algorithm
presented in this lab, the “appropriate times” occur in the correlation signal at the end of each code signal. That is, if
our code signals are N samples long, we want to pick off the (k × N )th sample out of the running correlator to decide
the k th message bit.
The threshold used to decode bits in this detection system, which we have chosen to be zero, is actually a design
parameter of the system. If it should happen, for instance, that the system’s noise is biased in a way that we tend to get
slightly positive correlations when no signal is sent, then we would be able to improve performance of the system by
using a positive threshold, rather than a threshold of zero. Alternatively, we might want to decide that no bit has been
sent if the magnitude of the correlation is below some threshold. In this case, we actually have two thresholds. One
separates “no signal” from a binary “one;” the other separates “no signal” from a binary “zero.”

2.2.5 Noise, detector errors, and setting the threshold

Detectors, such as the radar and DSSS detectors we have discussed, must typically operate in the presence of noise.
Here, we begin by discussing the radar example of Section 2.2.2, and conclude with a brief discussion of the DSSS
detector.
When the radar pulse is x[n], the typical received radar signal has the form

y[n] = x[n − n0 ] + w[n] (2.10)

where x[n−n0 ] is the reflected radar pulse and w[n] is noise, i.e. an unpredictable, usually wildly fluctuating signal that

42 The University of Michigan, All rights reserved

 2.2.5 Noise, detector errors, and setting the threshold

normally is little correlated with x[n] or any delayed version of x[n]. To estimate n0 , we perform running correlation
of y[n] with x[n], and the resulting correlation signal is

∞
X
r[k] = x[n − k]y[n]
n=−∞
X∞
= x[n − k](x[n − n0 ] + w[n])
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= x[n − k]x[n − n0 ] + x[n − k]w[n]
n=−∞ n=−∞
= r0 [k] + rw [k] , (2.11)

where r0 [k] is the running correlation of x[n − n0 ] with x[n]. Note that r0 [k] is what r[k] would be if there were no
noise, as given in equation (2.8). rw [k] is the running correlation of the noise w[n] with x[n], which is added to r0 [k].
This shows that the effect of noise is to add rw [k] to r0 [k]. Though in a well designed system rw [k] is usually close to
zero, it will occasionally be large enough to influence the decision made by the decision maker.
In Section 2.2.3, we argued that a threshold-based decision maker was useful for such systems. Then, for example,
when r[k] > c, the decision is that a radar pulse is present at time k, whereas when r[k] < c, the decision is that
no radar pulse is present at time k. Since in the absence of noise r[k] = E(x) when there is a radar pulse at time k,
and since r[k] = 0 when there is no pulse at time k, it is natural, as mentioned in Section 2.2.3 to choose threshold
c = E(x)/2.
Though it makes good sense to use a threshold detector, such a detector will nevertheless occasionally make an
error, i.e. the wrong decision. Indeed, there are two types of errors that a detector can make. First, it could detect a
reflection of the transmitted signal where no actual reflection exists. This is called a false alarm. It occurs at time k
when r0 [k] = 0 and rw [k] > c, i.e. when the part of the correlation due to noise is larger than the threshold. The other
type of error occurs when the detector fails to detect an actual reflection because the noise causes the correlation to drop
below the threshold even though a signal is present. This type of error is called a miss. It occurs when r0 [k] = E(x)
and r[k] = E(x) + rw [k] < c, which in turn happens when rw [k] < c − E(x). In summary, a false alarm occurs when
there is no radar pulse present, yet the noise causes rw [k] > c, and a miss occurs when there is a radar pulse present,
yet the noise causes rw [k] < c − E(x).
Depending on the detection system being developed, these two types of error could be equally undesirable or one
could be more undesirable than another. For instance, in a defensive radar system, false alarms are probably preferable
to misses, since the former are decidedly less dangerous. We can trade off the likelihood of these two types of error
by adjusting the threshold. Raising the threshold decreases the likelihood of a false alarm, while lowering it decreases
the likelihood of a miss.
It is often useful to know the frequency of each type of error. There is a simple way to empirically estimate these
frequencies. First, we perform an experiment where we do not send any radar pulses, but simply record the received
signal y[n], which contains just environmental noise w[k]. We then compute its running correlation r[k] with the radar
pulse x[n], which is just rw [k]. We count the number of times that rw [k] exceeds the threshold c and divide by the
total number of samples. This gives us an estimate the false alarm rate, which is the frequency with which the detector
will decide a radar pulse is present when actually there is none. We can also use this technique to estimate the miss
rate. When a radar pulse is present, an error occurs when rw [k] < c − E(x). Thus, we can estimate the miss rate by
counting the number of times the already computed correlation signal rw [k] is less than c − E(x), and dividing by the
total number of samples.
The signal value distribution is also useful here. If we plot the histogram of values in rw [k], we can use this plot
to determine the error rate estimates. The estimate of false alarm rate is the area of the histogram above values that

The University of Michigan, All rights reserved 43

Laboratory 2. Signal Correlation and Detection II

exceeds c, divided by the total area of the histogram6. Similarly, the estimate of the miss rate is the area of the hisogram
above values that are less than c − E(x)
Assuming that the distribution of rw [k] is symmetric about 0, we can minimize the total error rate (which is simply
the sum of the false alarm and miss rates) by setting a threshold that yields the same number of false alarms as misses.
Since the distribution of rw [k] is assumed to be symmetric, we get an equal number of false alarms and misses when
c = E(x)/2, which is the threshold value suggested earlier.
Next, it is important to note how the error rates depend on the energy of the radar pulse. Consider first the
false alarm rate, which corresponds to the frequency with which the noise induced correlation signal rw [k] exceeds
c = E(x)/2. Suppose for example that the radar pulse is amplified by a factor of two. Then its energy increases by a
factor of four, andR consequently, the threshold c increases by a factor of four. On the other hand, one can see from the
formula rw [k] = y[n]x[n − k] dx that the noise term rw [k] will be doubled. Since the threshold is quadrupled but the
noise term is only doubled, the frequency with which the noise term exceeds the threshold will be greatly decreased,
i.e. the false alarm rate is greatly decreased. A similar argument shows that the miss rate is also greatly decreased.
Thus, we see that what matters is the energy of the radar pulse, in relation to the strength of the noise. If the energy
of the signal increases, but the typical values of the noise w[n] remain about the same, the system will make fewer
errors. By making the energy sufficiently large, we can make the error rate as small as we like. In the lab assignments
to follow, we will observe situations where the noise w[n] is so strong that it completely obscures the radar pulse
x[n − n0 ], yet the radar pulse is long enough that it has enough energy that a correlation detector will make few errors.
Finally, we comment on the effects of noise on the DSSS detector. In this case, instead of deciding whether a
pulse is present or not, the detector decides whether a positive or negative code signal is present. As with the radar
example, this must ordinarily be accomplished in the presence of noise. However, in this case there are two kinds of
noise: environmental noise, similar to that which affects radar, and multiple user noise, which is due to other users
transmitting their own code signals. In the absence of any noise, the in-place correlation r(x, y) computed by the
detector will be +E(x) when the message bit is “one” and −E(x) when the message bit is “zero” , where x[n] is the
user’s code signal. For this reason, using a decision threshold c = 0 is natural. When the message bit is zero, an error
occurs when r(x, y) > 0, which happens when the correlation term rw due to noise exceeds E(x). Similarly, when the
message bit is one, an error occurs when r(x, y) < 0, which happens when rw < −E(x). As with the radar example,
errors occur less frequently when the signal energy becomes larger. This will be evident in the lab assignment, when
code signals of different lengths, and hence different energies, are used.

2.2.6 An algorithm for running correlation

Here, we provide an algorithm for running correlation. One of its primary benefits is that it is easy to understand.
In this algorithm, we imagine the filter as a box into which we drop one new sample of the “incoming” signal and a
corresponding new sample of the correlation signal comes out. This allows the algorithm to be used in real-time: as
samples of our signal arrive (from a radar detector, for instance), we can process the resulting signal with almost no
delay.
In this algorithm we refer to the signal we are looking for (i.e., the transmitted radar signal) as x[n], following
(2.8). The algorithm goes like this:

1. Initialize an input buffer, which is simply an array with length equal to the duration of x[n], to all zeros.

2. For each sample that comes in:

(a) Update the buffer by doing the following:

i. Discard the sample at the beginning of the buffer.
ii. Shift the rest of the samples one place towards the beginning of the buffer.
6 That is, we sum the values in this region of the histogram and divide by the sum of all values in the histogram

44 The University of Michigan, All rights reserved

 2.3 Some M ATLAB commands for this lab

iii. Insert the incoming sample at the end of the buffer.

(b) Initialize a running sum variable to zero.
(c) For each position, n, in the buffer:
i. Multiply the nth position in the input buffer by the nth sample of x[n].
ii. Add the resulting product to the running sum.
(d) Output the running sum as the next sample of the correlation signal.
In the laboratory assignment, you will be asked to complete an implementation of this algorithm. Note that
significant portions of this algorithm can be implemented very simply in M ATLAB. For instance, all of (a) can be
accomplished using a single line of code. Similarly, parts (b) through (d) can all be accomplished in a single line using
one of M ATLAB’s built-in functions and its vector arithmetic capabilities.

2.3 Some M ATLAB commands for this lab

• Calculating in-place correlation: If you have two signals, x and y, that you wish to correlate, simply use the
command

>> c_xy = sum(x.*y);

Note that x and y must be the same size; otherwise M ATLAB will return an error.
• The subplot command: To put several plots on the same figure in M ATLAB, we use the subplot command.
subplot creates a rectangular array of axes in a figure. Figure 2.6 has an example figure with such an array.
Each time you call subplot, you activate one of the axes. subplot takes three input parameters. The first
and second indicate the number of axes per row and the number of axes per column, respectively. The third
parameter indicates which of the axes to activate by counting along the rows7 . Thus the command:

>> subplot(2,3,5)

activates the plot with the circle in Figure 2.6.

• The axis command: The command axis([x_min, x_max, y_min, y_max]) allows us to set the
axis display range for a particular plot. If you wish to change the display range of the currently active plot (or
subplot) so that the x-axis ranges from 5 and 10 and the y-axis ranges from -100 to 100, simply execute the
command

>> axis([ 5, 10, -100, 100]);

Other useful forms of the axis command include axis tight, which fits the axis range closely around the
data in a plot, and axis equal, which assures that the x- and y-axes have the same scale.
• Buffer operations in M ATLAB: It is often useful to use M ATLAB’s vectors as buffers, with which we can shift
values in the buffer towards the beginning or end of the buffer by one position. Such an operation has two parts.
First, we discard the number at the beginning or end of the buffer. If our buffer is a vector b, we can do this
using either b = b(2:end) or b = b(1:end-1). Then, we append a new number to the opposite end of
the buffer using a standard array concatenation operation. Note that we can easily combine these two steps into
a single command. For instance, if b is a row vector and we wish to shift towards the end of the buffer, we use
the command
7 Note in particular that this is the opposite of M ATLAB’s usual convention!

The University of Michigan, All rights reserved 45

Laboratory 2. Signal Correlation and Detection II

1 1 1

0 0 0

−1 −1 −1
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
1 1 1

0 0 0.5

−1 −1 0
0 100 200 −1 0 1 50 100 150 200

Figure 2.6: Example of a M ATLAB figure with subplots.

>> b = [ new_sample, b(1:end-1) ];

• Counting elements that meet some condition: Occasionally we may want to determine how many elements in
a vector meet some condition. This is simple in M ATLAB because of how the conditional operators are handled.
Recall that for a vector, v, (v == 3) will return a vector with the same size as v, the elements of which are
either 1 or 0 depending upon the truth of the conditional statement. Thus, to count the number of elements in v
that equal 3, we can simply use the command

>> count = sum(v == 3);

2.4 Demonstrations in the Lab Section

• Detector error types

• Why use correlation? Or, when energy detectors break down.

• “In-place” correlation as a similarity measure

• Running correlation

• Multi-user communication

2.5 Laboratory Assignment

In this lab assignment, all signals are discrete-time and their support is assumed to be of the form {1, 2, . . . , N }.

1. (Computing and interpreting in-place correlations) Download the file code_signal.m and use it to create the
following signals:

>> code1 = code_signal(75,10);

>> code2 = code_signal(50,10);
>> code3 = code_signal(204,10);

46 The University of Michigan, All rights reserved

 2.5 Laboratory Assignment

(a) (Plotting code signals) Use subplot and stairs to plot the three code signals on three separate axes
in the same figure. After plotting each signal, make sure that the signal is visible by calling axis([1,
100, -1.5, 1.5]).
• [4] Include your figure, with axis labels on each subplot, a figure number and caption, and the gener-
ating code in your report.
(b) (Calculate statistics) For each of the three signals generated above, calculate:
• [3] Their mean values.
• [3] Their energies.
(c) (Calculate correlations) Calculate the “in-place” correlation and normalized correlation for the following
pairs of signals.
• [2] code1 and code2
• [2] code1 and code3
• [2] code2 and code3
(d) (Classify correlations) For each of the signal pairs given in problem 1c:
• [3] Identify each pair as positively correlated, uncorrelated, or negatively correlated.

2. (Implementing and interpreting running correlation) Download the file run_corr.m, which is a “skeleton”
file for an implementation of the “real-time” running correlation algorithm described in Section 2.2.2. It accepts
two input signals, performs running correlation on them, and produces the correlation signal with a length equal
to the sum of the lengths of the input signals minus one.

(a) (Write the code) Complete the function, following the algorithm given in Section 2.2.2. You can use the
completed demo version of the function, run_corr_demo.dll to check your function’s output8 .
• [10] Include your code in the M ATLAB appendix of your report.
(b) (Compute running correlations) Use run_corr.m to compute the running correlation between the fol-
lowing pairs of signals, and plot the resulting correlation signals on the same figure using subplot.
• [2] code1 and code2.
• [2] code3 and itself.
(c) (Interpret a running correlation) When performing running correlation with a signal and itself, the resulting
correlation signal has some special properties. Look at the correlation signal that you computed between
code3 and itself.
• [1] Is the correlation signal symmetric? (It can be shown that it should be.)
• [2] What is the maximum value of the correlation signal? How does the maximum value relate relate
to the energy of code3?

3. (Using correlation to decode DSSS signals transmitted simultaneously with other signals.) Download the file
lab2_data.mat and load it into your workspace. The file contains the variable which represents a received
signal that is the sum of several message carrying signals, one from each of four users. The message carrying
signal from each user conveys a sequence of bits using the direct-sequence spread-spectrum technique, described
in Section 2.2.4, in which each bit is conveyed by sending a code signal or its negative. Each user has a different
code signal. One of the code signals is the ten chip signal corresponding to the integer 170, while another is the
six chip signal corresponding to the integer 25. The other two code signals are unknown to us. In this problem,
we will try to extract the bit sequences conveyed by the known code signals from dsss. Start by generating the
following code signals:
8 If you cannot get your function working properly, you may use run corr [Link] to complete the rest of the assignment.

The University of Michigan, All rights reserved 47

Laboratory 2. Signal Correlation and Detection II

>> cs1 = code_signal(170,10);

>> cs2 = code_signal(25,6);

(a) (Plot the signals) First, let’s look at the signals we’re given.
• [3] Use subplot and stairs to plot dsss, cs1, and cs2 on three separate axes of the same
figure.
(b) (Decoding the bits of the user with the longer code signal) Start by using run_corr to correlate the
received signal dsss with the longer code signal cs1. Call the resulting signal cor1. Now, to decode
the sequence of message bits from this user, we need to extract the appropriate samples from cor1. That
is, we need to extract just those samples of the running correlation that correspond to the appropriate
in-place correlations. We can do this in M ATLAB using the following command:
>> sub_cor1 = cor1(length(cs1):length(cs1):length(cor1));
Each sample of sub_cor1 is used to make the decision about one of the user’s bits. When it is greater
than zero, i.e. the correlation of the received signal with the code signal is positive, the decoder decides
the bit is 1. When it is less than zero, the decoder decides the user’s bit is 0.
• [3] On two subplots of the same figure, use plot to plot cor1, and stem to plot sub_cor1.
• [4] Decode the sequence of bits. (You can do this visually or with M ATLAB ˙) (Hint: The sequence is
10 bits long, and the first 3 bits are “011”.)
(c) (Decoding the bits of the user with the shorter code signal) Repeat the procedure in a and b above, this
time using the code signal cs2. Call your correlation signal cor2, and the vector of extracted values
sub_cor2.
• [3] On two subplots of the same figure, use plot to plot cor2, and stem to plot the signal
sub_cor2.
• [4] Decode the sequence of bits. (Hint: there are 17 bits in this sequence.)
• [2] Since the code signal cs2 has less energy (because it is shorter), there is a greater chance of error.
Are there any decoded bits that you suspect might be incorrect? Which ones? Why?

4. (Using running correlation to detect reflected radar pulses) lab2_data.mat also contains three other signals:
radar_pulse, radar_received, and radar_noise. The received signal contains several reflections
of the transmitted radar pulse and noise. The signal radar_noise contains noise with similar characteristics
to the noise in the received signal without the reflected pulses.

(a) (Examining the radar signals) First, let’s take a look at the first two signals.
• [2] Calculate the energy of radar_pulse, E(x).
• [3] Use subplot to plot radar_pulse and radar_received in separate axes of the same
figure.
• [1] Can you identify the reflected pulses in the received signal by visual inspection alone?
(b) (Perform running correlation) Use run_corr to correlate radar_received with radar_pulse.
• [3] Plot the resulting correlation signal.
• [2] Where are the received pulses? Visually identify sample locations of each pulse in the correlation
signal.
• [2] Compare the heights of the peaks to the energy of the radar pulse and explain why the peaks are
larger/smaller than the energy.

48 The University of Michigan, All rights reserved

 2.5 Laboratory Assignment

• [4] Given that the speed of light is 3 × 108 m/s and the sampling frequency of the detector is 107
samples per second, what is the approximate distance to each object9 ?
(c) (Estimating error rates, as in Section 2.2.5) In a real radar detector, the correlation signal would be com-
pared to a threshold to perform the detection. To estimate the error rates for such a detector, let’s consider
a threshold that is equal to one-half the energy of the transmitted pulse, i.e. c = E(x)/2. Perform running
correlation between radar_pulse and radar_noise call the resulting correlation signal noise_c.
• [2] Plot noise_c.
• [3] For how many samples is noise_c greater than this threshold? Use this value to estimate the
false alarm rate.
• [3] For how many samples is noise_c less than this threshold minus the energy of the transmitted
pulse? Use this value to estimate the miss rate.
• [2] What is the total error rate for this threshold?
(d) (Determining error rates from a histogram) As discussed in Section 2.2.5, we can use a histogram to judge
the number of errors as well.
• [3] Plot the histogram of noise_c using 100 bins.
• [3] Describe how you could derive the error numbers in problem 4c from the histogram.
(e) (Setting the threshold to achieve a particular error rate) Suppose that detector false alarms are considered
to be more serious than detector misses. Thus, we have determined that we want to raise the threshold so
that we achieve a false alarm rate of approximately 0.004. Find a threshold that satisfies this requirement.
• [4] What is your threshold?
• [3] What is the false alarm rate on this noise signal with your threshold?
• [3] What is the miss rate on this noise signal with your threshold?
• [2] What is the total error rate for the new threshold? Compare this to the total error rate of the
threshold used in problem 4c.

5. On the front page of your report, please provide an estimate of the average amount of time spent outside of lab
by each member of the group.

9 Remember that the radar pulse must travel to the object and then back again.

The University of Michigan, All rights reserved 49