Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Lecture 1: Introduction to Dalton’s Atomic
Theory and Basic Laws of Matter
Discussion
Basic Laws of Matter
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
• Definition: Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
• Historical Context: Antoine Lavoisier's experiments in the late 18th
century demonstrated that the mass of reactants equals the mass of
products in a chemical reaction.
• Example: When burning a piece of wood, the mass of the wood and
oxygen equals the mass of ash, water vapor, and carbon dioxide
produced.
2. Law of Constant Composition (Law of Definite Proportions)
• Definition: A given compound always contains the same proportion of
elements by mass.
• Historical Context: Joseph Proust's work in the early 19th century
showed that a chemical compound always contains the same
elements in the same proportions by weight, regardless of the sample
size or source.
• Example: Water (H₂O) always contains hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1
ratio by number of atoms, or approximately 11% hydrogen and 89%
oxygen by mass.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions
• Definition: When two elements form multiple compounds, the ratios
of the masses of the second element that combine with a fixed mass
of the first element are simple whole numbers.
• Historical Context: John Dalton's observations in the early 19th
century showed that when elements combine, they do so in ratios of
small whole numbers.
• Example: Carbon and oxygen form two compounds: carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). In CO, the ratio of oxygen
to carbon by mass is 1.33:1, and in CO₂, it is 2.66:1, which is a simple
whole number ratio (2:1).
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Postulate 1: All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and
indestructible.
• Implication: Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter.
2. Postulate 2: All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and
properties.
• Implication: Atoms of different elements have different masses and
properties.
3. Postulate 3: Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more
different kinds of atoms.
• Implication: Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms
to form new compounds.
4. Postulate 4: A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.
• Implication: Atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical
reaction; they are simply rearranged.
Activity
Activity 1: Exploring the Laws of Matter
• Objective: To understand and apply the basic laws of matter.
• Materials Needed: Balances, small samples of reactants (e.g., baking soda
and vinegar), containers, measuring cups.
• Procedure:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass: Measure the mass of a container with
baking soda. Add vinegar and measure the mass of the container with
the reaction products. Observe that the mass remains constant.
2. Law of Constant Composition: Provide samples of water from
different sources. Students measure the mass of hydrogen and
oxygen to confirm the constant composition.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions: Provide samples of CO and CO₂.
Students measure the ratio of oxygen to carbon and observe the
simple whole number ratios.
Answers:
1. Conservation of Mass Experiment: The mass before and after the reaction
should be the same.
2. Constant Composition Experiment: The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in all
water samples should be approximately 2:1 by number of atoms or 11%
hydrogen and 89% oxygen by mass.
3. Multiple Proportions Experiment: The ratio of the mass of oxygen in CO to
the mass of oxygen in CO₂ should be a simple whole number ratio (e.g., 2:1).
Summary
• The basic laws of matter (Conservation of Mass, Constant Composition, and
Multiple Proportions) are foundational principles in chemistry.
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory built on these laws, providing a framework for
understanding the behavior of atoms in chemical reactions.
Lecture 2: Atomic Structure and Subatomic
Particles
Discussion
Atomic Structure
1. Nucleus
• Components: Protons and neutrons.
• Charge: Positively charged due to protons.
• Mass: Most of the atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleus.
2. Electron Cloud
• Components: Electrons.
• Charge: Negatively charged.
• Mass: Electrons have negligible mass compared to protons and
neutrons.
• Arrangement: Electrons orbit the nucleus in various energy levels.
Subatomic Particles
1. Protons
• Charge: +1.
• Mass: Approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu).
• Location: Nucleus.
2. Neutrons
• Charge: 0 (neutral).
• Mass: Approximately 1 amu.
• Location: Nucleus.
3. Electrons
• Charge: -1.
• Mass: Approximately 1/1836 of a proton (negligible).
• Location: Electron cloud around the nucleus.
Activity
Activity 2: Building Atomic Models
• Objective: To visualize the structure of an atom and the arrangement of
subatomic particles.
• Materials Needed: Styrofoam balls (different sizes), toothpicks, markers.
• Procedure:
1. Nucleus Construction: Use larger Styrofoam balls to represent
protons and neutrons. Connect them using toothpicks to form the
nucleus.
2. Electron Cloud: Use smaller Styrofoam balls to represent electrons.
Place them around the nucleus at varying distances to represent
different energy levels.
3. Labeling: Label each part of the model (protons, neutrons, electrons).
Answers:
1. Protons and Neutrons in the Nucleus: The nucleus should contain protons
(positive charge) and neutrons (neutral).
2. Electrons in the Electron Cloud: Electrons should be positioned around the
nucleus at varying distances (energy levels).
Summary
• Atoms consist of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and an electron cloud
(electrons).
• Understanding the structure and properties of subatomic particles is crucial
for explaining the behavior of atoms in chemical reactions.
Lecture 3: Atomic Number, Mass Number, and
Isotopes
Discussion
Atomic Number
• Definition: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
• Significance: Determines the identity of an element.
• Example: Carbon has an atomic number of 6 (6 protons).
Mass Number
• Definition: The sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• Significance: Represents the mass of the atom.
• Example: Carbon-12 has a mass number of 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons).
Isotopes
• Definition: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
• Significance: Isotopes have different mass numbers but the same atomic
number.
• Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon, with 6 and 8
neutrons, respectively.
Activity
Activity 3: Identifying Isotopes
• Objective: To understand the concept of isotopes and differentiate between
atomic number and mass number.
• Materials Needed: Periodic table, sample isotope cards (with atomic number,
mass number, and neutron count).
• Procedure:
1. Identifying Isotopes: Provide students with isotope cards. Ask them
to identify the element based on the atomic number and find the
number of neutrons.
2. Comparing Isotopes: Compare the mass numbers of different
isotopes of the same element.
Answers:
1. Example Card: Carbon-14 (Atomic Number: 6, Mass Number: 14).
• Protons: 6.
• Neutrons: 8 (14 - 6).
2. Comparison: Carbon-12 vs. Carbon-14.
• Protons: Both have 6 protons.
• Neutrons: Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, Carbon-14 has 8 neutrons.
Summary
• The atomic number defines the element, while the mass number defines the
mass of the atom.
• Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers due to varying numbers of neutrons.
Lecture 4: Writing Isotopic Symbols
Discussion
Isotopic Symbols
• Notation: (_{\text{Atomic Number}}^{\text{Mass Number}}\text{Element
Symbol}).
• Example: Carbon-14 is written as (_{6}^{14}\text{C}).
Steps to Write Isotopic Symbols
1. Identify the Element: Find the element’s symbol using the atomic number.
2. Determine the Mass Number: Sum of protons and neutrons.
3. Write the Symbol: Place the atomic number as a subscript and the mass
number as a superscript before the element symbol.
Activity
Activity 4: Writing Isotopic Symbols
• Objective: To practice writing isotopic symbols for various elements.
• Materials Needed: Periodic table, list of isotopes.
• Procedure:
1. Provide Isotope Information: Give students the atomic number,
mass number, and element name.
2. Write Isotopic Symbols: Students write the isotopic symbols for each
isotope.
Answers:
1. Example 1: Uranium-238.
• Atomic Number: 92.
• Mass Number: 238.
• Symbol: (_{92}^{238}\text{U}).
2. Example 2: Hydrogen-3 (Tritium).
• Atomic Number: 1.
• Mass Number: 3.
• Symbol: (_{1}^{3}\text{H}).
Summary
• Writing isotopic symbols involves using the atomic number and mass number
to represent isotopes accurately.
• This practice is essential for communicating information about different
isotopes in scientific contexts.
Lecture 5: Recognizing Common Isotopes and
Their Uses
Discussion
Common Isotopes
1. Carbon-14 ((_{6}^{14}\text{C}))
• Use: Radiocarbon dating to determine the age of archaeological
samples.
2. Uranium-235 ((_{92}^{235}\text{U}))
• Use: Fuel for nuclear reactors and atomic bombs.
3. Iodine-131 ((_{53}^{131}\text{I}))
• Use: Medical imaging and treatment of thyroid disorders.
4. Hydrogen Isotopes
• Protium ((_{1}^{1}\text{H})): Most common hydrogen isotope with no
neutrons.
• Deuterium ((_{1}^{2}\text{H})): Used in heavy water for nuclear
reactors.
• Tritium ((_{1}^{3}\text{H})): Used in self-luminous devices.
Activity
Activity 5: Researching Isotope Applications
• Objective: To understand the applications of common isotopes in various
fields.
• Materials Needed: Internet access, research materials, presentation tools.
• Procedure:
1. Divide into Groups: Assign each group a common isotope to
research.
2. Research: Investigate the uses and significance of the assigned
isotope.
3. Presentation: Each group presents their findings to the class.
Answers:
1. Carbon-14: Used for dating ancient artifacts and fossils.
2. Uranium-235: Used as fuel in nuclear power plants and in nuclear weapons.
3. Iodine-131: Used in medical diagnostics and treatment of thyroid conditions.
4. Deuterium: Used in nuclear reactors and scientific research.
Summary
• Recognizing common isotopes and their applications helps in understanding
their importance in scientific research and practical applications.
• Isotopes play critical roles in fields such as medicine, archaeology, and
energy production.
