TEMPERATE FRUIT

1. APPLES (MALLUS DOMESTICA)

Introduction
It belongs to the family Rosacea
-Apple is a hardy deciduous temperate fruit tree which has high potential in most
highlands where temperature is low enough to break its dormancy.
-the varieties are good for desert where others are for cooking.
-Their production is seasonal and fruits cannot keep for long unless pickled or carefully
handled during transportation and storage. Its production is confined to a few scattered
farmers in the highlands of kiambu, Kitale and Nandi.
- Apple is low in fats and oils while rich in vitamin C

Ecology:
 Temperature:
Requires low night temperatures for breaking dormancy. Day temperature of 180c and
night temperature of above 13oc are needed.
Optimum night and day temperature of 6-8oc would enable complete bud breaking.
If grown in areas that do not experience low temperature, chemicals such as winter tar oil
(tropical mortegg) & thio urea (NH3)2 are used to supplement inadequate chilling.
 Soil
-Should be well drained soils, fertile whose PH is 5.5 for sandy soils and 6.5 for clays are
is important.
 Altitude
Grows well in high altitudes ranging from 1800-2800 m [Link] transnzoia,
nyandarua,uasingishu,nakuru,kiambu,muranga, meru& taita taveta

Varieties
 Bleinhein orange
-Does well in altitudes of 2300-3000m a.s.l.
- I a heavy cropper with large fruits.
 Winter banana
-Does well at altitudes of 2000-3000m a.s.l
-Grows vigorously and bears large fruits of good quality
-Recommended for pollination and production.
 Scoops early
Grows at altitudes of 2500- 3000m a.s.l.
-Is a good early bearing that requires a vigorous root stock
 Rome beauty
- altitude is 2000-2500m a.s.l

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 - suitable for lower altitudes
- Needs a vigorous root stock for good performance.
 Jonathan
-Altitude of 2300-3000 m a.s.l are needed
-Has good quality fruits but susceptible to the blight disease.
-Recommended for pollination.
-Grows vigorously in the higher altitudes.
 Bramley seedling
-Grows at altitudes of 2300-3000m a.s.l.
-A late cultivator which bears good fruit and requires a pollinator.
 King of Thompkin County
-Grows at altitudes of 2000-3000m a.s.l.
-Is a vigorous desert or cooking quality.
-low yielder but has large quality fruits
 Anna
-Good sweet flavor but poor keeping quality.
-Early ripening and requires a pollinator.
 Golden Dorset
-Early maturing cultivar normally planted with anna for pollination.
-Fruits are yellow with a slightly pink bluish and the flesh is firm and sweet.
 Grunny Smith
-has medium to large fruit with a bright green color and purple bluish turning to light
 Golden Delicious
-Early maturing small fruited cultivars.
-Has a good dessert quality.
 Red Delicious
-medium red fruit with distinctive cornical shape
-has good dessert qualities
 Abundance
-Has good quality fruit which can stand storage.
 Mayan Shlomit michal
-Requires low chilling
Others: Enterprise, Liberty, Goldrush, Jonafree, Pristine(resistant to apple scab) &
William pride

Root stock
Necessary for apple tree growing and should be tolerant to conditions which would
otherwise hinder the proper growth of scion cultivar.
-It gives uniformity of production in the orchard.
- It gives dwarfing characteristics of the tree when desired.
-trees come early into bearing.
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Propagation:
-By seed (sexual) for whole tree apart from production of rootstock is only done for
breeding purposes.
-Established rootstock is budded or grafted with the selected cultivar when in vigorous
growth.
-Methods for good take off are T-budding or wedge grafting.
Clonal root stock
-It is got by stooling the suckers. Stumps of desired variety are earthened up and resultant
shoots are removed and rooted in the nursery.
-Also multiplied from layering or root cutting.
-Should be virus tested materials to produce virus free trees.
-e.g common varieties M(malling) and MM(malling maton) and we have m4,m9, m11,
m26, mm104, MM106,mm107.
Seedling rootstock
-it is also got by seed. Seeds are germinated to produce the rootstock. the seeds are
stratified for 60-90 days at 2-7oc .
-good varieties include: Rome Beauty, Golden Delicious, Malus, Baccata, Browinska,
Antanorca, Immure 411, Broad leaf crab c and are most vigorous.
Land preparation
-Clear the land of all tree and bushes
-In forest first ring bark all trees to eliminate the possibility of fruit trees being attacked
by the fungus Armillaria melea
Spacing
-Varies according rootstock;variety;and altitude.
-Small varieties have closer spacing while large varieties have wider [Link] ranges
from 3mby 2m to 3m by 3m to 4m by4m to 4m by 5m.
Planting
-Done during long rains and seedlings should be dormant, if done during hot season,
irrigation, mulching and shading are necessary.
-Dig holes 60cm by 60cm separate top soils from sub soil. Then 250g Triple super
phosphate per tree plus 5-10 ton/ha manure is mixed with top soil.
-Sub- soil is used to fill the holes and make basin around the seedling.
-Seedlings planted at the same level it was in the nursery or polybag.
-At planting include pollinator varieties in the orchard for adequate pollination and
should have overlapping bloom period with the main [Link] main variety ratio
is 1:8 or1:4.

Field operations
Mulching
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-maintains moisture around the seedling and also checks weed growth.
Staking
-It is done to steady them when they are still young.
- Trees used should be placed on the wind ward side
Pruning
Prune young trees in the first four years of growth in order to establish stracture and
form. It is done as follows:
 First year; formative pruning
After planting prune back the central shoot to 1m from the ground in order to encourage
branching below the point of cutting.
-3-4 strong shoots are selected from the new shoots which should be distributedalong and
around the central axis
-the lowest branch should be 70cm from ground level
-these forms future scaffold (strong frame work of structurally sound main branches)
 `Second year;-shaping for production
-About a third to half the length of the scaffold branches is cut back to stimulate
secondary or lateral branching.
-The laterals that grow are also selected and 3-4 are recommended per scaffold [Link]
this way the tree is shaped for production.
 Third year:-Induction
The scaffolds and main laterals are tipped off to induce more laterals.
 Fourth year: - Maintenance pruning
Cut back the scaffold branches and laterals.
Laterals growing too close to the main laterals and scaffolds are cut . Those showing the
upright growth should be removed together with those criss-crossing plus dead and weak
[Link] paint all the surfaces to prevent infection.
Training
Apples produce fruits on the branches that are horizontal to the ground and less fruits are
produced on upright growing branches. Therefore apple branches should be well spread
out by bending them to horizontal position. This too encourages fruit growth, more
productivity, light penetration and aeration. Also reduces the chance of creating
microclimate conducive to disease development.
Wind brakes
Planted during or before establishment to protect young seedlings from wind damage and
the recommended trees are Grevillea rubusta or Eucalyptus spp
Intercropping:
Essential to utilize the space in the orchard and use vegetables, beans, peas e.t.c.
-Done during the first three years of orchard establishment
Fertilizer and manures
-Apply one debe of manure per tree per year when trees start producing

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-apply 100g of C.A.N three months after [Link] should be worked into the
drip lines of each tree at the onset of rains. Then afterwards applied in two splits.
The tentative fertilizer recommendation
Year CANkg/ha TSPkg/ha Year CANkg/ha TSPkg/ha
1 100 - 6 400 225
2 150 100 7 500 250
3 200 125 8 600 275
4 300 175 9 700 300
5 350 200 10 800 300

Dormancy breaking
-Done to induce bud/flower production in which low temperature or chilling is required.
-Dormancy period starts in the months of July and august.
-Naturally possible in altitudes above 3000m a.s.l therefore in lower altitudes needs to be
induced by either:-
i) Chemicals are sprayed in the first week of September and when the cool season is over
like tropical mort-egg 6% tar oil) or Dinitro aerosol(2.4%).
-Due to their toxicity timely sprays should be done to avoid injury to flowers and leaves.
Therefore spraying is done during high temperatures when there effects is high not in the
cold times of the day.
ii) Hand defoliation four weeks after harvesting and before it goes into [Link]
helps lateral buds to break after dormancy and increase blossoming.
iii) Also reduction of irrigation water.
iv) Pruning of branches and roots.
Pollination
-Apples are cross pollinated and insects such as bees play a vital role. Therfore 3-4
beehives are needed per hector to ensure pollination.
Fruit pruning
-Excessive fruits may lower the quality of the fruit if not pruned.
-Natural flower and fruit drop may prevent excessive fruit set.
-Where necessary thinning is done leaving 2-3 evenly spaced fruits per spur. This is done
around October.
Diseases
 Apple scab;Venturia inequalis
-It is a fungal disease that attacks leaves and fruits.
-Pale green patches on fruits and leaves are first seen on the tree. on the fruit are usually
misshapen and may crack and drop prematurely.

Control;
-Use resistant varieties

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-Use fungicides e.g captan
 Apple crown rot: Phytophthora cactotum
It is observed in orchard in low lying areas with heavy poorly drained soils. Causes
delayed bud break, leaf distortion, premature leaf drop, reddish brown water soaked areas
of necrotic tissues located at the base of the rot.
Control:
-Use resistant root stock like M4 & M9
-Avoiding heavy poorly drained soils.
-Chemical spray with fungicides like rindomil.
 Bitter pit: Cicomerella cingulata
-Small spots appear on the fruits surface and enlarge bearing concentric rings.
-They appear with brownish spots on the inside giving the fruit a bitter taste.
Control:
-1-2 weekly spraying with fungicides.
-Apply calcium chloride to correct Ca deficiency.
 Bacterial pseudomonas syringae (canker)
-Affects branches, twigs, buds, leaves and fruits leaves,and shoot growth beyond the
canker may wilt and die during growing season when canker girdle a branch or the trunk.
-It is spread by rain and pruning tools.
-there are distinct callus rings.
Control:
-Sanitation:-remove infected parts and burn
-Cut diseased woods around the canker and apply wound dressing mixed with fungicides.
 Root rot;-Armilleria mellea
-Soil borne disease attacking roots causing sudden death.
-a layer of white fungal growth under the bark of rootss and trunk is observed.
Control:
-up root and burn affected trees.
-leave the planting holes open for a year.
-2-3 applications of copper sulphate at four months intervals.
 Powdery mildew:Padasphaera lencotrica
-Are always carried through vegetative or fruit buds
-Fungal growth on upper side of leaves especially on new shoots reducing the vigor of
the plant. Fruit infection results to web like cracks.
-It occurs when R.H is more than 90% at temperatures between 10-25oc.
Control:
-Use fungicides.

Pests
 Wooly aphids:Eriosoma lanigerum
-Galls on branches and roots
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-Die back of young shoots.
-white wooly secretion on branches and leaves
Control:
-Spraying with insecticides like fenitrothion, endosulfan.
-Clean out old canker to minimize spreads.
 Red spider mites:Tetranychus spp
-Reddish mites on underside of leaves and are able to cling tenaciously to leaf surface
and are not easily washed off by rains or heavy sprays.
-They feed by sucking sap even chlorophyll and causes leaves to turn bronze and in
severe infestation causes defoliation.
-Greyish spots on upper sides of leaves.
-Causes small fruit size,
-thin leaved apple varieties are more susceptible.
Control:
-Spray with chemicals weekly.

Harvesting
-They are easily bruised and hence should be handled carefully during harvest and
transportation as they reduce marketability.
-Maturity is indicated by change of color to yellow and when fruits are easily removed
from the tree.
-After picking fruits are placed in a cushioned crates or cartons.
-Marketed both locally in major towns and in neighboring countries.
-Stored in low temperature if fruits are to be transported for long distance in tropics is
limited because of high temperatures which might induce secondary infections to bruised
fruit.

Yields
-Vary from year to year depending on variety; season and management. Mature tee can
yield up to 20kg/yr at the age of seven. Production can continue for 20 years after which
yield starts declining.
Quality indices:
-Firmness; crispness, lack mealiness
- Flavor including soluble solids, titratable acidity and flavor volatiles
-freedom from defects such as bruising , decay, stem or blossom end rot cracks,cracks in
the skin, bitter pit, insect injury e.t.c.
-% blush on the apple.
Physiological disorders of apples

 Superficial scald:

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-it is a common disorder affecting susceptible varieties like Grany smith and red delicious
during storage and marketing.
-Also caused by hot dry weather before harvest, immature at harvest, high N & low Ca
levels of fruits and inadequate ventilation in storage.
Symptoms:
-Browning of skin of affecting fruit in patches especially on the shaded side and may
become rough only the surface is affected but fruit remains firm and of eating quality.
-Incase fruit had been stored, brown irregular patches of dead skin develops within 3-7
days due to warming of the fruit after removal from storage to room temperature.
Control:
-Harvest at correct maturity stage.
-Proper ventilation in cold storage.
-Application of anti oxidant one week after harvesting like ethoxyquine and
diphenylamine (DPA).

 Jonathan spot/lenticels breakdown

Affects surface of apples and is characterized by superficial spotting of lenticels
Symptoms: appear as dark brown pits on the fruits skin around the lenticels .early
symptoms appear as small dimples and as the firmness reduces pit growth in size and
depth. This reduces marketability of apples.

 Chilling injury
This disorder occurs to fruit stored below their safe minimum storage temperatures.
-characterized by browning of skin and flesh. Dry internal cavities and flesh browning
may also develop fruits they have a bitter or a fermented taste when cut open.

 Brown heart
It is common in large and over mature fruits. Also when concentration of co2 in storage
increases above 1%.
Symptoms
-appear as brown discoloration in the flesh originating near or in the core of the fruit. The
brown areas have well developed margins and cavities may develop due to desiccation.
N, B: Symptoms range from small spots of brown flesh to entire browning of flesh with a
margin of healthy white flesh remaining just below the skin.
Control
-Avoid harvesting over mature fruits
-co2 concentration in CA storage should be maintained at less than1%.
 Bitter pit
Begins in the orchards and is associated with low calcium levels.
Symptoms

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-Disorder is characterized by small lesions 2-10mm in diameter which develop into the
flesh of the. The tissues below later become dark and corky.
-symptoms appear in the lower half of the fruit.
-initial external symptoms are slightly water soaked spots/patches.
Control
-Calcium sprays before harvesting
-Calcium dips before storage

 Water core
It is favored by;-
-high leaf: fruit ratio
-high levels of boron and nitrogen; low levels of calcium.
-excessive thinning and exposure of fruits to high temperature.
-large size fruits are susceptible.
Symptoms
Characterized by development of water soaked regions in the flesh before harvesting.
These regions are hard, glossy in appearance and only visible externally when an
infection is severe.
Fruits may also develop fermented taste.
Control:
-Avoid delayed harvesting.

 Russeting:
-Occurs in humid environment and when petals fall varieties with thin cuticle are
susceptible.
-Frost during blossoming or early fruit formation causes russeting leading to rapture of
the fruit or development of cracks.
Control
-Selection of less susceptible cultivars.
-Adequate irrigation
-Manuring and effective pest management.

 Sunburn scald
-Occurs due to intense heat of the sun and water stress.
-Initial symptoms are white, tan or yellow patches on the fruit these areas become spongy
and sunken.

Control
-Avoid exposure to intense heat.
-Careful sorting before packing.
-Proper free training and pruning especially summer pruning.
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  Senescent scald
-Appears as brown patches on the skin that may become sunken and rough with distinct
margins often ribbon like.
-Unlike superficial scalds, this appears on the sun exposed side of the fruit and on late
harvested fruit. Internally fruit may have brown flesh and have internal breakdown

 Core flush (brown core)

-It is a form of senescent breakdown in which the core area turns pink then brown. The
discoloration starts near the core and extends in brown tissue outward. The affected
tissues are moist and softer than non affected tissues.

 Breaburn browning (BBD)

It is very serious on Brea burn variety at harvest. The disorder has the appearance of light
to dark brown areas. Similar in nature to water core but occurr without pattern in the
flesh.

[Link] VEGETABLES
1. Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)
Asparagus is a member of Lily family.

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Origin and geographic distribution
The origin of asparagus is believed to be the eastern Mediterranean region. However, it
grows wild in Europe, the Caucasus and western Siberia. It is naturalized in the Americas
and New Zealand, and occurs now worldwide as a crop plant, in Africa mainly in the
subtropics. In tropical Africa, it is restricted to high elevation areas in East and southern
Africa, but occasionally occurs elsewhere as experimental planting or for own use, e.g. in
Rwanda and Ethiopia.
The young immature shoots are cut and cooked. Rich in B vitamins, vitamin C, calcium,
and iron, asparagus is one of the first crops of spring harvest. Fresh-picked spears are far
more tender and tasty than store-bought ones.
Production and international trade
There are about 255,000 ha of asparagus grown worldwide, equally divided between
white and green, with an increasing trend towards the production of green, due to lower
harvesting costs. Production predominates in Asia (102,000 ha, with China 90,000 ha),
Europe (61,000 ha, with Spain 17,000 ha), North America (51,000 ha, with the United
States 34,000 ha) and South America (29,000 ha, with Peru 20,000 ha). Africa (4,000 ha)
and Australasia (7,000 ha) are relatively unimportant, although both regions have an
important role in providing northern hemisphere markets with out of season fresh
asparagus. In Africa asparagus is mainly grown in southern Africa (South Africa,
Lesotho) and North Africa (Tunisia), whereas in tropical Africa it is found in the
highlands of eastern Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe). The world price fluctuates
tremendously, depending on whether the produce is for fresh use or for processing, and
also on the time of the year, but tends to be about 1.0 US$/kg. Asparagus production for
export is attractive for countries with cheap labour, e.g. Uganda and Kenya, which are
able to harvest asparagus for fresh export during periods of low production in Europe.

Plant characteristics
 It is a Dioecious perennial with climbing or erect stems up to 2 m tall vegetable
that can be grown in the same area for 20-30 years.
 Has underground robust network of fleshy storage roots and underground stems
called rhizomes which store food and produce asparagus spears. The root system
is referred to as an asparagus crown.
 When warm, buds develop on the rhizomes which become edible spears when not
harvested they develop into a green fern like bush about 1.2m to 1.8m tall. This
foliage produces the food materials stored to be used to produce the next year’s
spears.
 The foliage strongly branched, ultimate branchlets (cladodes) fine, needle-like,
green and leaf-like, 1–3 cm long. True leaves reduced to minute, bract-like,
triangular, brownish, prickly scales, with 3–6
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  Asparagus plants are monoecious I.e Has separate male and female plants and
pollination is facilitated by the bees which produce red berries which contain the
seed. Females do not live long as the males. Male plants yield more harvestable
shoots because they don’t have to invest energy in producing seeds. Female
flowers have well-developed, three-lobed pistils; male blossoms are larger and
longer than female flowers.
 Fruit a globose berry up to 1 cm in diameter, red, 1–6-seeded. Seeds rounded,
with a flattened side, black.
Growth and development
Germination is slow, with the optimum temperature being 25–30°C. Initially a single
shoot and a single root develop, but once the first shoot has fully expanded, a second
shoot develops from the junction of the initial shoot and the root. This is the origin of the
primary bud cluster, but in time secondary bud clusters develop in the axils of some of
the primary buds. Normally each bud produces two storage roots at about the time that
the bud develops into a shoot. Apical dominance within each bud cluster is strong, and
the next bud in the cluster does not normally develop until the previous one is fully
developed into a shoot (or the spear is harvested). Flowering starts already in the first
year and is continuous. The plants are insect-pollinated.
In the humid tropics the plants remain green and never go dormant. In temperate climates
the aerial parts senesce during autumn, and growth continues the following spring as the
rhizome buds form shoots. In the arid tropics dormancy can be induced by withdrawing
irrigation. Under such circumstances production can be programmed for any time of the
year. Because the spears from rhizome buds comprise the marketable yield, it is
necessary to establish a large pool of stored food reserves, mainly long chain fructans, in
the swollen roots before the start of harvesting. It is therefore general practice not to
harvest until two years after planting, and to slowly increase the harvest period from 3–4
weeks to 10–12 weeks per year from the third to the fifth year. Senescence of asparagus
in the tropics starts earlier than in temperate areas due to the absence of dormancy. In
western Europe, plants of over 100 years of age have been reported, although it is
normally not economic to harvest longer than 10–15 years. In the tropics the crop starts to
decline fast and becomes uneconomic after 6–8 years, and in lowland areas already after
3–4 years. Once the old asparagus plants have been removed, the same field cannot be
used for new asparagus plantings for tens of years, probably because the remaining tough
old roots contain phytotoxic compounds and are infected with Fusarium.

Ecology
 Grows well in altitudes over 1000mm at high temperatures the plants do not store
much material in the roots and few spears are produced. It can tolerate some
shade, but full sun produces more vigorous plants and helps minimize disease.
The optimum temperature for dry matter accumulation is 25–30°C, but the
optimum temperature for the accumulation of food reserves in the roots may be
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 slightly lower. A high relative humidity is a distinct disadvantage due to foliage
diseases.
 The soil should be well drained and rich in organic matter sandy loamy soils are
excellent and grows poorly at an acid pH below 6. Especially for white asparagus
a light sandy soil is preferred, whereas for green asparagus the soil texture may be
heavier.
Varieties
Because asparagus is a long-term crop, the choice of a cultivar is critical
mary washington, Darbone, Huches staudenauslese, Lucullus’ for white and ‘Jersey
Giant’ for green asparagus
Propagation and planting:-
 by use of seeds in nursery beds in rows 30cm apart and 3cm deep. The seedlings
are transplanted at 6 months or more the following season. Seed-grown plants
don't suffer from transplant trauma like nursery-grown roots, and you can buy a
whole packet of seed for the same price you'll pay for one asparagus crown. Most
seed-grown asparagus plants eventually out-produce those started from roots.
Growing from seed also allows you to selectively discard female plants and plant
an all-male bed, no matter what variety you choose to grow.
 vegetatively by use of crowns which should be healthy, strong, well developed
and be at least one year old. They are planted at a spacing of 1.2m between rows
and 0.3m within the row in trenches 12 inches wide and 6 inches deep (8 inches in
sandy soil) down the center of the prepared bed. Soak the crowns in compost tea
for 20 minutes before planting. Place the crowns in the trenches 1½ to 2 feet
apart; top them with 2 to 3 inches of soil.. If one row is planted at least 0.9m
should exist between the crop and other crops. It is covered with 5cm of soil in a
furrow 20cm deep and the remaining 15cm covered gradually as the crop grows
taking care not to cover the leaves. Watered weekly to wet the soil to about
20.5mm deep during initial stages of growth. After one year they have developed
extensive root system and water required only during dry spell.
 There is increasing interest in vegetative propagation, using tissue culture
methods to clone elite plants, but this method is expensive and still in the
experimental stage.

N.B: Starting asparagus from 1-year-old crowns gives you a year’s head start over seed-
grown plants. Two-year-old crowns are usually not a bargain. They tend to suffer more
from transplant shock and won’t produce any faster than 1-year-old crowns. Buy crowns
from a reputable nursery that sells fresh, firm, disease-free roots. Plant them immediately
if possible; otherwise, wrap them in slightly damp sphagnum moss until you are ready to
plant.

Fertilizer and manures

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An adequate supply of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, phosphate, magnesium and
potassium, is recommended;
 mix manure with soil in the trench at the rate of 70-80t/ha
 single super phosphate is applied to the trench at the rate of 30mg/m2
 Apply C.A.N fertilizer at the beginnings of each rains and a month before
harvesting at the rate of 30g/square meter.

Weed control
Should be done regularly to ensure that the field is free of weeds. Before the beginning of
the harvest the rows need to be earthed-up into raised beds of up to 50 cm in height with
soil from between the rows.
Cultivation
at the end of first year cut and burn foliage and at the end of the second year cover the
plants with loose top soil and compost.
Diseases
cause little damage .Rust may occur which produces reddish brown spots on the stems
and leaves, but there are new varieties resistant to it or practicing clean cultivation also
reduces beetles.
Fusarium oxysporum is a major problem in all climates, and appears to be related to
excessive harvesting. Minimize damage from Fusarium wilt, which causes spears, leaves,
and stems to be small with large lesions at or below the soil line, by purchasing disease-
free roots and using good garden sanitation. Fusarium can also be kept under control with
good drainage and a balanced fertilizer application.
Crown rot causes spears to turn brown near the soil line. Prevent crown rot by planting in
raised beds, maintaining good drainage, and keeping soil pH above 6.0.
If your asparagus bed does become infected by disease organisms, your best option is to
start a new bed in a distant part of the garden, using newly purchased or grown plants.
If young spears turn brown and become soft or withered, they may have been injured by
frost. Cover spears with mulch or newspaper when freezing nights are predicted.

Insect pests:
Asparagus beetles, which chew on spears in spring and attack summer foliage, are the
most prevalent problem. The 1/4-inch-long, metallic blue-black pests have three white or
yellow spots on their backs. They lay dark eggs along the leaves, which hatch into light
gray or brown larvae with black heads and feet. Control by hand picking; spray or dust
seriously infested plants with insecticidal soap. These methods also control the 12-spotted
asparagus beetle, which is reddish brown with six black spots on each wing cover.
Asparagus miner is another foliage-feeding pest; it makes zig-zag tunnels on the stalks.
Destroy any infested ferns.
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Harvesting
In temperate climates the young spears are harvested in spring for a period of up to 12
weeks, starting in the second year after planting. After the harvest period, the foliage is
allowed to grow to replenish the stored reserves in the roots for next year’s crop. In
tropical climates, harvesting is usually at any time of the year, using the ‘mother fern’ or
‘mother stalk’ growing system, in which (once a plant is well established) 3–5 mature
photosynthesizing shoots are maintained, while newly developed spears are harvested at
the appropriate stage.
 The crowns should grow for two seasons before harvesting the spears because any
damage caused before this time reduces yield for the entire life of the crop.
 They are harvested when shoots are 20- 23cm long by cutting the shoots just
below the surface with a saw toothed knife and the cut should be slopping, or snap
off the spears at, or right below, ground level with your fingers. For white
asparagus the spears are cut with a long-bladed knife just above the rhizome when
they emerge through the soil surface
 Cut shoots daily for a period of 8 weeks then allow the plant to recover until the
next year.
 Worldwide the average yield is 3 t/ha per year because of the long period of
establishment, but yields from established crops is about 3.6 t/ha in average, But
can be up to 5 T/Ha. White asparagus yields 10–25% more than a comparable
green asparagus crop, because the spears are thicker, and are harvested closer to
the rhizome.
Handling after harvest
the spears are washed, cut at equal length (between 15 and 22 cm), sorted and packed for
marketing. Asparagus spears have a high respiration rate and therefore deteriorate rapidly
after harvest. They should be removed from the field as soon as possible after harvest and
then stored at high humidity and 2°C (for up to 4 weeks for white asparagus; green
asparagus has a much shorter shelf life and can be stored for only about a week).

Characteristic of high quality spear

 the spear should be dark green and firm with tightly closed and compact tips.
 Spears with dark green butts are preferred over those with white butts as
whitening is associated with toughness.
 Stems should be straight,tender and glossy in appearance
 spears should be undamaged, head tight (not open) and not shrivelled.
 Must have at least a diameter of 12mm or thicker (the thicker the better)
 good sign of quality is when a squeaky noise is produced when the spear are
rubbed together.
Uses:-
KIBOR Page 15
  The major product of asparagus are the tender young expanded shoots (spears)
which are eaten lightly cooked.
 The spears are also processed either by canning (or bottling) in brine or by deep-
freezing. They are harvested prior to emergence as white asparagus, or after
emergence when 18–25 cm tall as green asparagus. Green spears should be all
green and white spears all white, but harvest of the in-between stage is also
practiced. It is normal to peel the white spears prior to cooking, whereas the green
ones are normally eaten unpeeled and only the lower fibrous part of the spears in
the in-between stage is peeled.
 The foliage of asparagus is occasionally used in flower arrangements

Prospects:-
 There is increasing interest from affluent countries in obtaining fresh asparagus
year-round. This asparagus is obtained from northern and southern hemisphere
sources during the appropriate spring periods, but could be supplied from the
(highland) tropics during the remaining 6 months of the year. With the increasing
interest in fresh rather than processed vegetables, the potential for this crop in the
tropics appears good,
 Also because of the low labour costs.
 The major challenge is to develop cultivars adapted to the tropics,
 The appropriate technology for production in the humid tropics through the
correct choice of site (high or medium altitude) and harvesting strategy.
 the control of foliage and soil diseases
 the establishment of a sound post-harvest and transportation infrastructure

3. BRINJALS (SOLANUM MELONGERA)

INTRODUCTION
Brinjals are also known as egg plants or aubergine grown for its young and almost
mature fruits used as a vegetable. The fruit is a good source of vitamin A and C,
potassium phosphorous and calcium. The fruits of white varieties have medicinal value
for diabetes. They may be roasted, fried, stuffed, cooked as curry or pickled. Cooking for
prolonged periods will destroy most of the vitamins. In Kenya production is done
throughout the year and the bulk of the crop is exported. The fruits of the white varieties
have medicinal value for diabetics. Eggplant has a cropping period of 4-7 months. In
Kenya they are normally planted from beginning of June to end of December to

KIBOR Page 16
correspond with the export season from October to May. The crop originated from India
and is grown in the tropical regions.
Climatic requirements:
Optimum day temperatures for eggplant are in the range of 25-35°C and night
temperatures from 20-27°C. Eggplant is more susceptible to low temperatures than
tomato and capsicum and it does not tolerate frost. It is tolerant of drought and excessive
rainfall, but struggles to grow when temperatures exceed 30°C, and where water logging
occurs. When temperature and humidity are high, eggplant becomes more vegetative.
Eggplant does best in well-drained, sandy loam soils. The best environmental conditions
are normally found in lowland areas with relatively little temperature variation. When
grown at altitudes above 800 m, growth is retarded and yields reduced. The pH
requirements range from 6-7 with the optimum being pH 6.4.
Varieties
 "Black Beauty"
It is high yielding variety, with large almost round fruits. The fruits are compact, smooth
with glossy dark purple almost black color and have excellent quality.
 "Florida High Bush"
It is a vigorous plant and attractive large dark purple egg shaped fruits about 20cm long
and 8cm wide fruits are borne off the ground.
 "Ravaya"
Nursery preparation
Brinjals are propagated by seeds. Soak seeds in water for 24hrs will speed up
germination. The seeds are sown in a well prepared, raised bed with friable soil ie soils
that break or crumble easily when handled. In rows 10cm apart and 10cm between the
seed and at a depth of 1.5cm. Before sowing an application of 3.5 kg of good compost per
square meter is incorporated into the nursery [Link] seed rate is 500gm/ha
In tropical areas seeds are sown in a shaded seed bed and watered regularly. The
seedlings emerge after 8-10 days, before planting fertilize field with compost or F.Y.M.

Transplanting
Seedlings are transplanted when they have 3-4 true leaves or 3-4 weeks after planting.
They should be stocky and disease free and without flower buds. Begin hardening 6-9
days before transplanting to reduce transplanting shock, Water seedlings thoroughly 12-
24hrs before transplanting.
Transplanting should be done in the after noon or on a cloudy day to minimize shock.
Transplant seedlings by digging a hole deep enough to bury the plant so that its first true
leaf is just above the soil surface press the soil firmly around the root, irrigate furrows
immediately after transplanting
Manure and fertilizer application

KIBOR Page 17
Prior to planting, a basal dose of compost or F.Y.M and fertilizer such as [Link] or
T.S.P or S.S.P should be applied.
Top dressing is done once a month for 4 months using C.A.N, A.S or A.S.N.
In alkaline soil a foliar feed high in mg is desirable .soil PH can be reduced by
application of sulfur.
Excess P leads to production of fruits with too many seeds hence reduced quality.
Weed control
Shallow cultivation is required to avoid damage to the roots and mix fertilizer with soil
during top dressing.
Side dressing with groundnut cake is recommended forty days after transplanting. Also at
this period, remove three nodes at the tips of the plants to improve branching and to
increase the number of fruits
At 30cm high the plants should be earthened-up slightly around the stems to provide
partial support.
Disease control
 Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)
This disease occurs with bad drainage, especially in the hot, wet season and is often
combined with symptoms of root-knot nematodes. Plants wilt and die suddenly. When
newly infected stems are cut crosswise and placed in water, greyish or yellowish ooze
appears from the cut stem. The pathogen is soil-borne with a wide host range. Root-knot
nematode infestation aggravates the disease development.
Control
-Use resistant varieties, if available
-Use certified disease-free seeds
-Remove infected plants from fields and destroy affected plants.
-Rotate with non-solanaceous crops (e.g. maize or beans)
-Use raised beds for improved drainage
-Graft plants onto resistant rootstocks

 Phytophthora fruit rot (Phythophthora parasitica)

Phytophthora fruit rot fungus can cause damping-off in seedbeds, leaf spotting and collar
rot on the main stem final resulting in plant death. The fungus may attack fruit at any
growth stage and any part of the fruit. Spots on the fruit are dark brown, water-soaked
and may have a light-coloured border. A whitish mould develops on the spots when wet
conditions prevail. The spots are neither sunken nor exhibit concentric rings (zonation).
Infected fruits drop prematurely.

The fungus is soil-borne. It is spread in the field by run-off water and farm implements.

KIBOR Page 18
The disease is favoured by prolonged periods of high moisture and temperatures near 30°
C.
Control
 Avoid dense planting
 Remove and destroy diseased fruit and plants
 Plough deep because Phytophthora would not survive
 Practice crop rotation with non-solanaceous crops such as tomato, potato and
peppers
 Where practical, add copper sulphate to irrigation water
Pest control
 Shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis)
It is a major pest of eggplant. The adult is a small moth, with a wingspan of 18-24 mm,
white in colour with a pink and bluish tinge, and a few brown spots on its wings. Moths
lay creamy white single eggs on leaf undersides, stems, flower buds, or the base of the
fruits. Upon hatching the caterpillars (white in colour) bore into the top section of fruits
and tender shoots. Caterpillars develop inside fruits and stems reaching a length of 15-18
mm. When fully-grown, caterpillars make a small hole in the fruit or shoot and drop to
the soil and pupate among fallen debris.

When plants start bearing fruits, most caterpillars prefer to feed on the tender fruits. The
damage to the shoots is not seen until they droop as a result of the caterpillar feeding
inside them. Recently damaged fruits are not easy to detect. The first indication of
damage to the fruit is a small hole just below the calyx where the insect has entered.
Fruits are filled with frass. They change colour and taste; they drop off and are
unmarketable. Caterpillars are difficult to control with pesticides. Within hours of
hatching from eggs, caterpillars enter the shoots or fruits, and are not reached by contact
pesticides.

Control
-Conserve natural enemies. Predatory ants are the main natural enemies of the shoot and
fruit borer. Other natural enemies include: ladybird beetles, praying mantis, earwigs,
predatory bugs and spiders
-Destroy eggplant old plants and stubble (burn or bury them) immediately after harvest.
Pupae can survive in the stubble for several weeks, infesting the new crop.
-Use healthy, pest-free seedlings. Raise seedlings far away from sources of infestation
(old eggplant fields, eggplant stubble)
-Grow seedlings under nylon netting to prevent moths from laying eggs on the plants.
-Remove and destroy infested shoots (readily visible as dry tip of branches). Burn, shred
into tiny pieces or bury attacked shoots at least 20 cm in the soil. If this is done by all
KIBOR Page 19
farmers in a community, especially before fruiting, pest infestation and damage can be
drastically reduced. Continue cutting attacked shoots at least once a week until the final
harvest.

-Destroy infested fruits found during harvest.

 Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.)
Spider mites may become serious pests of eggplant during the dry season. Attacked
leaves show a stippled appearance (white specks), and their surface covered with a fine
web. Continuous infestation causes the leaves to dry-up. The plants are stunted and yields
reduced.
Control
-Conserve natural enemies. Predatory mites and anthocorid bugs are important in natural
control of mites
-Avoid use of broad-spectrum pesticides. They may kill natural enemies and may lead to
mite outbreaks
-Provide good growing conditions for plants. Healthy plants are more likely to withstand
mite attack. Adequate irrigation is particularly important. Apply mulch and incorporate
organic matter into the soil to improve the water holding capacity and reduce evaporati
Harvesting
Fruits are harvested when they attain required size and [Link] surface of the fruit
should have a bright glossy [Link] is done by cutting the fruit from the
main stem and leaving a short piece of stalk on the fruit when they are 2/3 maximum size.
The fruits are harvested into clean, plastic containers and graded for uniformity of size
and the color requirements. Grading should be done in a raised, clean [Link] fruits are
carefully wrapped in a paper before they are packed in carton boxes for export. They can
be stored for 10 days at 10-130c and 85-90% RH.

The following specifications constitute raw material purchasing requirements in the

Kenya market

KIBOR Page 20
4. CABBAGE (BRASSICA OLERECEA VAR CAPITATA)
INTRODUCTION:

KIBOR Page 21
Important vegetable crop grown in Kenya for local fresh market and a little quantity is
exported
It is grown by both small and medium scale farmers either under rainfall or irrigation
conditions
Belongs to cruciferae family.
Uses
-Used for cooking and as salads
-Dehydrated
-Used as livestock feed
-Has healing properties because of high levels of sulfur
Ecology
Is a cool season crop that can tolerate frost but not heat
 Temperature and altitude
Requires optimum temperature of 16-20oc and temperature above 25oc head formation is
reduced also symptoms of tip burns in susceptible varieties are seen
Altitude ranges from 800-200m with plenty of sunlight
 Rainfall and water requirement
The crop has high water requirement through out the growing period
Optimal rainfall is 500mm
 Soils
Cabbage is a heavy feeder crop
It requires well drained soils with high organic mater content and should be slightly
acidic at a P>H of 6.5 with high water holding capacity
Varieties
Types
a) Green cabbage
Eaten either raw or cooked
b) Red/purple
Rich in vitamin c
They are smaller very firm head with slightly sweetish smell
c) Savoy
Is the curly cabbage having leaves that are ruffled, Deeply ridged and veined
Has milder flavors and softer mixture
Used for salads and wraps
Varieties
Prize drumhead
Glory of enkhuizen
Copenhagen market
Golden acre
Gloria f1 hybrid
Sugar loaf
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Red acre
Fortuna and resistant black rot
Tristar
Globe master
Propagation and planting
 Nursery establishment
-Cultivation of cabbage is started in a nursery
-Clear the bushes then till the nursery bed to fine tilt then level it
-Raise the bed about 15cm high (1-1.5m wider and of any desired length)
-Incorporate F.Y.M or compost with soil and phosphate fertilizer
-Seeds are drilled into rows 10-15cm apart then the covered with soil at a depth of 1cm
-Mulch the nursery; provide shade, water the seedling regularly at least once per day
-Remove the mulch then seed germinate
-Control pest and diseases whenever necessary
-Thinning and avoiding too much to prevent damping of diseases should be done
-Picking out if seedlings are overcrowded
-Hardening seedlings towards the transplanting age ie 2 weeks before
-Transplanting when seedlings are 10cm tall ie when they are about 3-4weeks old
Manure and fertilizer requirements
-1-2handfulls (upto20t/ha) of manure should be applied per hole
A dressing of phosphate fertilizer (46% p2o5) at 200kg/ha is recommended in soils low in
phosphorous. If acidic use triple or double super phosphate or NPK instead of D.A.P
Top dressed with nitrogenous fertilizer in two splits the first at the rate of 100kg/ha when
seedling are establishing and the second split at the rate of 200kg/ha when the fields starts
to fold
Deficiency of nitrogen leads to depressed yields, delayed maturity reduced keeping
quality and strong or objectionable flavors also symptoms of tip burn and excess nitrogen
leads rapid growth that plants begin to show symptoms of tip burn. Second growth and
splits heads
Boron causes yellowing/chlorosis of youngest leaves leaves and stems starting from the
base and extends to the tips and hollow and discolored inside and shrunken stems
Weeding
Cultivation should be shallow and only as needed to control grass and weeds
Care should be taken not to break the leaves as this interferes with head formation
Mulch can also be used to control weeds and reduce spreads of black rot

Disease control
i) Black rot
Black rot is caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, and is one
of the most serious cabbage diseases in warm climates (20-30 oc). The black rot bacterium
KIBOR Page 23
can carried over-season on infected cabbage seeds, in weeds from the family Cruciferae
(including: black mustard, field mustard, wild turnip, wild radish, shepherd's purse, and
pepper weed); or in infected plant material in the soil.
Symptoms: it causes dwarfing of the plant, yellowing brown dry leaf margins are
observed at early stages with blackened veins. When cut crosswise affected stems have
characteristic black ring. In extreme cases, heading may be hindered or completely
prevented. Affected heads rot and produce offensive odors.
Control:
 Disease-free transplants should be used or seeds must be treated with hot water
treatment as described below.
 Hot water treatment of own seed to prevent seed borne diseases such as black rot,
black leg, black spot and ring spot is recommended where the disease has appeared
before. However, the specified temperature and time interval should be strictly
followed in order to maintain seed viability. Use a good thermometer or better ask
for assistance from qualified personnel from your local agriculture office.
Recommended time for heat treatment for cabbage: 122°F/50°C: 30 minutes, for
broccoli, cauliflower, kale, kohlrabi, turnip:122°F/50°C: 30 minutes.
 Crop rotation; Establish crops in black rot-free soils that have not grown crops from
the family Cruciferae for at least 3 years.
 Growing cabbage on raised beds with mulching helps eliminate conditions that
induce black rot.
 When possible, remove, burn, or deep plough all crop debris immediately after
harvest to reduce the ability of the bacterium to survive in the soil where there is no
crop

Harvesting
Depending on variety harvesting starts 11/2 to 4 months after transplanting and lasts for
4-6 weeks incase of lack of uniformity. At maturity the heads should be firm.
The heads are cut leaving 3-4 wrapper leaves to protect the heads and kept fresh. High
moisture causes splitting in mature heads and avoid bruising the heads as is encourages
rotting.
Yield depends on variety and environmental conditions and ranges from 30-40 t/ha.
Graded if the heads are to be marketed and is according to size.
They should be transported in crates and be arranged with the stem end facing the outer
wall of the crates so as to avoid bruising.
Storage
They can be stored at 0oc and R.H. of 95% for up to [Link] heads should be free
from decay, mechanical injuries and be solid.

KIBOR Page 24
[Link]: Dianthus caryophyllus
Introduction:
It belongs to the family caryophyliacea and indigenous to the Mediterranean areas. The
present cultivars have been bred from wild types over years. Carnation can be grown in

KIBOR Page 25
high altitude in the tropics and the major producing countries are Colombia, Ecuador,
Israel, and Kenya
Kenya produce is exported to Europe and Kenya has the largest open field carnations in
the world. Carnation is valued for its excellent keeping quality of upto 1 month.
Plant characteristics:
It grows from 2 inches to 5 feet high (10-20 inches)
It has greyish –green foliage and fragrant, semi-double rosy.
They bloom mainly during cool times of the year.
They can be cropped indefinitely in some instance for 2-3 years with continuous
production of flowers saves replanting costs and may increase cost of production but
quality is not good.
Varieties
Standard carnation: produces large flowers about 7.5cm in diameter on a sturdy
long stem. The others are removed (disbudded). They do well in highlands and
mainly demanded in india. Examples; zarida, indios, marian, generva, Figaro.
Spray carnation: they have a number of florets per stem i.e lateral flower bud as
well as the terminal flower is allowed to develop so that a spray of flowers is
produced per stem. Often the terminal flower bud is removed so that several of
the laterals will be in the flower simultaneously on the short stems. Varieties
include etna, starlight, Barbara, salmony,tony,ace, bagatel.
They do well in upper midland zones and demanded in world trade.
Ecological requirements:
Altitude :
Standards grow best at 2500-3000m a.s.l while sprays at 1500-1800m
Temperature:
Carnation is a qualitative long day plant and needs ample of sunshine about 8hrs in a day.
Day temperature should be 25oc and night is 10oc for high quality as temperature
fluctuations affects rate of growth and the post harvest quality of the flower.
Sprays can tolerate slightly warmer temperature .day of 24-30 oc and night temp of 10-
15oc .it can also be grown in cooler areas but under cover.
Standards require day temp of 15- 20 oc and night temp of 10-150c for optimum growth
and quality. Temperature above 25 oc or cooler temp during flower bud growth with
increase calyx splitting and number of flowers with weak stems. Temperature below 10oc
will result in the production of the flowers with excess petals.

Rainfall
Best qualities are produced under irrigation.
Soils
Should be well drained, sandy loam soils at a PH of 5.8-7. Sandy soils with poor drainage
increases incidence of disease especially Fusarium oxyporium and verticilium wilt

KIBOR Page 26
Propagation
By seed: mainly used for breeding purpose.
Vegetatively by stem cuttings
The qualities considered during selection include:
 Productivity
 Flower qualities
 Growth habit
 Quality of the shoot
 Stage of development of the shoot
 Disease and pest infestation
For the first three qualities close observations for several months and records maintained
before making a decision while for the others they depend on management practices.
Steps for Propagation by use of cuttings;
 Cuttings are taken from one year old plants after it has flowered i.e be in
vegetative growth and indicated by closely spaced leaves. If from long shoots,
flower buds will have started to develop in the tip; they produce poor quality
plants and grow slowly.
 The cuttings are obtained from healthy and disease free plants maintained for
stem cuttings
 10cm long healthy off shoots are taken out making a slanting cut at an interval of
15 days and planted on a planting bed after dipping the cut end in the rooting
hormone like rootex powder (treated with NAA at 500 ppm for 5 minutes) to
induce rooting.
 The bed is then covered with transparent polythene sheet on a arched bamboo
structure
 The bed is prepared by mixing sieved compost or cow dung and silty loam soil in
proportion of 1:1. The soil should be sterilized first by steam and then by
application of chloropicrin.
 After planting the bed is sprayed with systemic fungicide.
 Roots will strike out within 3-4 weeks after planting and within 30 days it is ready
for sale or planting in the field.
 The propagation bench should provide excellent drained and supplementary heat
is needed ie higher soil temperature 20oc than 13oc for it to root easily.
 Intermittent mist for leaves to remain wet during warm weather and in good light
this may require about 5 seconds of mist every minute.
 Cuttings are removed from propagation chamber when roots are 1cm long. If it is
necessary to keep them for long apply complete fertilizer of 30gm/8lof water.
Planting and spacing
Poles of support system should be inserted during bed preparation and first layer inserted
prior to planting

KIBOR Page 27
Before planting of seedling cuttings the roots are soaked for at least 40 minutes in slurry
of Azospirillum a bacteria culture applied as bio fertilizer which fixes atmospheric
nitrogen in the root zone and make soluble N available to plants.
They should be planted as possible to develop rapid root growth and give young plants a
faster start and it also lowers incidence of root rot and followed by irrigation and a soil
drench with a fungicide to control Rhizoctonia stem rot.
They are planted at spacing of 15 by 15 cm for standards and 20 by 20 cm for sprays in
the bench.
Carnation are planted on the benches at double rows spaced 30cm for the following
advantages:
 Cutting of flowers is facilitated.
 Irrigation and fertilizer application can be done easily.
 Improved air flow through the plants
 Better light at the middle of the middle of the bench is provided
NB: Excess N encourages goose neck and increase susceptibility to botrytis.
Support
Carnation should be supported so that stems grow upright by using several layers of wire
or wire and string or ropes or bamboo sticks across the steel wires.
Posts of metals or timber are placed 3m apart. The first network is placed about 15cm
above the soil and the succeeding network are gradually spaced farther apart until the top
ones are about 30 cm apart (up to 3-4 layers of nets can be laid). For an optimum support,
an increasing width of the meshes can be used. Bottom net can be of 10x10cm, and then
two nets of 12.5x12.5cm and the upper most can be 15x15cm.
Welded wire fabric with spacing same as the type of carnation can also be used. The
wires should be stretched tightly the length of the bench and well anchored because of the
plants weight.
Irrigation
Water requirement is directly related to the radiation received by the plant. The growing
medium for carnation needs to be kept near field capacity. Thus regular watering is
required at least 2-3 times in summer or 2-3 times a fortnight in winter.
Less moisture produces soft elongated growth and low quality flowers while high
amounts results to poor quality flowers.
Open crops yields 150-200flowers/m2; whereas green house crop yields 300-400
flowers/m2 and additional 50% yield can be obtained in ratoon crop.
Pinching
Pinching is a standard practice in carnation growing and involves removal of stem tip in
order to promote:
 Lateral shoots hence more number of flowering stems per plant.
 Delay flowering by two weeks
 Flower stems are produced on shoots from lower stem nodes.

KIBOR Page 28
Pinching starts when the plants are 4-6 weeks old and the stems are pinched back to 4 th or
5th nodes and can be done at least two times. Depending upon the need of crop spread,
single, one and a half or double pinch method is adopted.
Ideal time for pinching is early morning.
When the plant attains 5 nodes, the first pinch is given. This is called ‘single pinch’. This
would give rise to six lateral shoots.
With a ‘one and half pinch’, 2-3 of these lateral shoots are pinched again.
For the ‘double pinch’, all the lateral shoots are pinched off.
The intensity of pinching will determine both yields and time of harvesting. The higher
the intensity of pinching, the higher the yield but as pinching delays flowering, the
harvest will be delayed.

Disbudding
In spray carnation, the terminal flower head is removed before it opens, when it is size of
a pea. This promotes the uniform growth of the lower flower buds and their subsequent
flowering. This is also called knocking.
In standard carnation, it is important to disbud or remove the lateral buds on each stem
down to six nodes below the terminal flower bud in order to promote one main
flower/stem
Correct timing is important for good results i.e. to remove buds as early as possible, but
not when they are still too small as doing so damages the plant.
Fertilizer and manure application:
 Neem cake 2.5 ton/ha, Phosphorus 400 g/100 [Link] and Magnesium sulphate
0.5 kg/100 [Link] are applied as basal.
 Top dressing
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate and MOP at 5:3 ratios is mixed and applied @ 2.5
g/plant/month as top dressing.
Harvesting
It takes 12-16 weeks from planting to first harvest but actual time of harvest depends on;
variety and market. For spray it is done when two or three buds have shown colour i.e
two buds are open and the third is starting to show colour while for standards it is done
when flower heads starts to elongate outside the calyx to show colour.
Harvest stage greatly affects vase life and should be done in the morning for better
turgidity or late in the evening when stems have a higher carbohydrate concentration. It is
done by cutting the stem with a sharp knife. Daily harvest is made leaving bottom 5
nodes of stalk to facilitate side shoot development.
The yield depends on variety and range from 200-300 stems/m2/year.
Field handling
The cut stems are carefully removed from support systems and placed on canvas sling in
bucket of water under shade. They are then transported immediately to pack house and
KIBOR Page 29
place in water bucket with silver thiosulfate preservative (STS) prior to grading and to
remove field heat.
Pack house operations
Sorting: cut flowers are placed on grading table and sorted to discard malformed,
diseased and short stems plus those with defects like slab side, calyx splitting and
bullhead.
Cleaning: is the manual removal of lower leaves for ease of bunching.
Pretreatment: the flowers are highly sensitive to ethylene. They are conditioned
by placing them in a bucket containing a solution of STS (1mm) plus 10% sucrose
for 1-2 hrs at room temperature.
Also Florissant preservative 100 or 150 which contains aluminum sulphate as active
ingredient to help reduce ethylene production and other contains sugars to maximize
flower size and a bactericide to enhance shelf life
Grading: is done according to
 Stem straightness
 Stem length
 Bloom/flower diameter
 Freedom from defects (physical condition) like diseases and pests,
sleepiness, stem crack etc
Grading standards differ from grower to grower and is always graded according to
European regulations and marketed as:
 Class I (Extra class):- are superior quality and characteristics
conforming to species and of the variety.
 Class II satisfy minimum requirements specified in sizing provisions
Bunching: the stems are bunched into 10s or 20s and wrapped with plastic
sleeves, depending on the marketing. The temperature in the grading and packing
area should be 7 & 80c. The stems are then placed in water buckets with a
preservative and kept in cold room overnight at temperature of 2-4 0c and with
relative humidity of 90-95%.
Packing: is done on corrugated fibre board carton each weighing 14kg on
average.
 They are placed on either side of the box to utilize space with 24 bunches
per box or numbers will vary according to quality and preference.
 The end of the flower should be placed 7-12cm from the end of the box to
avoid petal bruising.
 To avoid longitudinal slips packets use cleats (foam or paper wood pieces
that are placed over the product) pushed down and stapled into each side
of the box.
 Cooled immediately after packing to remove heat buildup during packing
that can result to condensation prior to packing.

KIBOR Page 30
 Storage: cartons are stacked in a forced air pre-cooling unit maintained at 20c and
RH of 90-95%
 The stack should allow free air circulation through the boxes and
ventilation holes.
 Then they are ready for transportation to the airport awaiting shipment to
the consumer.

Physiological disorders
Calyx splitting:
As the flower bud opens and petals approach their full size the calyx may split down
either half or completely caused by temperature fluctuations. It occurs due to low
temperature (less than 10%) during growth of flowers buds and an extra whorl of petals is
developed inside the calyx a condition called bullhead, but the calyx is not able to
contain these extra petals and splits. Low nitrogen, high ammonical nitrogen or low
boron levels enhance calyx splitting.
Control
 Higher nitrate to ammonical nitrogen ratio during low periods of
temperature reduces calyx splitting.
 Small rubber bands can be banded on the bud when it shows a small
opening.
 Use resistant cultivars; Espania, Cabarets, Redcorso e.t.c
Slab sides
They are caused when flower buds are grown under cool temperature, buds do not open
evenly, so petals protrude on one side only giving a lob sided shape to the flower. It can
be avoided by heating green houses but not when temperatures are cool.
Sleepiness occurs when flower bud appeared to have been shed for a long time. it
is caused by flower being exposed to a lot of ethylene gas.
Curly tip
this disorder affects the growing tips which curl and become distorted. Tips of the
young shoots fail to separate and continuation of growth results in a characteristic
curvature. Poor light and other adverse conditions are thought to be the causes of
the disorder. Water stress and potassium deficiency are suspected causes for a
physiological curly tip and die-back of carnation flowers.
Pests
Red spider mites (Tetranychus cinnabarinus)
It cause leaves to turn bronze coloured and yellow, lower surface of infected leaves
shows white and yellow sports and are covered by webs.
Control
 Spray with insecticides e.g dicofol, amitraz, propargiteDiscard the plant
and leaf debris.

KIBOR Page 31
 Trips (Thripidae spp)
Adults are dark while immature stages are yellowish. It causes blotches on plant surfaces
( stems, leaves, flowers) which appear as if rasped.
Control
 Use insecticides
Aphids (Aphididae spp)
Are black or green insects found in small colonies sucking the sap of young tender plant
parts causing curling and distortion and retards growth of affected parts (shoots &
branches).
Control;
 Use insecticides
Diseases
Fusarium wilt
It is a soil borne pathogen caused by fungus Fusarium oxysporium. It causes yellowing
and stunting of oldr plants while young plants turn yellow, stunted and die. The damage
starts with older leaves. Infections occur in the roots (soil) and interfere with water
movement.
Control:
 Use fungicides e.g benomyl
 Crop rotation
 Soil fumigation
Rusts (Uromyces spp)
Appear as small orange to brown postules on leaves and other green parts and may cause
defoliation.
Control;
 Use of chemicals e.g triforine
 Avoid over head irrigation as it assists in disease spread.

FRUIT VEGETABLES

1. Tomatoes(lycopersicon esculentum)
The crop belongs to the family [Link] originated from the slopes of Andes
Mountains in South America and most varieties were developed in Europe and from there
have spread to all parts of the world.
The crop is an annual subtropical fruit used as a vegetable and rich in vitamin A, B, C
and potassium. Also it acts as a taste enhancer. Used to make tomato sauce paste and
puree.

Plant characteristics;-
KIBOR Page 32
Has an extensive root system extending horizontally up to 90-150cm
The stem is erect for the first 31-62cm; some extend for a small number of nodes called
determinate and others elongate throughout the growing season called indeterminate.
The leaves are alternate, compound, relatively large, well developed with rather broad
leaflets in some varieties and rather narrow leaflets in others.
Has glandular hairs giving the odors and strains characteristics of tomato plant when
disrupted.
The flowers are borne in clusters on the main axis and on lateral branches which vary
from 4-100 or more depending on type and variety. They are mostly self pollinating
crops.
The fruit is large, juicy and with fleshy ovary which vary in size, shape (oblate, globular,
flattened), color (yellow pink or red) cell number (5-25) and arrangement of cells (regular
or irregular)
Seed is imbedded in a jelly-like mass of tissue containing large quantities of phosphorus
are small covered with a mass of fine hairs.
Juices contain moderate quantities of soluble sugars, several organic acids and mineral
salts and vitamin c

Ecology

Temperature and altitude

The crop is a warm season requiring small growing space although can grow in cool
conditions. wet weather increases incidence of disease, low fruit set and fruit fail to ripen
while very low temperature delay color formation and ripening and retards seedling
growth and absorption of minerals. Exposure to temp below 12 oc causes chilling injury.
High air temp above 27oc can induce pollen sterility.
Optimum day temperatures of 20-25oc and night temp of 15-17 0c are required night
temp of above 29oc affects fruit color development resulting in pink rather than red
fruits. High temp combined with low RH can seriously affect fruit setting, quality, and
color. At temp less than 15oc and>35oc plants will not produce flower. Altitude range
from 0-2100m above sea level is ideal.

Rainfall
The crop can tolerate up to 2300mm but between 760 and 1300mm is ideal, and should
be evenly distributed.

Soils
It should be well drained fertile soils with a ph of 5-7 ideally sandy loam soils.

Varieties;
There are two types
KIBOR Page 33
  Determinate;- terminal bud terminates in a flower, stopping vegetative growth,
as a result the plants are low in stature, compact in growth and develop their fruits
in a relatively short period. Mainly grown for canning and do not need support
and ideal for outdoors production.
 Indeterminate; - terminal bud grows continuously vegetative .flower buds form
from axillary buds. Extend their stems for a large number of nodes and requiring
long growing conditions. They are relatively high in stature open or rangy in
growth and develop their fruit during a relatively long period. They are ideal for
green house production and fresh market. They require support during production.

YIELD AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RECOMMENDED TOMATO VARIETIES

Popular fresh market varieties
VARIETY PLANT SHAPE FRUIT DAYS TO YIELD
GROWTH WGT MATURITY TON/HA
HABIT
Money indeterminate round 75 67 32-50
maker
marglobe “ Globe 188 70 38
marmande “ Round 150 72 32

Early beauty “ Globe 178 71 28

Beauty “ Round 80 70 20
Popular varieties for processing
Roma VF determinate pear 53 120 83
Cal j “ oval 68 120 73
"Roma Nova 100
"Heinz 60
1350"
Sun 100
Marzano"

M 82 “ oval 53 120 57

Others for fresh market are;-

Variety yield
"Early Beauty" 25
"Super Marmande" 85
"Ponderosa" 90
"Hot Set" 40

KIBOR Page 34
"Best of all" 100
"BWN 21" 90
"Kenton F" 32
"Zawadi" 30
"Fortune Maker" 30

Fresh market varieties are normally fleshy and almost round in appearance and have
smooth skin while others are wrinkled .they have poor keeping quality.
Processing varieties are elongated and oval shaped also called plum tomatoes and have
good keeping qualities.
Desired characteristiscs include;-
 Resistance to diseasese especially fusarium wilt.
 Heavy yield of fruit
 Earlyness or lateness of maturity as required
 Suitable fruit size uniformity which is desired for carton and box packing.
 Deep color, evenly developed
 Flesh that is abundantly filled and firm with little watery pulp.

Establishment
The plants are started in the nursery from seed .sow seeds in drills 20cm apart and 1cm
deep, 1cm deep later thin out to 7cm apart in the rows to have sturdy seedlings. They are
ready for transplanting after 4-6 weeks when 10cm high with 4-6 true leaves.
For direct sown seeds the seed rate is 300-500g/ha and 150-200g/ha for pure germinating
seeds for nursery sowing required.

Land preparation;
Avoid lands which solanaceae crops have been growing for the past [Link] field
should be free from weeds and deeply dug.

Transplanting
Dig holes 15cm deep at a spacing of 100 by 60-75cm for canning varieties and 100 by
60cm for fresh market varieties. For double rows; 75-90cm between double rows, 45-
60cm between rows and 45cm between plants. The spacing to be adopted will depend on
cultivar, soil fertility, training and pruning.
Aplly a handful well rotten manure (20 tons/ha) and a teaspoon of D.S.P (200
KG/HA=20g/ plant) in each hole and mix well with the soil. Then the seedling is placed
in the hole and covered with soil to the same level it was in the nursery pressing /firming
the soil a bit.

KIBOR Page 35
Field practices

Gapping
It involves replacing dead seedlings after transplanting .it is done to achieve the
right/correct plant population.

Top dressing
Top dress with100kg/ha of CAN applied in 2 splits first one when plants are 20-25cm
and second when 5 wks later or 3.5 months to maturity i.e. at start of flowering. Excess n
application results in
 Excessive vegetative growth at the expense of fruit production.
 Cracking of fruits before maturity
 Blossom end rot
 Prolonged maturity

Weeding
It should be done to keep the field clean. During weeding care should be taken not to
injure the roots and stem. Too much shaking should be avoided as it may cause premature
fruit fall.

Training
It involves both pruning and support these practices are important when dealing with
indeterminate varieties.

Pruning;-would involve removal of axillary buds so as to end up with the desired

number of shoots per plant done once per week or removal of excess flowers or fruits.
Also fruits and leaves which grow too near the ground should be removed to reduce the
chances of blight attack in tall varieties. This improves on the quality and early yields of
fruits but may reduce on total yields compared with the same planting density of un-
staked and un- pruned plants.

Capping can be done to tall varieties at the height to 1.5-1.8m. This controls upward
growth and encourages development of large fruits.

Supporting;-can be trellising or staking and is usually established when plants are about
50cm high.
Erect sticks 2m long and 4m apart on each side. Each stick is firmly fixed to the ground
next to the tomato plant .a sisal string, banana fibre or other such material is used to tie
the stems loosely to the sticks. Alternately put a stout pole in the ground every 4m and
run two wires one at 2m and one at 0.15m above the ground. The plants can be carefully
twisted around the strings as they grow.
KIBOR Page 36
Reasons for staking
1. for production of clean fruits
2. facilitates cultural practices like spraying a weeding and harvesting
3. controls incidence of disease out brakes such as blight
4. prevents infestation by soil borne pests
5. Harvesting is easened avoiding the marketing of inferior late fruits at a lower
market price.
6. finer quality of fruits i.e. smoother, cleaner and more even in size and color
Disadvantages
1. Much higher cost per acre in plants material and labor for training.
[Link] blossom end rot because root system of pruned plants are restricted as well as
tops which would tend to reduce the capacity of the plant to use the water in the soil .This
in turn would favour blossom end rot which is caused by water deficit.
3. They tend to suffer more from sun scald compared thus care should be taken not to
over expose the fruits.

Pests and their control

1. American bollworms (Heliothis armigera)

The American bollworm is the larva stage of a moth which may be brown, green or pink
in color. The larva is the most destructive stage of the moth and attacks fruits of
tomatoes, citrus, cotton and stems of maize, beans and sorghum tobacco and sweet
pepper. The adult moth lays eggs on young tomato fruits when they hatch the bore into
the fruit. It can grow to a length of 4cm.
The caterpillars bore into fruit and feed on the inner part of the fruit with its head inside
the tomato fruit while the rest of its body is outside; Releasing plenty of excreta (frass)
noticeable on damaged fruit. The feeding holes are entry points for bacteria and fungi
which results to rotting of the attacked part.
Control:-
 Trap crop such as tassel ling maize for ovipositing adult females.
 Chemicallyduring and after fruit set with organophosphates such as malathion
phyrethroids such as ambush, karate etc.

2. Root knot nematodes(Meloidogyne spp)

These induce gell or swellings on the roots causing stunting and eventual wilting of the
[Link] are widely spread in all tomato growing [Link] nematode infestation
leads to loss of yield and poor quality plants.a wide range ofcrops plants and weeds act as
hosts.
Control:
 Crop Rotation with tomato, brassicas, cereals or other non host crops.

KIBOR Page 37
  Use tolerant / resistant tomato varieties (e.g. "Roma VNF","Shengena","Tengeru-
97", "Kentom", "Caracas", "Carmello", "Diego", "Piersol" and "Vegas").
Varieties with the "VFN" label exhibit some resistance.
 Maintain high levels of organic matter in the soil (manure and compost).
 Weeding as many weeds harbor nematodes.
 Leaving the land fallow during dry weather
 Plant nematode free seedlings through application of furadan, mocap or nemacur
in the nursery
3. cutworms ;-a problem in young seedlings
4. Mites and white flies;-suck sap mostly from underside of the leaves and also
transmit viruses. Controlled by insecticides.

Diseases and their control

1. Late blight
It is caused by fungus Phytophthora infestants and incase of any outbreak it can lead
total loss. The disease occurs under cool and high humid conditions especially in wet
season and spreads rapidly after the initial occurrence
The disease is characterized by rapid drying of leaves and brownish dry rot of fruit often
destroying the all whole crop. Brown streak or patches may appear on stems. Under damp
conditions white mycelia appears on affected parts of the leaves, stems and petioles. Also
young fruits are susceptible to the disease. The pathogens travel a considerable distance
hence field sanitation is of little value.

Control:
 Spraying with rindomil ar antracol at intervals of four days in wet weather while
in dry weather once a fortnight.

2. Early Blight (Alternaria solani)

It causes reduction of yields and quality and is serious during hot [Link] causes stem
cankers on seedlings and small irregular dark brown spots on older [Link] they
enlarge,the sports often shows a concentric patterns which distinguishes the sports from
those of late [Link] leads in partial defoliation of the [Link] the fruits it causes
premature fruit drop and low quality fruits.
The fungus survives on plant debrils can infect the seedling and its spreadis favoured by
heavy rains or high humidity and temperatures about 25oc.
Control;-
 Field sanitation
 Crop rotation
 Foliar sprays as for late blight.

KIBOR Page 38
3. Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)
Bacterial wilt has often been reported as the most serious handicap for tomato in the
tropics. The disease causes rapid wilting and death of the entire plant without any
yellowing or spotting of leaves. Total collapse of the plant usually occurring when
temperatures reach 32°C and above. Plant wilts while still green. When the stem of a
wilting plant is cut across, the pith has a darkened water-soaked appearance, and on
squeezing the cut stem, a white, yellow or greyish, slimy exudate may appear. In later
stages of the disease, decay of the pith may cause extensive hollowing of the stem.
Control;
 If only a few wilted plants are found, immediately remove them from the field.
 Practice long-term crop rotation.
 A method called "bio-fumigation" is under development from the Australian Center
for International Agricultural Research for the reduction and long-term elimination
of bacterial diseases from the soil by incorporating especially mustard or radish
plants in large amounts into the soil immediately before planting tomatoes or
potatoes. This practice is reported to reduce incidence of bacterial wilt by 50-70% in
the Philippines (ACIAR 2005/6).

2. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum)

The lower leaves of the plant usually turn yellow and die. One or more branches may
exhibit such symptoms. Leaflets on one side may be affected while those on the other
side are symptomless. Diseased leaves readily break away from the stem. When affected
stems just above ground level and petioles are cut diagonally, a reddish-brown
discolouration of the water conducting tissues will be observed. The fungus is both seed-
and soil-borne. It causes most damage on light, sandy soils. It is most active at
temperatures between 25 and 320 C. The fungus can survive in the soil indefinitely even
when no tomatoes are grown. It can also survive in fibrous roots of weeds (e.g.
Amaranthus, Digitaria and Malva species). Acidic soils (pH 5.0 to 5.6) and excessive
nitrogen fertilisation promote disease development. Infestation by root-knot nematodes
encourages the disease.
Control
 Use resistant tomato varieties (e.g. "Fortune Maker", "Rio Grande", "Tengeru 97",
"Roma VFN").
 Use certified disease-free seeds.
 Do not locate seedbeds on land where Fusarium wilt is known to have occurred.
 Where soil is acidic, raise the pH by applying lime or farmyard manure.
 Avoid excessive nitrogen fertilisation and control root-knot nematodes.

3. Bacterial canker (Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis

The first symptoms are yellowing, curling and wilting of the leaflets, often on one side of
the leaf. The affected leaflets turn brown and dry but remain attached to the plant. The
KIBOR Page 39
whole plant may also show a one-sided disease development. Long brown strips may
appear on stems and shoots. These strips dry and crack open to form cankers from which
the disease gets its name. When an affected stem is cut lengthwise, there is a creamy
white, yellow or reddish-brown line inside the woody tissue. The pith is easily separated
from the wood along this line.

The vascular bundles within the pith are destroyed and cavities are formed in the pith.
Young affected fruits are small, deformed and seeds are aborted. Also spots may develop
on older fruits. These spots are circular, up to three mm wide, with slightly raised brown
centre surrounded by a pronounced white halo resembling a 'bird's eye. The halo is flat.
The bacterium is seed-borne and can survive up to three years in soil in crop debris.
Spread within a crop is by rain splash, sprinklers and pruning knives.
Control;
 Plant tolerant or resistant varieties, if available
 Use certified disease-free seeds.
 Rotate seedbeds and tomato fields with non-solanaceous crops.
 Eradicate solanaceous weeds.
 Avoid sprinkler irrigation where the disease is endemic.
 Avoid working in tomato fields when it is wet.
 Disinfect pruning knives with commercial detergents between plants.

Bacterial spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria)

It is another serious disease, occurring during the rainy season. It is most noticeable on
fruits, but also causes damage to the foliage and stems. On green fruits, the initial spot is
very small and water soaked. It eventually enlarges to about six mm. As the bacterial spot
matures, it becomes brown and scabby without extending deep into the fruit. On foliage,
irregular greasy, dark green spots, 2 to 3 mm wide, are observed. The spots eventually
dry and the tissue often tears. The disease is transmitted through the seed
Control;
 Use certified disease-free seed.
 Remove and destroy crop residues after harvest.
 Avoid working in the fields when plants are wet.
 Spray with copper fungicides; these can control this disease fairly well except under
heavy infection.
 Grow resistant cultivars; this is the best control method for both bacterial diseases,
but resistance is not universal owing to variable strains of the pathogens.
Physiological disorders
1. Blossom End Rot;-
Initially there is water soaked spot near the blossom end of the [Link] turns brown and
enlarges to cover almost half of the [Link] surface of the spot becomes dark and
KIBOR Page 40
leathery, but no soft rots develops unless the spot is invaded by bacteria or fungi it is
caused by;
 Too fast growth during the early stages followed by sudden drought especially if
fruits are too small.
 Excessive nitrogen and infrequent watering
 Calcium deficiency in young fruits
 Water logging thus water uptake is affected
Control;
 Liming in calcium deficient soils
2. Growth cracks
It is characterized by cracking of the fruit surface at the stem end proving avenue for
secondary infections and is caused by erratic watering, over maturity of fruits, exposure
to excess sun due to over pruning, onset of rains following a dry spell. It can be
controlled by use of resistant varieties like mar globe instead of money maker.
3. Sunscald;
It is caused by exposure of green fruits to direct sunlight and common in pruned tomato
characterized by yellow or white patches on the fruit part exposed to the sun. The
affected part remains yellow when the fruit ripens.
Controlled by protecting the fruit from excessive sunlight, use resisted cultivars and good
cultural practices like light pruning.

4. Puffiness
Puffiness is as a result of inability of the fruits to get filled instead it has some empty
locules .the affected fruits are light in weight and feel soft. It is caused by environmental
factors that influence pollination, fertilization, and fruit fill. High temp have been
indicated as possible cause. It is controlled by growing crop under favorable temp.
Harvesting;-
Fresh-market tomatoes are often harvested at the mature-green stage and ripened in
transit or in storage before they are marketed. Ethylene is sometimes used to rapidly and
uniformly ripen mature-green tomatoes prior to shipping them to the market, but this
adversely affects quality. This is not a common practice in Kenya.
Generally, tomatoes harvested at pre-ripe stages tend to be of lower quality (lower
soluble solids, ascorbic acid and reducing sugars) than vine-ripened tomatoes, processing
tomatoes are picked fully ripe.
After picking, tomatoes should be stored in a shady place either in the field or at home to
prepare them for the market.
Properly sorted and graded fruits generally command a better market price than
ungraded fruits. The marketable fruits are then packaged in suitable containers, often 20-
kg wooden boxes, bamboo baskets, plastic boxes, or other locally available packaging
materials. Proper packaging protects fruits from injury and reduces water loss.

KIBOR Page 41
 The storage life of tomatoes depends on the maturity stage at which they were harvested
and on the desired quality of fruits. Quality is highest when completely ripe, whether
artificially or on the vine. Ideally mature-green tomatoes should be stored for 7 to 10 days
at 13 to 18°C at 85 to 90% RH so that they will ripen properly. Colour is the single most
important visual parameter of tomato quality. Lycopene development at temperatures
above 30°C is generally poor. This is the main reason that tomatoes grown in the hot
tropics tend to have a pale red or yellowish colour and are poorly flavoured.
Yields range from 20-100 ton/ha depending on variety and management practices

2. CUCUMBER: Cucumis sativus

Cucumber belongs to the family cucurbitaceae and it originated from India(slopes of

Himalayas. There are three varieties;
 The common long cucumber green in color
 Lemon cucumber are small, round and pale yellow
 Russian varieties are round, brownish and netted
It is a fruiting vegetable with different shapes and sizes. The fruits start as green and as
they ripen they turn to various shades of white, yellowish, orange-yellow or brownish
yellow. The skin of young fruits has prickly warts which disappear as they ripen. They
are best eaten raw or cooked for a short period.
They are rich in carbohydrates, vitamin C, Fe and K. They have an enzyme that break
down proteins and cleanses intestines. Its juice heals internal inflammations, sore throats.
Their skins have chlorophyll, silicon which are lost when the vegetable is peeled. there
are three types;-
 Green house or indoor includes the following varieties:- crystal, danimas, yamato,
 Outdoors or ridge includes the following varieties:- tasty green, Chicago pickling,
crystal lemon, long green improved, market more, boothy blond(fat yellow)
 Pickling cucumbers or gherkins includes the following varieties:-arena, athene,
gherkins, hokus
KIBOR Page 42
Cucumber popular varieties:-
 Ashley:-outdoor, takes 65 days to maturity and are long with spines.
 Dalibor F1;-is outdoor, takes 60 days to maturity and are long & smooth.
 Danora F1; - outdoor, takes 65 days to maturity and are long & smooth.
 Palomar; - outdoor, takes 60 days to maturity and are long, smooth & cylindrical.
 Nisi F1; - outdoor, takes 70 days to maturity and are long smooth & cylindrical.
 Future F1; - green house takes 70 days to maturity and are long & smooth.
 Amazing F1; - green house takes 70 days to maturity and are long & smooth.
 Datana F1; - green house takes 70 days to maturity and are long & smooth.

All cucumber is sensate to cold and is not refrigerated. The ethylene gas released by
tomatoes turns them yellow hence they should be stored separately. They are warm
season crops. They are direct seeded, transplanting is not recommended.

Factors considered when selecting varieties;-

 Yielding ability
 Horticultural characteristics such as;slow seed development inside the fruit,ability
to maintain a glossy appearance as they mature and slicing cucumber should be
uniform, smooth and dark green.
 Consumer preference in terms of color, shape:should have appropriate length to
diameter ratio and flavor.
 Disease and pest resistance
 Adaptability to the prevailing environmental conditions.

Climatic requirement:
Cucumber is a tropical crop and grows best during warm to hot weather with optimum
temperatures of 21-280C and altitudes of 1700m above sea level. Water requirement is
high. The soils should be deep, well drained with sandy loam texture which should be
high in organic manure and PH of 5-7.5 .mainly grown in Eastern, Central, and Coast and
R. Valley provinces.

Land preparation and planting;-

The land should be prepared to a fine tilth, to a depth of at least 22cm since most of its
roots are in the top 22cm of the soil profile. The seedbed should firm with a uniform
texture before planting also incorporate well rotten manure at the rate 30 t/ha or put
inside the planting hole(one hand full).
They are directly seeded and transplanting is not recommended. Spacing is 1-1.2m apart
with an in row spacing of 22-30cm at a seed rate of 2.5-3kg/ha and planted at a depth of
[Link] depending on variety, environment, temperature, soil type and moisture
but range from 45-75cm and sow 3-4 seeds, they will germinate in 5-10 days and later
thin to 1 plant/hill.
KIBOR Page 43
Field management

Fertilization
One hand full of well rotten manure should be applied per hill. Apply 150-200kg/ha of
(46%P2O5) phosphate fertilizer (TSP) OR DAP at planting and mixed well with the soil.
Then top dress with 150-200kg/ha CAN around the base of the plant after thinning and
later 300-400kg/ha before flowering. Avoid further use of N as it delays in maturity,
reduced shelf life and reduced fruit set.
Irrigation
Water is a critical component in production of cucumber. They are fleshy fruits with 90%
water. The crop is also shallow rooted and are often grown in sandy loamy soils with low
water holding capacity.
Inadequate water may result in inconsistent stands and may delay maturity which has
adverse effects on marketing. Water stress in early vegetative stage results in reduced
leave area and reduced yield, while during flowering and fruit development results in
small and misshapen fruit. Several types of irrigation are used and depends on
 Availability of existing equipment
 Field shape and size.
 Amount and quality of water available
 Labour requirement
 Fuel requirements and costs
Weed control:-
Important for the following reasons;-
 Weeds compete with the crop for light space nutrients and water,
 Promotes disease problems and harbors disease.
 they reduce ability to harvest effectively
 Reduce the quality of marketable fruits
 It increases cost of production.
Early weed control is necessary as is difficult once the vines begin to run. Methods of
control include the following;-
a) Hand weeding;-is safe to the crop and should be performed when the crop and
weeds are small with extensive root system may damage crop roots or vines.
b) Crop rotation
c) Mechanical cultivation; - is best for small weeds that are easy to uproot. it
should not be performed once the plants have began to vine, the vines are tender
and easily damaged by tractor wheels or cultivators. this method should be
supplemented with chemical or hand weeding to remove those in the rows
d) Soil fumigation for predominant weed species
e) Synthetic/plastic mulch with drip irrigation; - black non light transmitting
plastic eliminates light required for weed germination.
Trellising
KIBOR Page 44
It is important for cucumbers as it allows maximization of space by controlling vine
growth and protecting the fruit from rotting. It also allows production of fruit with
uniform shape and color. The fruits also grow longer and straighter. The most common
method of trellis is a single overhead wire supported but strong posts. The vines are then
trained along the trellises from the base until they reach the wire.
Pest control-;
a) Aphids (Aphis gossypii)
The cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii) is common on cucurbits, including cucumber.
Colonies of green to blackish aphids are found on tender shoots, mainly on the lower leaf
surface, where they suck sap. The growth of the attacked shoots is stunted and the leaves
are curled and twisted. Aphids excrete honeydew, which leads to growth of sooty mould,
and may attract fruit flies. Aphids, in particular winged aphids, transmit virus diseases
(e.g. cucumber mosaic virus) when moving from plant to plant.
Control
 Plant barrier crops
 Apply sticky traps
 Use botanicals (e.g. neem extracts)
 Use reflective mulch (e.g a polyethylene sheet covered with a thin layer of
aluminium that is spread out on the growing bed at planting time). Covering the
ground with a material like aluminium foil repel winged aphids, delay aphid
colonisation and may delay virus infection
b) Fruit flies (Bactrocera cucurbitae, Dacus spp and Ceratitis capitata)
Fruit flies are important pests of cucumber and other cucurbits.
Fruit flies are about 4-7mm long, they pierce the fruits and lay eggs in fruits. The fruit fly
maggots feed inside the fruit causing sunken, discoloured patches, distortions and open
cracks. These cracks serve as entry points for fungi and bacteria, causing fruit rot.
Control
 Avoid continuous cultivation of cucumbers at the same place since this may lead to
fruit fly outbreaks.
 Destroy all infested fruit
 In small plots, wrap individual fruits or bag them with newspaper or paper bags to
prevent fruit flies from laying eggs fruits. Wrapping or bagging should be started
shortly after fruit set.
 Spray with a pyrethrum solution in the evenings after the bees are mostly back in
their hives (after 6 pm). There is a product commercially available called Flower-DS,
made of natural pyrethrum and acceptable in Organic certified systems
- Precautions: Be careful to spray late in the evening, follow the spraying
instructions. Wear masks and skin protection.
All insect poisons are also poisonous to humans even if coming from natural sources.

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 - Frequency of spraying: start shortly after beginning of flowering, and repeat approx
every 5 days or according to counts.
 Frequent applications of neem can keep fruit fly attack to a minimum
c) Red spider mites (Tetranychus spp.)
Red spider mites attack leaves of cucumber. Adults are about 0.6 mm long. Attacked
leaves have a stippled appearance, turn yellowish to whitish and dry up. Often young
plants are entirely destroyed. In older plants growth can be severely stunted and the fruit
set considerable reduced. Spider mites can be a problem in dry and hot conditions. Plants
under water stress (drought) are more likely to suffer damage by spider mite
Control
 Conserve natural enemies. Predatory mites and anthocorid bugs are important in
natural control of mites
 Avoid use of broad-spectrum pesticides. They may kill natural enemies and may lead
to mite outbreaks
 Provide good growing conditions for plants. Healthy plants are more likely to
withstand mite attack. Adequate irrigation is particularly important. Apply mulch
and incorporate organic matter into the soil to improve the water holding capacity
and reduce evaporation
Disease control;-
a) Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis)
Symptoms on leaves appear as small, pale-yellow areas on upper leaf surface. Under
humid conditions, a purplish, grey whitish growth may be seen on the underside of the
yellowish spots. Affected leaves curl, shrivel and die.

Most downy mildew fungi require cool weather for reproduction and development. This
is not true of the cucurbit downy mildew fungus. Optimum temperature for infection is at
16 to 22º C. It can survive when temperatures are over 37.8º C. The most critical factor
for infection is a film of moisture and / or long dew periods on leaves. Disease spread is
primarily through wind and rain splash. The fungus attacks only members of the
cucumber family, mostly those that are cultivated, although it can infect wild cucumber
and a few other weed hosts.
Control
 Use resistant varieties, if available
 Leave wide spacing between plants
 Avoid overlap cucumber plantings
 Copper fungicides at 0.1% can provide control
b) Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca fuliginea and Erysiphe cichoracearum)
Symptoms first develop as a whitish talcum-like powdery growth on lower leaf surface.
The powdery growth is composed of fungal spore mass. These areas covered by white
powdery growth may enlarge and join up to cover both lower and upper leaf surfaces.
Severely affected leaves dry turn brown and become brittle. Vines can be also attacked.
KIBOR Page 46
Secondary effects of the disease include sun-burning and premature ripening of fruits.

Powdery mildew affects cucumber, gourd, muskmelon, pumpkin, squash and

watermelon. Other hosts include African violets and pawpaw. The powdery mildew fungi
are influenced by plant age, humidity and temperature. Foliage is most susceptible 16 to
23 days after unfolding. The fungi reproduce under dry conditions. Infection increases as
humidity increases, but does not occur when leaf surface is wet. Optimum temperature
for infection is about 27.4º C. However, infection can take place at a temperature as high
as 32º C and relative humidity as low as 46%.
Control
 Use resistant varieties, if available
 Spray with sulphur based fungicides, which provide good control
 Destroy weeds belonging to the cucurbit family
c) Anthracnose (Colletotrichum orbiculare)
The fungus can attack all the above-ground plant parts. Cotyledons (seed leaves) of
affected seedlings droop and wilt. Lesions (elongated spots) may form on stems of
affected seedlings near the ground. Spots on leaves start as small yellowish areas then
enlarge and turn brown. The affected tissue dries, breaks and the whole leaf dies. On
vines, the spots are elongated and may kill the vines.

Symptoms are most noticeable on fruits. Spots on fruits are circular, black, and sunken.
When wet, the centres of the spots become salmon coloured due to a mass of fungal
spores. Affected fruits can be destroyed by secondary soft-rot organisms, which enter
through broken rind. The fungus is seed-borne. It can survive in crop debris and in weeds
belonging to the cucurbit family. Fungal development is promoted by wet conditions,
high relative humidity and moderate temperatures (20 to 23.9º C). Its host range includes
cucumber, gherkin, gourd, muskmelon, and watermelon. Cucurbit weeds can also be
attacked.
Control
 Use resistant varieties, if available
 Use disease-free seeds
 Practice crop rotation
 Destroy volunteer cucurbits and weeds

d) Angular leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans)

The Spots on leaves are angular in shape and variable in size due to leaf veins that limit
their enlargement. Initially, spots are water-soaked. In moist weather, bacteria ooze from
the spots in tear-like droplets, which dry making the tissue white. Affected leaf dries and
shrinks and it may tear away from the healthy portion leaving irregular holes. Leaves
approaching maturity are more susceptible than older leaves. Fruits may also be attacked.
Fruit spots are small, nearly circular and superficial. The bacteria survive in association
KIBOR Page 47
with seed. When infected cucumbers are used for seed extraction, the seed can be
contaminated during fermentation process.

The bacteria can also survive in soil or infected crop debris. Drainage water can spread
the bacteria in the soil. Angular leaf spot disease is favored by wet conditions, frequently
associated with rainfall and overhead irrigation. Optimum temperature for disease
development is 23.9 to 27.8º C. The disease attacks gherkin, muskmelon, pumpkin,
squash, vegetable marrow and watermelon.
Control
 Use resistant varieties, if available
 Use disease-free seed
 Practice crop rotation. A crop rotation of 1 to 2 years is recommended
 Avoid run-off water from nearby cucurbit fields and overhead irrigation

Harvesting
Cucumber should be picked at frequent intervals to avoid loses from over maturity .it is
done manually at intervals of 1-3 days a week depending on environmental conditions.
Wet fruit should not be picked as it encourages disease development. Care must be taken
to avoid damages during harvesting. Cucumber quality is primarily based on;-
 Uniform shape
 Firmness
 Medium to dark green skin color
 Absence of handling defects
Fruits are picked 50-8- days after sowing when they are 15-20cm long.
Marketing
The fruits are graded according to color, thickness and shape. Damaged, dirty, irregularly
shaped and over mature fruits are sorted out. They are packed in suitable containers to
protect them during transportation and lined with clean tissue paper.
Agricultural produce export rules cap 319 stipulates that;-
 All cucumber or courgettes meant for export shall be fresh, of uniform green
color, reasonably straight &of uniform thickness the seed is soft.
 They shall be free from dirt disease, decay, insect or mechanical damage.
 Every container intended for export shall have fruits of similar variety with the
same size and shape.
 They shall be packed in rigid containers of timber or cardboard with perforators
on one side to ensure free air circulation.

3. Water melon (cucumis melo)

Introduction:
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 Water melon is a warm season crop and can be grown on any well drained soil at a ph of
6.5. They have high demand in European markets due to unfavorable weather conditions
that exist there.
Varieties:-
varieties Date to Size(kg) Characteristics
maturity
Golden crown 80 3-5 Red flesh, turns yellow when ripe green skin round
shape
Sugar baby 80 3-5 Red flesh, dark green skin round shape
Charleston red 90-100 10-12 Red flesh, oblong shape, green mottled skin, high
resistance to disease
Crimson sweet 90 10-12 Red flesh, light green with light strips, oblong shape
Charleston grey 90 14-18 Red flesh, light green with mottled skin, oblong shape
Oso F1 80 12-15 Deep red flesh, light green with light strips, oblong
shape, resistant to anthracnose and fusarium

Planting and spacing

Seeds germinate at soil temperatures of 16-32 oC at <20OC it is slow and it takes 5 days
for germination. The depth of planting is 2.5cm at a seed rate of 1.5-2.5 kg/ha depending
on seed size, germination and spacing. They are transplanted or direct seeded
Advantages of transplanting
 Plants can be produced in green house conditions when outdoor conditions are
not conducive.
 Seed-use efficiency increases especially for costly hybrids.
 Soil crusting and damping off harm full to seedling growth is reduced.
 Planting depth is more uniform.
 Usually results in earlier harvesting.
 Cost effective way to grow seedless water melons.
Disadvantages
 High variable costs
 Increased labor costs
 Holding plants if weather delays planting.
 Fragile seedling usually break during transplanting
 Higher cost than direct seeded if newly transplanted seedlings are killed by
drought
 Increased disease incidence such as purple blotch.
Successful transplanting depends on four basic requirements;-
 A weed, insect and disease free medium.
 Adequate warmth and moisture.
 High intensity good quality light for plant growth.
 A hardening-off period when plants are subjected to lower temperature and less
watering before transplanting.

KIBOR Page 49
Field management
Fertilizer and manure application:
Apply one debe of manure per planting hole then 125g of DSP per hole at planting. When
plants start to spread top dress with 65g of CAN/plant, when they start to spread to flower
, apply a further 130g/hole(220kg/ha).
Too much N causes poor color development while potash cause plants to fruit properly
and improve quality of fruits.

Irrigation;-
The evapo-transpiration water melon is higher (water used by the crop and evaporated
from the soil) from:
 From planting until plants begin to run,1/2 water should be applied whenever top
soil is dry(5-6 days)
 The time plants begin to run until first bloom ¾ inches should be applied evenly 5
days on dry weather and if wilting occurs before noon frequent watering should
be done.
 From 1st bloom until harvesting, 1” should be applied every 4 days during dry
weather above 38oc. The interval is reduced to 3 days to reduce stress.
Weed control;-
The spreading type makes weeding difficult once the vines begin to form. Perennial
weeds such as grasses are difficult to control but frequent mechanical disturbance before
planting reduces severity of weeds. Non selective herbicides may also be used to
eradicate the weeds.
Hand weeding provides very effective weed control but is limited to small weeds that can
easily be uprooted.
Mechanical cultivation should be avoided when the plants begin to run/spread, since the
vines are very tender and break easily. Mechanical control must be supplemented with
chemical or hand weeding to remove weeds in the rows after the plants produces vines.
Melon defects/ physiological disorders:
 Blossom end rot
It is caused by calcium deficiency, moisture stress or both. Control includes adequate
amounts of Ca, proper soil ph6-6.5 and uniform sufficient supply of moisture because
such melons are unmarketable.
 Hollow heat or white heat

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This defect is caused by genetic factors, environmental conditions, and nutrition. It can be
prevented by growing resistant varieties, and growing the crop to its right nutritional and
moisture conditions.
 Sun scalds
It is caused by intense sunlight and is very severe on dark colored melons. It reduces
quality by making melons less attractive and may predispose them to rotting. Shading
may help in preventing sunscald also practice light pruning.
 Sand blasting
It occurs when wind and blowing sand damage seedlings when first planted. This appears
as dead or dying tissue usually on side of the prevailing winds

Disease and pest control:-

Same as for cucumber
Harvesting and handling
Water melons are considered best for eating when their flesh matures to produce a sweet
flavour, crisp texture and deep red color. Determining maturity without tasting is not easy
because extend skin appearance does not always predict good internal flesh quality and
full maturity. It takes 3-5 months to mature and other indicators of maturity are;-
 Tendrils on vines nearest to the fruit are wilting and have changed color from
green to brown.
 The ground spot on the belly of the melons has changed from white to lightly
yellow.
 The thumping sound changes from a metallic ringing when immature to a soft
hollow sound when mature.
 The green bands (striped varieties) gradually break up as they intersect at the
blossom end of the melon.
 Ribbed indentations which can be felt with the finger tips occur along the
elongated body (Charleston grays).
Melons for distant markets are harvested when mature but before full ripeness to
minimize handling damage during transportation. They should have consumed with in 2-
3 weeks after harvesting because of loss of their crispiness. Generally mature melons are
characterized by being very firm, not yielding to pressure and flesh color of deep red.
If harvested immature, red color will develop but is not sweet because sugar content does
not increase after harvesting. They should harvest before vines become over withered/
over mature. Over maturity is characteristic by flesh with powdery texture and reddish
orange in colour.
Harvesting and handling costs are higher than growing costs. Therefore they must be
harvested at the right stage of maturity and handled gently to avoid damages and ensure
KIBOR Page 51
market quality. They should not be pulled, twisted or broken off but rather cut from the
vine. This would provide entrance to fungi & bacteria hence decay .After cutting from
vines, they should be turned down since the bottoms are susceptible to sunscalds. They
should also never be stacked on their ends because the blossom end is the most
susceptible area for bruising.
Harvesting mature dry melons can reduce abrasions caused by sand on the surface at
harvest. Don’t harvest wet melons and stack them as this increases chances for
decay .direct sunlight causes internal flesh breakdown & decay increases decay therefore
shading is necessary workers must not sit, stand or walk when loading as they cause
compaction damages. Overheating can result in increases decay and quality loss hence
trailers for transportation should be well ventilation.

GRAPES: Vitis vinifera

Introduction:
The crop belongs to the family Ampelidaceae (vitaceae) and is the most important fruit
crop accounting for about one quarter of fruit production of the world. They are grown in
temperate regions and other regions where there is warm sunny climate with mild winters
and dry periods for fruit ripening. Its production is known as viticulture.
It can be pressed into wines, consumed fresh or dried. The soil types, climatic conditions,
grape cultivar and production technique contributes to differences in wines produced.
Varieties:
i) Table varieties are made from grapes with high acidity and low sugar. They
include; - Almeria, delight, Bangalore blue, beauty seedless, Thompson
seedless, cardinal etc.
ii) Raisin varieties; - they include; Thompson seedless, Muscat of Alexandria,
black Corinth, seedless sultana.
iii) Wine varieties: we have
-Red wine varieties; - Salvador, missim, refosco, alealico.
-Red wine varieties;-aligole, chardonnay, palominto, seinillon white reisling.
iv) Juice grapes ;- beauty seedless, early Muscat, champion, black champa,
Bangalore blue
Ecology
 Altitude
The crop can be grown from sea level upto 1900m above sea level
 Temperature
Require warm to hot climates and mean temp of between 18-24 [Link] sunny dry weather
is essential during fruit development and ripening [Link] areas in Kenya are found
in Baringo, Taveta, Mchakos, Yatta, lower Thika, Timau and Meru north.
 Soil

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It grows in wide range of soils but best in sandy loam to clay soils provided they are well
drained. They should be at least 2m deep and well supplied with organic matter.
 Rainfall
Irrigation is used to start the crop since grape season commence short before onset of
short rains. Apply 25mm/week until bunches break color .about 500mm of irrigation
water will be necessary for the season of September to march. Withhold irrigation after
the long rains to force the grapes into dormancy.

Propagation
Through cane cuttings and in poor vineyards may be improved through grafting and
rootstock should be tolerant to nematodes.

Nursery establishment
-The nursery is prepared to a fine tilth well before the main pruning of the dormant
mother vines.
-Then ditches 20cm wide and 30cm deep and 1.5 m apart are dug along the nursery field.
-Select annual canes from vigorous mother vines of consistent high productivity and
quality during the dormant pruning.
-Cut the canes to 30-35cm lengths. Make base and top incision 2-3mm below and above
the bottom and top respectively.
-Space cuttings 15cm apart in the ditches, then fill-up the trenches with moist soil.
-Irrigate the whole nursery regularly for faster establishment.
-Fertilizer should not be applied until the nursery is well established as this would inhibit
root development. Once established, top dress the crop with C.A.N to encourage
vegetative growth.
-Weeding;-keep the nursery free from weeds
-Pest ad diseases control should be done as need arises
-Transplanting is done after one year.

Vine yard Establishment

 Land preparation
The land should be ploughed and harrowed well before planting. Remove all perennial
grasses and sedges.
 Spacing
Make rows 3m apart and space vines 2m apart in rows to get 1600 plants/ha in holes
large enough to accommodate the roots when evenly spaced.
 Transplanting
-Lift one year rooting in full dormancy from nursery towards the end of the cool period
(aug-sept).try to lift with most of the roots attached, select the strongest shoots and prune

KIBOR Page 53
off the others. the trim off the top of the cuttings with the strong shoots, leaving 2-3
strong buds plus very long roots so that the cuttings fits snugly in the planting hole.
-add 120g of D.S.P OR T.S.P and mix well hand full of top soil, then fill the hole with
water.
-When all the water is soaked up into the ground, lower the cutting carefully into the
hole. Place in such a way that 2-3 buds are left above the ground level. Fill the hole with
moist soil and firm around the roots without bending them.
-Cover the protecting stump with a mound of loose soil.
-Irrigate the vineyard immediately, then at weekly intervals. New shoots emerge in 2-3
weeks.

Field maintenances of young vineyard

 Fertilizer
Top dress with 200g of CAN around each plant base 3 months after transplanting.
 Irrigation
Irrigate at fortnight interval when the vines are properly established.
 Formative pruning and training
This is pruning at the initial stages to establish desired shape for future production.
-simple pruning is done when one year old vine go dormant.
-select the strongest, straightest shoots and prune off the others as close to the plant base
as possible.
-pinch off the growing tip when it reaches the first wire of the trellis.
-this will cause new growth of the buds closest to the pruning wound.
-select 2 of these and train them to opposite directions on the lower middle wire
respectively.
- For T (pregola) trellis and the veranda trellis as many shoots as possible are allowed to
grow and run across the top of trellis.
-for T and veranda the shoots are pinched at the mid point of the space between adjacent
vines to stop further terminal growth. This encourages the lateral shoot formation.
- The laterals form the future pruning and fruiting points.
The laterals are then trained to the top wires alternately for T trellis pergola and across
the trellis on opposite directions for veranda when these have grown to sufficient length
they are tipped to prevent excessive growth of which would spoil the form of the vine.

Trellising:
This is done to support the vine framework expose the foliage to the sunlight which
improves quality and quantity of grapes and to expose them to chemicals for effective
disease control. Should be established one or two years after planting
4 trellis types are currently used in Kenya .these are
KIBOR Page 54
 a. Perold or (T) trellis
b. Veranda or slanting trellis
c. Double verandas
d. Overhead or pergola

a. Perold or (T) Trellis

Consist of a three wire system two of which are strained at each end of 1m long timber
across piece attached to the top of an upright post 2.9m above the ground level .The other
wire is strung on the post at 90cm from the ground level
The vine is strained as a two arm cordon along the lower wire and the laterals trained on
the top wires alternate to give a V shaped framework
This is the cheapest and simplest form of trellising but yields are low since little
productive wood can be maintained

b. Veranda or slanting trellis

-Consist of across piece attached to the top of an upright post at an angle of 45-50 0
-The cross period is usually longer than 1.5cm and is nailed and braced to the post such
that 2/3 of it projects to the front
-Wires are strung along the cross pieces at 27-30cm intervals
-One wire being along the top of the post two at each extreme and additional wire in
between
-The vines is the trained up to the middle wire and arms trained along the wire on either
sided on the trunks
-The arms can then bend over the secondary wires thus lengthening the productive wood
on this system
-Laterals are trained across the wires in the same direction as the across piece
-The bunches will then hung down and be protected from sun scorching by the foliage
c. Over head or pergola
Two strong posts (cedar resistant to pest and weathering) are erected and connected at
each extreme end of the two rows
Intermediate post are similarly erected if the rows are long
A metal cross piece is attached to join the two posts at each extreme end other posts and
connected with strong timbers
Steel wires are then strung at intervals of 30-45cm across the piece

Standard dimensions
Vines space of at 3*3 or 3*4 cross piece should be 3m long, height from the ground
should be about 2m with a post at every fourth trellis line.
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-Vines are trained to the trellis by a string of sisal twine from base of the vine to the
frame work
-Vines from two rows should meet and cross on top of the trellis.
-As many as possible are allowed per single vine to evenly cover the available trellis
space
-Bunches will hang down and be protected from sunburn and bird damage.
-This is the most elaborate and expensive method of trellis.

Maintenance of a mature orchard

 Pruning
-Laterals formed on the horizontal arms during formative pruning are used as bearers of
succeeding seasons.
-At dormant pruning, these are pruned either as long or short spurs depending on vigour
and fertility of vine.
-The first two or three main buds on the laterals are generally unproductive on most
varieties.
-Shoots are therefore generally pruned longer than three buds for fruit production and if
necessary pruned short to produce vegetative shoots for the following season. We have:

i) Green pruning and tying

Under favourable conditions the shoots after bud break grow very rapidly. Growing
shoots should be spread evenly on the trellis to eliminate crowding and consequently
diseases. This is done by tying the shoots at reasonable intervals with sisal twines and
removing tendrils which are nuisance when entangled with foliage.
When laterals reach reasonable length of up to 1m, they are topped to prevent further
terminal growth this encourages an increase in size of bunches.
If growth has been luxurious, the lower leaves near bunches are removed to open up the
canopy and facilitates easier becoming and pollinations and discourage disease
development. Thin off excess shoots in case of favourable bud break.

ii) Bunch tipping and berry thinning

Some varieties form clusters. The tips of the bunch should be cut before blooming to
encourage better fruit se e.g in docrelabi
In varieties forming compact bunches berries should be thinned by use of blunt scissor at
an early age. This improves berry size and grape quality.
Later thinning should be done for all diseased, scarred and sunburn.

Factors considered while pruning;-

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 1. Pruning is done to balance wood and fruit product in the following season.
2. As much wood as possible should be left as spur to produce a balanced vegetable
fruit growth in the following season.
3. The healing capacity of the vine is generally low and therefore cuts should be
made as small and as clean as possible at high angles to the stem about 1.0cm
above the top bud.
4. Cover large wounds with graft wax or Bordeaux paste to prevent excessive loss of
moisture.
5. Remove all pruned part from the vine to discourage pests and diseases build up.

 Fertilizer application
The main should be maintained regularly to maintain a high level of production of high
quality fruits
Organic matter
Best applied as manure or compost and spread immediately after harvest up to 30t/ha can
be applied can be applied.
Nitrogen
Quantity to be applied depends on age and cropping pattern of the vine
-450-600g of CAN in splits application is recommended for vines over 3 years old
-First after dormant pruning just prior to bud break, second after harvest and for heavy
crop a light application is made during berry set.
-Applied in form of urea irrigation should follow after application.
-Over application of nitrogen causes plants to have more leaves than fruit set, while under
application results to low yield
Phosphorous
-Promotes vigorous and strong roots and hastens maturity
-Should be applied at the planting time at 125g super phosphate per plant (200kg/ha) in
the planting hole.
-Regular use of farm manure and other organic manure facilitate utilization of top dressed
P. Top dress with super phosphate 200-400g/plantor 300-600kg/ha after dormant pruning
and work this well in the roots zone.
- Leaves with greenish bluish color with a dull tint at the edges may be symptoms of
deficiency

Potash
Influences fruits production and quality especially sugar and acid content
About 100g of manure of potash per plant (100-200kg/ha) worked well.

 Disease control
A routine spray programme should be started and repeated fortnightly as soon as new
growth emerges in all the three major vine diseases
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 i. Powdery mildew
ii. Anthracnose
iii. Downey mildew

i. Powdery mildew
Caused by fungus Uncinular necator

Symptoms
Powdery coating on the underside of leaves and on the bunches. This causes curling and
shivering of leaves which later dies berries crack resulting into total crop lose if the
disease is not controlled
Control
-Use fungicides
-Plant resistant varieties
ii. Anthracnose
Caused by fungus (Elsinoe amphelina)
Symptoms
-Causes grayish black lesions with depressed centers and raised borders on shoots,
tendrils and clusters
-Isolated leaf spots are pale grey with reddish brown or purple borders spots enlarge and
remain round or graying at the center with dark borders.
Control
-Spray fungicide as soon as the new growth emerges

iii. Downey mildew

Caused by Plasmopara viticola
Symptoms
-Initially light translucent spots form on the upper leaf surface, attacking leaves at the
center of the vines
-Soon after powdery coatings form on the underside of leaves, seriously affected leaves
crumble and fall off the vines
-Flowers and young clusters may be attacked and killed
-Later dropping of the virus infested berries withers, turn brown and finally shrivel falling
off the clusters
 Pests
1. Systates weevils
Worst pest and usually hides on mulch or cracks in the trellis posts and emerge to eat
young buds and leaves at night
Control
-Avoid mulching vines
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-Remove all bark from posts and stakes used to train or trellis the vines
-Dust the cracks and crevices with all aldrin 2.5% and sprinkle has around the plant too.
2. Scales
This attacks the plants causing sloughing off of the bark and many completely kill the
vine

Control
-Prune off dead or affected parts and burn them

 Physiological disorders
i) Shatter
-Is loss of berries from the cap stem and it increases in severity with increasing maturity
I,e the longer the fruit remains on the vine
-gibberellin applied at the fruit set weakens berry attachment
-It occurs mainly due to rough handling during field packing with additional shatter
occurring all the way to final retail scale
Reduced by
 Control pack depth and fruit packing density using cluster bagging
 Gentle handling
 Maintaining recommended temperature and R.H
ii) Water berry
-Is associated with fruit ripening and most often begins to develop shortly after veraison
(berry softening)
-early symptoms are the development of small (1-2mm) dark spots on the stems
(pedicles) and or other parts of the cluster framework. This spots become necrotic slightly
sunken and expand to affected more areas. The affected berries become watery, soft and
flabby when ripe.
Control
 Avoid over fertilization with nitrogen
 Foliar nutrients sprays of nitrogen should be avoided in water berry prone
vineyards
 Trimming off affected areas/berries during harvest and packing is a common
practice.

Harvesting and packaging

Grapes are harvested when bunches are ripe and after a uniform color. They do not ripen
after harvest thus characteristic color and flavor should have developed. The acid is low
at this time and sugar content would have neared the maximum.
Maturity indices:

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  For wine grapes are picked by hand or mechanical harvesters for dry wine should
have high acidity and moderate sugar content
 Table grapes picked based on the texture of the pulp, color, peel, easy separation
of the berries from the bunches and characteristic aroma
 Brix should be 20-24o
-Harvesting should be done during cool time of the day. By cutting bunches from vines
leaving stalk for easier handling.
-Place bunches in trays or wicker baskets lined with tissue paper and deliver to packing
shade.
-Discard disease damaged unripe and malformed berry and overripe berries.
-Clean and rinse bunches with clean water and drain the water
-Pack the dried bunches in single layers in lined cardboard boxes ready for transport to
the market
-Over ripe berries are prone to decay and shattering
-Precooked to temperature of 9.5oc (halves the rate of respiration and double shelf life)
and further to 4.4oc (retards fungal development and growth). These Checks stem rotting
browning and berry shattering
-Grading is done according to size sugar content and appearance

KIBOR Page 60
PAWPAW (Carica papaya)
Introduction
It belongs to the family caricaceae and the only species of economic importance in the
family. papaya is a native to tropical America, from there it spread to south America and
west Indian islands; it was taken to the Philippines by the Spaniards and later reached
other regions of South-East Asia and Africa. It is now present in every tropical and
subtropical country.
Plant characteristics:
 It is a small normally unbranched quick growing soft wooded tree with latex
vessels in all parts.
 The stem is hollow between the nodes, except in young plants; it mainly consists
of wood parenchyma and bears large triangular scars.
 The peltate leaves are arranged in a 2/5 spiral; they have long hollow petioles and
large, deeply lobed blades. Two weeks after germination two leaves emerge each
week.
 The plant is dioecious but hermaphrodite (bisexual) flowers and trees are present.
a) The female flowers 3-5 cm long sit alone or in small groups in the leaf axils;
the ovary is 2-3cm long and has five fan shaped stigma on top.
b) The male flowers with ten stamens each are found on long hanging panicles.
c) Bisexual flowers have either five or ten stamens and some tend to be carpelloids (fruit
like) in which case the fruit have a cat face appearance and are unmarketable.
Different type of hermaphrodite flowers may occur on the same tree depending on the
season or the age of the tree.
 Male trees are also variable sometimes a fruit is found at the end of a long
panicle. A complete change of sex may take place when an old male tree is cut
back sprouts bearing female flowers(and later fruit ) appear there
 The fruit is a large fleshy hollow berry. Fruits formed from female flowers are
oblong to nearly spherical but if formed from bisexual flowers they are pear
shaped cylindrical or grooved.
The thin green skin becomes yellow at the bottom at maturity.
The flesh is yellow to orange and some cultivars reddish and has a pleasant flavor.
Around the cavity lie a thousand or more seeds but seedless fruits do occur.
 The root system is extensive and dense or shallow depending on soil conditions.
Cultivars
Sunrise solo Waimanalo
KIBOR Page 61
Kapolo solo Honey dew
Kiru Mountain

Ecology:-
Rainfall
It can tolerate drought especially after establishment but requires 1000-1500mm of
rainfall well distributed thoroughly the year
Excess rains leads to poor flowering and fruit set
The plant do not tolerate water-logging even for a short duration

Temperature
 Suitable temp range is 20-25 oC while minimum and maximum are 15 and 35 oC
respectively.
 High temp enhances sweetness and uniform ripening while low temp below 20oc
or freezing temp results to poor tree growth.
 At high temp also there is tendency of producing more male flowers which are
unfruitful
 Temp of 24.5oC during the day and 15.5 o C at night results to irregularly shaped
fruits known at cut fall and are of low commercial value.
 Hermaphrodite flowers which do not develop ovaries are caused by hot temp or
water stress.
Altitude
 Does well in altitudes below 1500m above sea level
 Yield and fruit quality is low at high altitude areas
 They grow well under shade but are not sweet. They also require plenty of
sunlight for best quality in the final four to five days to full ripeness on the tree
Soils
Should be deep and well drained rich in organic matter at a ph of 5.5-6.7and do not
tolerate salty soils
On rich organic soils they grow fast, bear quickly and heavy crop and fruits of good
quality.
1. Its intolerant to water logging as it causes premature yellowing, shedding of
leaves and

Tapping (latex production);

-It is done to small fruits (10-13cm) in diameter which should develop about a year after
germination.
-Tapping can be done by making a longitudinal cut in each fruit by use of a razor blade or
a sharpened bamboo stick. The razor blade is embedded in a rubber holder in which only
eventually death of the plant.

KIBOR Page 62
Establishment
Mainly propagated by seed
Thin layers of seeds are rubbed on cloth or a sheet of rubber to remove the gelatinous
covering after harvest then they are washed and dried on paper .such seeds can be stored
in air tight container for up to three years.
It can be raised in nurseries or are sown at stake i.e sown directly in the field with no
transplanting.
When sown at stake
Sow about ten seeds 1.5cm deep they will emerge about 3weeks afterwards
Allow five vigorously growing seedlings until their sex can be determined i.e six months
after transplanting when they should be thinned to allow one male tree for every 20-30
females.
When raised in polythene or poly bags
They are ready for transplanting when six wks old or even up to six months of age.

Planting;
Prepare holes 60cm by 60cm and at a spacing of 3mby 3m or 2.5m by 2m and 4.5m by
2m when machinery is to be used.
A debe of well rotten manure is mixed with top soil plus 100-120kg of DAP and top soil.
The hole is refilled with sub soil.

Fertilizer application
 Apply [Link] NPK mixtures about 0.11kg per hole at sowing
 0.34kg at 2 months, 0.17kg at six months and then 0.9-1.4kg per tree divided into
three applications per annum.
 It should also be top dressed with 200g CAN per plant at the end of every year or
end of rains.

Pollination;
Hand pollination is necessary because if the plant is inadequately pollinated it bears a
light crop,fruits lacking uniformity in shape and size
Methods
2. bags are held over bisexual flowers for several days to ensure that they are self
pollinated
3. all parts of the apical female flower buds are removed and bagged1-2 days before
[Link] full opening the stigma is dusted with pollen grains from selected male
flower and bag quickly ,then released after seven days.
KIBOR Page 63
to cross pollinated 1-2 stamens from bisexual flower are placed on the pistil of a female
flower for a few days and the resulting seeds are1/2 female and ½ bisexual3mm of the
blade should protrude. The reason is that a smaller length fails to penetrate the latex
bearing vessels while a greater length makes deep cuts which becomes blocked up with
latex and become inflated. By the time the fruits begin to turn yellow and dry up it has a
series of parallel scars about 1.5cm apart
-As the latex drips from the fruit it is caught in the umbrella which is clamped to the
trunks. The latex coagulates on the canvas or polythene at the end of the wooden frames
and is scrapped into the box; this provides 1 st grade; 2nd grade coagulate accumulates on
the fruit and mat be removed. Impurities are removed before drying.
NB
 Tapping should be done once per week and not frequently and in the morning, not
on a hot sunny day when latex flow is slow.
 Cuts should be made as far as possible from previous cut.
 Tapping should be stopped during the dried months of the year when there is no
rain.

Drying
Coagulated latex is dried immediately after collection to prevent discolouration. Latex is
flue dried where coagulum is laid on wire mesh 0.9m gauge at a temperature of 55-60 OC
for 5-7 hrs and at this time the coagulum should be crumby and not sticky
Over heating causes an undesirable brown color.

Harvesting
It is done when fruits color change from green to light green and when yellow streaks
begin to develop from the base upwards. This way the fruit will continue to ripen
normally after harvesting (are climacteric fruits)
If left to ripen fully they are prone to bruising and damage during handling.
Uses
 Fresh fruits and is high in vitamin A and is used in dessert or salads for breakfast
 For papain production from the latex used in the following ways;
-tenderizer for meat
-for medicinal and industrial purpose.
 Pectin is extracted from peels of green pawpaw and is widely in food and for
medicinal purpose
 Pulp is extracted from fully mature ripe fruits used in preparation of nectar and
also can also be mixed in ready to make a beverage
 Green fruits and leaves are used in cosmetics as it contains papain and other
enzymes which rejuvenate the skin.
 Seeds are used medicinally against worms
KIBOR Page 64
Temperate fruits
PLUMS (Prunus spp)
Introduction:
It belongs to Rosaceae family and is stone fruits .There is two important groups;
 European plums ;Prunus domestica originated from Caucasus mountains.
 Japanese plums prunus salicina which is commonly grown in Kenya as it is easier
to grow than apples and pears and prunus trifolia from china
 Hybrids
They are eaten as fresh fruits, canned or made into jam

Origin and distribution

-P. domestica originated from Caucasus mountains adjacent to the Caspian sea,
spontaneous doubling of a hybrid between P. cerasifera(diploid) & P. spinosa
(tetraploid) gave hexaploid. It May have occurred during the last 200yrs.
-P. salicina originated in China where it has been cultivated for thousand of years. It was
introduced to Japan 200-400 years ago, where it then spread around the world, being
falsely called Japanese plum.

Plant characteristics:
-they are small medium sized trees,more erect growing than peach
-the leaves are ovate or elliptic with acute or obtuse tipsand short petioles.
-flowers are white,smaller with longer [Link] are borne in umbel like clusters of 2-
3 individuals on short spurs and solitary or 2-3 in axils of 1yr old wood.
-pollination;honey bees are the major [Link] plums need pollinators for
commercial production Bruce, Auproducer,Sanat Rosa&methyl produce fair crops when
grown as door yard trees. European about half of the cultivars require pollinizers other
half do [Link] claude,French and sugar are self fruitful enough to be planted in solid
blocks.
-fruit is a drupe,oval or round shaped in European types round to conical in Japanese
[Link] is borne on short spurs or axillary buds on one year old wood.
-trees may flower in second year but substantial bearing does not begin until four years.

Varieties
 Classes of European cultivars
Divided into four classes according to fruit usage;
a) Greenage ; pure European or probably hybrids with P. insititia. They are round,
sweet, green-yellow or golden plums used for canning and fresh market. They
include varieties like;Reine claude, Imperial Gage, Hand.
KIBOR Page 65
 b) Prunes; are oval, blue-purple, free stone cultivars, with high sugar content. They
include varieties like; Agen, Stanley, Italian(fellenberg)
c) Yellow egg: are small group used for canning. They include varieties like: Yellow
egg, Golden drop
d) Lombard: are large, oval, red or pink plums. They said to be of lower quality
than groups 1&2. Used for fresh market in Western Europe. They include
varieties like: Victoria, Lombard, and Pond.
 Japanese plum cultivars
They are larger, rounder or heart shaped, firmer than European plums.
-grown for fresh market
-Trees have rougher bark, more persistent spurs and more numerous flowers than
European types
-Are more precocious, disease resistant and vigorous. They include varieties like; Santa
Rosa, Casselman, Laroda, Late santa rosa
 Mathley
-common variety in Kenya
-has medium sized,purple red flesh and of fair quality
-it is vigorous and fruits separate easily from the stem when mature.
 Shiro
-has yellow fruits and matures when few plums are in the market.
-has an attractive appearance when fully mature.
-needs a pollinator
 Others
Santa rosa, Wilson beauty, jandines early, hale, necky, smith.
N.B it is important to plant many varieties in the orchard to facilitate cross pollination.

Ecology
 Soils
Should be deep, well drained with a PH of 5.5-6.5 for best results. It is tolerant to heavy
compacted soils and water logging.
 Altitude
Ranges from 2000-2400m a.s.l
 Temperature
Low chilling temperature of 6-8 0c is necessary to help plant break their dormancy.
Requires 500-1500 hrs for Europeans and Japanese have lower requirement of 500-800
hrs .in the tropics use of chemicals is an alternative to such temperatures like tropical
mortiegg.
 Rainfall
Up to 1000mm p.a is required, if inadequate irrigate. Humidity should be low to prevent
incidence of diseases.
Establishment
KIBOR Page 66
Propagated mainly by vegetative materials either by budding, grafting or by hard wood
cuttings because plums are genetically diverse.

Planting
Land should be cleared of vegetative materials and if possible ploughed.
-planting holes dug at 60*60cm prepared well in advance at a spacing of in-row 3.5-5m
and between rows be about 6m.
Planted during dormant season i.e when warm
-firm the soil around the seedling and water generously and frequently depending on
rainfall.
Fertilizer application
-Applied in the long rains by spreading it around the plant and work in shallowly.
-Apply0.5kg of T.S.P per mature tree C.A.N also can be top dressed at the same rate.
-1-2 debes of F.Y.M per tree can be applied if available.
-fertilizer applications before dormancy period enhance good vegetative growth after bud
break.

Pruning
 Formative pruning;
-started during planting and should be light.
-cut the centre trunk ~1m above the ground
-In the second season remove all branches joined to the central trunk with a narrow angle.
-selected the main scaffold branches are headed and remove broken and those too close.
 Maintenance pruning;
-cut/ remove off shoots that compete with the central ladder. These are thin/weak,
diseased or crisscrossing branches. Also remove strong upright sucker growth from the
main scaffold branches. This is done during summer or dormant period since fruiting
occurs on spurs on 2-5 yr wood; 75-78% of all new growth can be removed
-plums will bear fruits on both new and old wood and a balance should be made between
the two.
-Trees are topped annually to maintain a height of 3-4.5m

Weed control:
-cultivate lightly/remove all weeds for the first 3yrs
-An orchard may be kept under grass and mowed down or controlled with herbicides or
mulch to check growth and also be source of nutrients.

Fruit thinning

KIBOR Page 67
-If trees bear heavily the fruits should be thinned after the fruit has formed stones leaving
1-2 per spur or leave one fruit every 5-8cm along the branch or shoot on laterals.
-it is done to facilitate the plant to bear the next crop and for proper sized development of
the fruits especially for Japanese plum hybrids which can produce thousands of flowers
per tree.
-done by hand at pit hardening or with poles/shakers or chemicals thinning of blossoms
with materials such as DNOC but risky due to frost threat.
-prop up heavy laden branches

Harvesting
Maturity varies according to use, species and location.
-For fresh consumption, skin color and firmness. The solids be 14-17% and firmness of
5-10
-for drying are harvested at a more mature stage than those for canning and fresh market.
Color turns from green to yellow to amber, solids reach 25-35%, firmness of 0.5-1kg
-Days to maturity are used as a guide for when to start sampling.
-For fresh consumption must be hand harvested and 2-3 pickings done over a 7-10 day
period.
-Handled with care to avoid bruise. They are picked and put in buckets with padded
bottoms, gently poured into shallow bulk bins and marketed in smaller (12kg) boxes to
prevent crushing.
-Graded according to sizes depending on location but varies from 4-6cm.
-Stored from 2-3 weeks at temperature of 0oc at relative humidity of 90%. Brown rot,
Rhizopus rot and blue-grey molds are the most common storage problems .Chilling
injury occurs if storage is prolonged.
Yields
Vary depending on season, orchard management, and variety. During on season a yield of
up to 30-40kg/tree is expected while off season yield are about 10kg /tree.

Physiological disorders:
 Sunscald
Caused by an imbalance in soil moisture levels and frequently seen at fruit maturity
Symptoms
The blossom end develops a light purple or brown circle and this portion later becomes
sunken and hardens.
Prevention
-soil management to enhance water holding capacity & aeration
-irrigation during dry periods

Diseases
KIBOR Page 68
  Plum pocket
Affects the fruit which become distorted and hollow in serious cases there can be no
harvest.
Control: fungicide spray
 Plum rust (Puccinia pruni)
-Causes premature defoliation and yellow spots on leaves plus scars on fruits.
Control: spray with dithane m45 or rindomil.
 Bacterial shoot wilt
Attacks shoot of plums in wet weather causing black streaks on one side of wilting
[Link] also wilt
Control: remove and burn infected plants

Pests
 Red spider mites
Feed in clusters on underside of leaves and causes premature fall of leaves and fruits.
Control: spray dimethoate or tar oil
 Leaf curling plum aphid
-common in dry weather where plants are stunted and rowth is retarded
Control: spray with tar oil, winter wash in dormant season.
 Scales (Red:Aonodiella auramtin. Grey:Diaspidierea frizanus
Causes serious damage by feeding on the plant
Control: spray whit mineral oil until grey scales run off which can be mixed with
insecticide like malathion or diazinon.

STRAW BERRIES (Fragaia spp)

Introduction:
KIBOR Page 69
 The most grown strawberry species in Kenya is Fragaria Vesca variety Ananassa and
is the most popular small fruit grown in the garden.
Straw berry is attractive and flavouring rich in vitamin C, K, P, ca, mg, se, fe, mn, zn,
cu, foliate and other vitamins
It is a low perennial growing above the ground with short crown, leaves, flowers,
trusses and runner (stolons) with runner plants. They propagate vegetatively by
producing runners /stolons. Runners arise from buds at the base/axils of the leaves.
Roots arise from the short underground part of the stem (rhizome). They are either
semi permanent lasting more than one season or temporally lasting only days or
weeks. They occur in the upper 3-6 inches of soil or up to 12”.
Flowers develop from terminal buds on the plants. Plants with branched crowns may
form multiple flowers.
The fruit is an aggregate with seeds embedded on the surface of a swollen receptacle.
The number of cells determined at the time of flower bud initiation.
Ecological requirements:
Altitude
The crop can grow at altitudes of 1500-2200m East of R.V .production is however
limited by distance to the market due perishability.
Temperature
They Requires temperate to warm temperatures. Lower temp below 15 oc will induce
flower bud formation and will be inhibited when day/night temp exceed 22oc.
Rainfall or irrigation
Require well distributed rainfall of 1200 where rainfall is less than this irrigation is
necessary 25mm/week as the crop does not tolerate drought. Moisture at the time of berry
expansions determines its size which affect enlargement of cells.
Soils
Are shallows rooted and grown on wide range of soils however deep sandy loams which
are well drained and rich in humus are ideal
Ph should 5.5 to 6.5 in alkaline conditions tend to exhibit signs of iron deficiency (inter-
veinal chlorosis of younger leaves)
Avoid growing in saline conditions causes stunting, marginal leaf scorch, and severe
yield reduction .apply enough water to leach excess salts to below its root zone.
Varieties
Should be disease free –buy health, virus free plant from a reliable nursery
There are 3 types; June bearers, ever bearers and day neutrals differing in their response
to day length which affects berry and runner production. In Kenya (tropics) only day
neutrals produce fruits which produce runners and fruits simultaneously and temperature
above 2oc inhibit flower bud formation.
Varieties

KIBOR Page 70
 i) Tribute: medium large, short, cone to wedge-shaped bright red berries,
pleasant flavor, good dessert and processing qualities, resistant to red
stele.
ii) Tristar: medium size, symmetrical, short, conic deep red fruit, good
desert and freezing qualities, resistant to verticillium wilt and red stele.
iii) Domanil: late crop, mid season, large fruits
iv) Rabunda: late season and high yields
v) Chandler
vi) Douglas
vii) Aiko

Propagation
-Splitting is the common method
-Runners can be used especially in temperate regions
-Before planting work the soils so that there is a deep and reasonable loose planting bed
and incorporate organics manures
-Spacing is 45cm by 40-30cm to give a plant population of 74,000 plants/ha vigorous
varieties are spaced at 90* 30 cm (55,000plants/ha)
-The crown is very short and do not tolerate deep planting
-Roots should not be allowed to dry out and should be carefully spread in the planting
hole
-Avoid planting them after peppers (capsicums), tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant or okra
because all are susceptible to verticillium wilt.

Fertilizers
At planting apply 200kg per ha of DSPand150kg per ha of ammonium sulphate nitrate
(26%) at flowering.
High soils organic matter increases yields, therefore manure should applied during land
preparation.

Field management
Deflowering or pinching
Necessary to control premature cropping which is induced by short day conditions
occurring in Kenya i.e the flowering starts before the plant is established
-It should be carried out for a few months until the plants has established itself
-This reduces chances of early exhaustion of the plant
Stripping or punning
-During rest period all old and dozed leaves are removed off the plant to reduce source of
infection from disease or pests and to allow re growth of foliage.
-Removed leaves should be removed and burnt outside the field.

KIBOR Page 71
Cut off runners regularly except for those needed for planting. One or 2 runners from the
runner type can be rooted for the planting
Disease
i) Leaf spot (mycosphaerella spp)
Grey spots with purple margins on leaves are seen
Control
-Destroy crop residues after harvest, practice crop rotational, plant clean seed
-Spray with Bayleton and Benlate alternately

ii) Verticillium wilt

Yellow and wilted leaves
Stunted plant

Control
-Crop rotation and avoid areas where potatoes, tomatoes, eggplant have been previously
grown
-Fumigation

iii) Grey mould (Botrytis rot)

Caused by Borytis cinerea
-Soft rot of fruit and grey mould on infected plants
-Fungus continues to grow even at 0oc i.e after storage
Control: spray with thiran and benomy

Pests
i) Red spider mite (Tetranchus spp)
Greyish brown mite found on the lower surface of leaves

Control
Spray with Dicofol Actetellic
Others:
-Beetles
-Mites
-Ants

Maturity
Maturity of strawberry is a function of the temperature prevailing during growth period

KIBOR Page 72
-Maturity period ranges from 18 – 40 days from flowering but optimum period is 30 days
from flowering indicated by colour 1/2 or3/4 berry surface show red or pink colour
depending on grade
Harvesting
-Berries should be picked when they are completely red or nearly red
-Partly coloured berries become red after picking but do not develop full flavour
-All ripe berries should be picked otherwise they will become over-ripe or rotten by the
next picking.
-At picking hold only 2-3 berries in the hand at one time to avoid crushing them.
-Harvested berries should be taken to the packing shelter as quickly as possible as to
enhance cooling in order to reduce dehydration and deterioration
-For fresh market are sold in punnettes and in other cases they are solid on per weight
basis
-They lose quality rapidly and continuously after harvest .This is due to chemical changes
in the berries and because of growth of decay causing organism. Therefore fruits should
be picked every 2 days as the fruits ripens quickly and breaks down
Deterioration can be slowed by cooling down the berries and storing at temperatures
below 40c
Yields
-10,000kg/acre in the first year
-7,500 in the second year
-5,000kg in the third year
The plants should be renewed with doze free plants by the end of the third year

Uses
 The fruits are eaten fresh or canned
 They are used in cakes ,ice screams or in
jam
 The fruit is very rich in vitamin c and iron with a distinct and pleasant
aroma and delicate flavour
Quality indicies
 Appearenece –coluor size ,shape ,freedom
from defeats
 Firmness
 Flavour –soluable solid -7%, acidty (0.8%)
 Nutrional value –vitamin C

KIBOR Page 73
CAPSICUMS
Hot pepper (chilli), sweet pepper and paprika.
CLIMATE
These crops require warmer conditions than tomatoes, and are more sensitive to cold and
frost.
The optimum mean temperatures for growth, over the 4 to 5 month growing season, are
20°C
to 27°C. At temperatures below 15°C growth becomes progressively poorer. At
temperatures
above about 32°C, excessive flower drop may become a problem, particularly when
coupled
with dry winds; chilli and paprika can withstand higher temperatures than sweet peppers.
Exposed fruits of the sweet pepper are also very sensitive to sunburn; hot peppers and
paprika
are much less so. Prolonged cloudy weather retards and reduces fruit bearing.
Seedlings emerge within 7 to 14 days at soil temperatures of 20°C to 35°C. At
temperatures of 15°C, emergence may be delayed by two weeks or longer. Germination
is poor
at temperatures below 15°C or above 35°C.
SOIL
Capsicums can be grown on a wide range of soil types, provided they are well-drained to
a
depth of at least 400 mm. Sandy-loam to loam soils are preferred, because they tend to
warm
up more rapidly than heavier soils, and yet have a good water holding capacity. Soils
with a
high humus content are ideal.
CULTIVARS
Chilli - Long Red Cayenne, Long Slim Cayenne, P2391, Serano, Skyline
3, Star 6601, Thai chili, Thai Dragon.
Sweet pepper - California Wonder,Capistrano, Indra, King Arthur, Lancelot,
Orobelle and Pasoreal. Most cultivars are green, turning red at
maturity. However, yellow peppers are also available, and
even whitish or mauve/purple fruits are now making their
appearance, although none of these appear to be as popular as
the green/red types.
Paprika - Papri Ace, Papri Queen, Papri King.

KIBOR Page 74
POPULATIONS AND SPACINGS
Chilli and paprika
Plants are spaced 300 mm to 500 mm apart in rows drawn 600 mm to 750 mm apart.
Twin row
plantings, as for sweet peppers, are used. Populations vary from 35 000 to 50 000 plants
per
hectare.
Sweet pepper
Because of the sensitivity of these fruits to sunburn, the seedlings are usually planted out
in
double rows, sometimes even three or four rows (although this makes harvesting more
difficult), spaced 350 mm to 500 mm apart. Picking pathways of 800 mm to 1 000 mm
are left
between the beds, to allow easier access (without causing serious damage to the brittle
branches). The plants are spaced 350 mm to 500 mm apart in the rows. Populations
generally
vary from 25 000 to 40 000 plants per hectare.
TIME OF PLANTING
Seed requirements per hectare are about 150 g to 200 g for seedtrays, and 250 g to 300 g
for
seedbeds. These crops are usually transplanted, often from seedlings raised under warm,
protected conditions, or from seedlings produced in warmer areas. Early planting, as soon
as
temperatures become favourable for growth, is generally preferable to planting later,
because
of a longer favourable production season, and because later plantings are often more
severely
affected by virus diseases.
Cool areas (heavy frosts) Sept to Oct
Warm areas (light frosts) Aug to Nov/Dec
Hot areas (frost free) July to March
A spread of planting times is seldom used for paprika, which is produced almost entirely
for processing, and planting is generally confined to the August to September period.
FERTILIZERS
These crops generally receive about 600 kg [Link](22) per hectare at planting; for sweet
peppers a [Link](30) mixture might be preferable. However, the phosphorus (P) (a
minimum
dressing of 40 kg P) and potassium (K) requirements should ideally be determined by soil
analysis.
The total nitrogen (N) requirement is about 80 kg to 100 kg N per hectare for chillies,

KIBOR Page 75
100 kg to 120 kg N for paprika, and 150 kg to 180 kg N per hectare for sweet peppers.
Chillies
should receive one side dressing, usually of LAN, 4 or 5 weeks after transplanting,
paprika
probably two dressings, at 3 and 6 weeks, and sweet peppers up to three dressings, within
the
first 6 or 8 weeks of growth. The amount of LAN applied per dressing is usually 150 kg
to 200
kg per hectare. Sweet pepper plants, especially, should be induced to make good early
growth,
as larger plants bear larger crops, and fruits are less exposed to sunburn. The first fruit,
forming in the apex of the plant, should be nipped out at an early stage, to extend the
cropping
season and to reduce the risk of plant damage at a later stage. Further LAN dressings may
be
applied should the planting warrant it.
IRRIGATION
Because of the softer growth, the requirement for large fruit, and the susceptibility to
sunburn
(fruits are more exposed when plants are temporarily wilted), sweet peppers are
considered to
have a higher water requirement than chillies or paprika. The requirement is similar to
that for
tomatoes, even though the full-grown plants are considerably smaller. However, all these
crops
are normally irrigated in a similar manner.
The soil should be thoroughly wet to a depth of at least 400 mm at planting. For the
first two weeks after transplanting, they are irrigated twice a week, 10 mm to 15 mm at a
time,
in order for the transplants to become well established. They are then irrigated, with 15
mm
to 20 mm, once or twice a week for a further two or three weeks, depending on climatic
conditions.
During the next eight weeks, 35 mm should be applied weekly, followed by
approximately 30 mm per week for the rest of the season. Dry conditions from flowering
onwards can cause a significant reduction in yield.

WEED CONTROL
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Trifluralin (Digermin, Trifluralin or Triflurex), a pre-plant incorporated herbicide, is
registered
on chilli for the control of mainly annual grasses, but also some broadleaved weeds. It
has a
long residual action and may harm susceptible follow-up crops. Two pre-emergent
herbicides
are registered for use on paprika fields. They are alachlor (Lasso Micro Tech, Alachlor ,
Lasso
or Sanachlor), which is applied in combination with Ronstar, and oxadiazon (Ronstar) on
its
own for control of a similar range of weeds, applied on the soil surface of fields prepared
for
seedling transplants.
No chemical which adequately controls most broad-leafed weeds is registered for use
on capsicums. For this reason, most weed control is done mechanically and by hand.
PESTS
Apart from nematodes and red spider mite, capsicums are seldom severely affected by
pests.
There are registered chemicals for use on peppers against aphids, red spider mite and
thrips.
On paprika, several insecticides can be used to control American bollworm and false
wireworm,
as well as aphids and thrips.
DISEASES
Apart from virus diseases, which are more likely to occur on late plantings, or in the later
stages
of growth, and bacterial wilt, diseases are seldom a problem. Bacterial spot and powdery
mildew may occur, for which several fungicides are registered as preventive control.
With
sweet peppers, rotting of fruits touching the ground can become fairly serious, especially
on
heavy soils, where the soil surface stays moist for a long time. The problem is more
severe
with those cultivars bearing large, and particularly long, fruits, which are more likely to
be in
contact with the soil.
Because of the incidence of virus infection, capsicum crops must be treated as annuals.
Summer plantings on lands with a history of bacterial wilt must be avoided; no
commercial
cultivars which are resistant to this disease are available.
Sunburn can be a very serious problem with sweet peppers, particularly where fruit is
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allowed to ripen on plants without a good leaf cover, or where plants temporarily wilt due
to
lack of moisture.
LENGTH OF CROP
Fruits of most cultivars will attain their full size within 70 to 80 days from transplanting,
when
they may be harvested green. A further fortnight may be necessary for chilli and paprika
fruits
to turn red; sweet peppers could take a further two or three weeks before they colour up
properly. Picking the fruits in the green stage induces further flowering and higher yields.
The
bulk of the crop is usually harvested over about 2 months, after which the crop is
generally too
small to warrant the cost of further picking. With sweet peppers, the later-developing
fruits
also become too small and tend to have a poorer shape, both of which adversely affect
prices.
The extra N dressings mentioned may counter-act this. A continuing light crop can be
borne for
several months until cold weather stops growth. These perennial plants can regrow in
spring,
if not killed by winter frosts, and give an earlier than normal crop. However, the yields
and
quality are generally so poor that this is seldom a practical proposition for the commercial
grower. Such plants probably are infected with mosaic, and the causal viruses may be
transmitted by insect vectors to newly established plantings early in the season.
YIELDS
Sweet peppers, harvested green, should average 25 tons to 30 tons per hectare, with good
crops yielding in excess of 40 tons. When harvested red, average yields are only 8 tons to
12
tons per hectare, partly due to losses from sunburn.
Green chillies should average 10 tons to 12 tons per hectare, with good yields of 15 tons
and more per hectare. If picked weekly in the fresh red stage, and then dried, average
dried
yields are 2 tons to 3 tons, with good yields about 6 tons. If, however, the fruits are
allowed
to dry on the plants before picking, yields of only about 2 tons per hectare are likely.
Paprika is produced mainly in the dry state for processing factories. The fruits are picked
red, and usually dried artificially. Average yields are generally 2 tons to 2,5 tons per
hectare,
with a good yield being about 5 tons.
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HARVESTING, GRADING, PACKING AND MARKETING
Sweet peppers are generally harvested, at 7 to 14 day intervals, when they attain their full
size,
but are still green. There is a small but growing demand for red fruits, and cultivars are
also
available for yellow and other coloured fruit, for which there is a small demand. Fruits
are
normally cut or clipped off the plants, retaining a small section of stem on the fruits.
Great care
must be taken during harvest not to break off or damage the branches of these brittle
plants.
Apart from the direct losses of fruits on such branches, other fruits may be exposed to
sunburn.
Fruits of the sweet pepper are fairly tender and also brittle, and should be handled with
care
to prevent bruising and cracking.
Chilli and paprika plants are stronger, and fruits are usually picked by hand, without
cutting. In most of KwaZulu-Natal, chillies are mainly harvested green, also at 7 to 14
day
intervals, although a small portion of the crop may be allowed to colour up before
picking, and
is then dried. Paprika is seldom grown in KwaZulu-Natal because of the lack of local
processors. Paprika is picked when fully coloured, and then dried, usually in special
drying
ovens.
Sweet peppers should be graded according to size, shape and colour before packing.
Large, blocky fruits, usually four-lobed, and fully sized, are the most popular, especially
for
export. Younger fruits are not favoured, because their colour is lighter, their flesh thinner
and
they wilt more rapidly. Fruits which have wilted should be discarded, because they do not
recover from this state. Late-maturing fruits from any planting become progressively
smaller,
tend to be more pointed, are often only three-lobed or malformed and, under cooler
conditions,
tend to develop a mauvish colour. Greater attention to grading is then necessary.
Each grade of fruit is packed separately, usually in double-layered cartons measuring
500 mm x 400 mm x 200 mm. Green chillies are seldom graded, apart from the obvious
removal of diseased or damaged fruit. They are normally packed into green mesh pockets
holding about 7 kg. Where red chillies are picked in a very dry condition, further drying
is done
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 in the shade in large, open sacks or crates in an airy shed. In the case of high humidity
conditions they are usually dried in the sun, although this normally causes a loss of colour
and
a down-grading, with lower prices being received. Artificial drying is the only solution
when
rainy and very humid conditions prevail. Hot, dry conditions are required for successful
natural drying of chillies. Weekly picking of ripe chillies is advisable for good yields.
SEASONAL PRICE TRENDS
Prices for fresh fruits of these warm season crops, especially sweet peppers, are likely to
be
lowest during the summer to autumn period, and highest in the late winter to spring
season.
A sales outlet should be arranged before paprika production is commenced. The demand
for sweet peppers tends to be relatively restricted, and it is advisable to investigate
possible
market outlets and tonnages required before establishing large plantings.

MANGO PRODUCTION
Introduction The mango is an evergreen fruit tree and the fruit ripens to a yellow or orange colour. The tree
is often planted as a shade tree, although it may harbor mosquitoes because of its dense foliage. The seeds
germinate readily and the trees are able to compete with the native vegetation.
Climate The mango is adapted to both tropical and subtropical conditions. Temperature range is 21 - 25 oC.
Rainfall of at least 600 mm/year and an altitude of 1,500-2,000 m are ideal for the crop. The crop is

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intolerant to saline conditions. A dry period of at least 3 months is necessary for flowering. The tree requires
plenty of sunshine for optimum growth and fruiting.
Soils and site selection Mangoes require deep soils with good drainage not necessarily fertile but mangoes
can thrive in a wide range of soil types.
Types/Varieties Three types of mangoes; small canopy: Florigon, Glenn, Dancan, Early Gold, Erwin, Palmar,
Palvin. Medium canopy and fairly early yielding varieties: Zillate, Pinero, Alfonso, Apple, Kent, Keitt. Large
canopy and fairly early yielding varieties: Boribo, Ssejjembe, Bire. Bire, Ssejjembe, Ssu and Kate are some of
the local selections.
Management Practises
Propagation
2 It is highly recommended that planting materials for the improved mango varieties should be grafted or
budded (shoot joined on rootstock). This practice reduces time to flowering to 2-3 years instead of 6-7 years
if seed is planted. Suitable rootstocks are used which withstand soil born diseases. Most trees bear 2 times a
year.
Spacing Mango spacing depends on the rainfall pattern and soil fertility. The recommended spacing for
optimum plant population is 8m x 8m giving 144 plants per hectare (58 plants per acre). Planting Medium
fine field is adequate. Dig holes 60 cm deep and 60 cm wide while separating top soil from sub (red) soil. Mix
well decomposed manure with top soil at 1:1 ratio and put back into the hole to cover the first 30 cm. Make
a small hole within and plant in the grafted seedling. The plastic bags used for potting should be removed
before planting. When covering the hole a basin should be made around each plant for harvesting water.
Each plant should be mulched around and a cage or perimeter fencing put in place to avoid damage by
animals. One month after transplanting, the grafting tape should be removed. Any shoots, which grow
below the point of union should also be removed.
Watering When planting is done during low rainfall season, the young plants should be watered at least
once a week to avoid drying. It is also advisable to give water during flowering, where possible, to avoid
flower abortion. Watering after fruit set reduces fruit abortion and increases fruit size.
Fertiliser Requirements Apply manure once a year at the beginning of the rainy season. Put at least 2 tins
(2kg tins) per tree, applied around one metre from the tree.. Avoid putting too much nitrogen fertilizers to
your mango plants during productive stage. Smoking in the field and cutting the bark of the tree encourages
flowering.
Weed management Slash the orchard regularly. Do not dig through as this will damage roots and cause root
rot diseases. Where mulching materials are available, mulching is encouraged.
Production Depending on the variety, the time from flowering to maturity is 100-150 days. Under good
management 400-600 fruits per tree per year can be produced. Yield range is 10-16 ton/ha
4 depending on management, variety and age of orchard. In the case of improved varieties, fruits can weigh
0.3 – 2 kg each.
Harvesting Harvest mature fruits and with smooth, undamaged skin. Use a long stick with a knife and basket
at the tip or just long stick with knife and clothes or polythehe spread below, off ground to trap falling fruits
for tall trees. Collect fruits in a wooden box with smooth inner surface. Avoid picking fruits from the ground.
HARVESTING AND YIELD:
 Stage of harvesting is very important, indicated by
 Starting of Colour development

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 Falling of one or two fruits from the plant
 Specific gravity of 1.0 to 1.02(more reliable)
 Mango normally takes 90-120 days from fruit set to maturity. Harvesting is done using pole
harvesters without causing any damage to the fruit.
 Mango grafts come to bearing in about 2-3 years but econimic yields may be expected after 8-10
years of planting and may continue up to 40-60 years.
 Average yield is 8 tones/ha and may vary according to variety and locality.
PACKING AND TRANSPORT:
Mangoes are normally packed in bamboo baskets using straw as the padding material. Wooden and
card board boxes are also used. Wrapping fruits individually maintains the quality of the fruit. Waxing 3%
with hot water treatment improves storage life mangoes can be stored at 5-14oC and 90% RH for about 2-7
weeks depending upon the variety
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
MANGO MALFORMATION
 Production of thick vegetative condensed bunchy top shoots and transformation of floral parts into a
compact mass of sterile flowers is refered as malfomation.
 Two types: Vegetative and floral malformation.
1. Vegetative malformation - resembles ―bunchy top‖ which may dry and die in due course.
2. Floral malformation- results in enlargement of flowers with new flowers being produced even
after fruit set but with less % of hermaphrodite flowers. Malformed panicles may be [Link] 2.
Compact.
Causes for Malformation:
 Infestation of virus, fungus, mites, nutrients deficiency, C/N ratio, carbohydrates, nucleic acids,
amino acids, proteins, phenolic compounds, and enzymatic activity in the plant, phytohormones
and occurance of malformation like substance are all supposed to be the probable causes for
malformation.
Control measures:
1. Application of plant growth regulators and phenolic compounds (NAA, Ethrel, GA, Paclobutrozol, etc.
2. De-blossoming: at bud burst stage-ethrel
3. Use of antagonists and antimalformins: Glutahione, Ascorbic acid, Silver nitrate
4. Application of nutrients: High NPK added with FeSO4, Cobalt sulphate
5. Pruning of malformed parts.
6. Application of pesticides: Parathion, Kelthane, Kerathane.
7. Covering panicles with polythene film to raise the temperature around the panicle. Inspite of this,
malformation is still a puzzling problem. It is therefore concluded that malformation can be kept under
check by maintaining
1. Orchards cleanly using disease free planting materials only.
1. Regularly inspecting the orchard
2. Regularly removing all malformation parts and
3. Spraying of insecticides and after each pruning.
BIENNIAL BEARING IN MANGO:
Mango producing good crop one year and no crop or fewer crops in the next year is known as biennial

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bearing or alternate bearing. This is genetic and inherent in mango varieties.
CAUSES FOR BIENNIAL BEARING:
1. Climatological factors: Rain, high humidity, low temperature making on to off year
2. Age and size of shoots: Shoots of 8-10 months maturity will be productive.
3. Carbon/Nitrogen ratio: High carbon/moderate N encourages flower bud formation (30-40)
4. Hormonal balance: Higher levels of auxin and inhibitor like substance and lower levels of
gibberellins like substances were found to be vital for a flowering shoot.
Inspite of several studies, the biennial bearing is still an unsolved problem which is thought could be
corrected by genetic engineering only.
SUGGESTIONS/ MEASURES:
1. Proper upkeep and maintenance of mango orchards.
2. Deblossoming in on year with NAA application.
3. Pruning: Pruning of the fruited shoots to keep open the tree top properly.
4. Growing regular bearing cultivars: Bangalora, Rumani, Neelum and almost all hybrids.
BLACK TIP:
 The distal end of fruit become black and hard
 Due to polluted atmosphere with smoke, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide,
acetylene.
 Spraying with Borax @ 0.6% from fruit set at 10-15 days intervals controls this disorder
CLUSTERING:
 Clustering of fruits without growth at the tip of the panicale caused by adverse weather (low
temperature) condition leads to this disorder. Most of the fruits drop+shriveled and aborted embryos.
SPONGY TISSUE: Fruit appears normal extremely but contains yellowish, sour spongy tissue inside high
temperature, convertive heat and exposing to sunlight after harvest are supposed to be
the causes. Remedy lies in sod culture, mulching in the orchard and harvesting fruits at
3/4th mature stage only.
SOFT NOSE: Physiological disorder caused by calcium deficiency, causing breakdown of flesh towards the
apex of the fruit before ripening leads to softness of the tissues.

Insect pests, Diseases and their control Mango can be attacked by many diseases which reduce quality and
yield. The major diseases of economic importance are: anthracnose and powdery mildew.
Anthracnose The disease attacks young shoots, flowers and fruits causing leaf spots, drying twig tips and
dark spots on fruits. Black spots develop on fruits, which leads to cracking. Fruits infected at mature stage
carry the fungus into storage and cause considerable loss during storage, transit and marketing. Wet
conditions favour the disease.
Control
The fungus has a long survival ability on dead plant parts. The diseased parts should be pruned and burnt.
Remove rotting fruits from the orchard. Where the disease is severe, apply fungicides before flowers set to
reduce flower infection. Fungicide such as Ridomil and Antracol alternated at 10-15 day intervals at
quantities indicated on the package are recommended. Control and prevention is possible through use of
resistant varieties.
Powdery mildew The sign of the disease is the white powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalks and flowers.

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Rain and cool nights are favourable conditions for disease spread. Young leaves when infected develop
white patches and later become curled and distorted. The fungus persists on older leaves and when
conditions are favourable spores are blown onto susceptible tissue.
Control Ridomil, Antracol or Thiovit sprays alternated with Dithane M45 at 10-15 day intervals at quantities
indicated on the package is recommended for the control of the disease. Spraying can start at the signs and
repeated after 2 weeks until fruit set. Once young tissue has hardened it is no longer susceptible and
spraying can be stopped.

Pests The major pests attacking mangoes include: fruitfly and mango seed weevil. Minor ones are scales and
mealy bugs.
Fruit fly This is one of the most serious pest of mango in the country affecting the marketing of fresh fruits.
The female punctures the maturing fruits and lays eggs in small clusters inside the fruit. After hatching, the
larvae feed on the fruit that appears normal from outside. The maggots later fall on the ground for further
growth. When infested fruits are cut open, maggots of the fruit fly are seen in the damaged flesh.
Control Collection and burying of infested and dropped fruits Spray suitable insecticide at quantities
indicated on the package e.g. Dimethoate, 7 weeks and 3 weeks before picking. Salut and Dursban can also
be used.
Mango seed weevil This is a serious pest of mangoes in the tropics. The female lays eggs on partially
developed fruits. The eggs hatch and the maggots bore through the flesh into the seed where they feed and
develop damaging the seed. There is a discoloration at the point of entry.
Control Burying by removing fallen fruits and burying them in a pit. Spraying the trees, especially the stems,
with a suitable insect icide e.g Dimethoate or Dursban at the quantity indicated on the package.

density planting and susceptible to leaf spot disease.

4. Gross Michel It is the main cultivar of this sub-group. Gross Michel was the leading cultivar
in the world banana trade until the late 1950. The variety has lost its commercial status due to
susceptibility to panama wilt.
Red Banana Sub-group
5. Red Banana: This cultivar is grown throughout the world. The colour of the pseudostem, petiole,
midrib and fruit peel is purplish red. The fruit is of good size and has a characteristic aroma. The average
bunch weight is 20 kg. It thrives well in humid tropics and at higher altitudes. It is highly susceptible to
bunchy top, fusarium wilt and nematode.
Silk Sub-Group:
6. Rasthali:it is one of the most popular commercial choicest table cultivar. The plant is tall and can be
easily identified by the yellowish green stem with brownish blotches. Reddish margins of the petiole and

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leaf sheath. The average bunch weight is about 12 kg. Fruits are medium, thin skin, yellow in colour flesh
firm, sweet with a pleasant aroma. It has the disadvantage of longer duration, severe susceptibility to
fusarium wilt, easy dropping of fruits from bunch. Susceptible to sun injury and formulation of hard
lumps in the pulp.
MYSORE SUB-GROUP:
7. Poovan/Champa (AAB): The plant is tall, hardy and grows vigorously, one of the distinguishing
characters of the plant is the rose pink colour on the outside of midrib, fruit is medium to small, yellow
skin firm flesh with sub-acidic taste, good keeping quality, the average bunch weight is about 15kg. It is
resistant to panama wilt and fairly resistant to bunchy top highly susceptible to banana bract mosaic and
streak virus.
Other varieties/Cultivars
Grand Naine,
PROPAGATION:
 Banana is traditionally propagated by vegetatively through suckers or rhizome or tissue culture plants.
 Sexual propagation is not possible due to Parthenocarpic nature of fruits.
Types ofplanting material
a) Sword sucker (sucker 30 - 100cm high and with narrow leaves)
b) Maiden sucker (about 2 m high, and not yet flowered) or its wrm.
c) Bullhead (corm from a plant which has been harvested) with or without a sword
sucker
d) Bullhead sections (corm pieces with a bud/eye)
e) Tissue culture plantlets

Important criteria for selection of suckers for planting:

- The orchard/mother block should be disease free.
- The weight of the suckers should be 1.0- 1.5 kg.
- The mother plant should be heavy yielder.
- Always select sword suckers for planting.
- Select the suckers free from rhizome weevils.

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PEST CONTROL
Banana Weevil
Banana Weevil damage and symptoms
Weevil damage larvae feed and tunnel into banana corms and pseudostems. The larvae hatches from egg
which is laid near the corm by an adult weevil. On hatching the larvae attack the underground part,
boring tunnels in it. As weevil larvae grow in size, they make large tunnels in the corm and
sometimes up in the pseudostem. The damage interferes with uptake of nutrients and water thus
weakening the plant. Weevil infestation of young plants causes stunting of grovvth, disruption and delay
of friiting, production of small bunches and sometimes plants death. Heavily infested
and damaged plants easily snap (breaking of pseudostem just above the ground under a mild wind,
especially flowered plants. The banana weevil. Is more severe at lower altitudes (1000 - 1200m.a.s.1.)
than higher altitudes (>I500 [Link].1.)
Control ofthe Banana Wewil
The banana weevil can be controlled by using cultural practices (e.g. clean planting material, proper field
sanitation and trapping), chemical insecticides (e.g. dursban, primicid, furadan), biological agents (e.g.
fungal pathogens) and resistant cultivars. However, biological control agents and resistant cultivars are
not yet fully developedfor use.
Clean (weevil free suckerdcorms)planting material should be used when establishing a new plantation.
Such material is obtained by selecting suckers from plantation with low weevil and nematode infestation.
The suckers or corms are pared (carefully peeling the corm to expose the inner white tissue) to remove
symptoms of weevil and nematode damage. Deeply tunnelled corms should be discarded. To ensure a
greater level of cleanliness the pared corms can be subjected to hot water
treatment(52 - 55OC for 20 minutes) or chemical dipping (a solution of 1.5 cc of dursban per litre of water
for 1hour) to kill any remaining weevil

Trapping
There are two types of traps most widely used, split pseudostem and disc-on-stump traps. The split
pseudostem traps are made from 35-45 cm long pseudostem pieces of fresh material cut into 2 equal
pieces lengthwise. The two halves should be placed with the flat side facing down onthe cleared soil
surface. The disc-on-stump traps are cut from stumps of recently harvested plants. The stump is cut
horizontally 15-25cm above ground level and a 8-10 cm disc of pseudostem is placed on top. The traps
can be modified by placing the banana leaves on top ofthe stump. The traps should be turned up to
remove the trapped weevils three days after laying the traps. Such weevils pretend to be dead when
touched. So make sure that you physically kill them.

Nematodes
Nematode damage and symptoms
Nematodes are very small worms and cannot be seen with naked eyes. They live and feed inside roots
and corm thus destroying them. (They, however, move out into soil when conditions are not favourable
in roots.) A root or corm damaged by nematodes shows reddish-purple lesions or patches (necrosis)
when split or peeled. Root necrosis results in premature root death. The necrosis interferes with the
water and nutrient movement into the plant. The most obvious symptom of nematode damage is the

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toppling over ofthe entire plant, particularly those bearing.
Management ofnematodes
Use of clean planting material in clean field:
The spread of nematodes across and within regions is attributed to movement ofinfested planting
material from one area to another and can be avoided by using nematode free planting material. Clean
plantig material can be obtained by corn paring, which could be followedby hot water treatment(at 52-
5S°C for 20 minutes).
In-vitro propagated (tissue culture) plants are also nematode free.

Use of Chemical nematicides eg furadan

Ants: Black ants, occasionally dig up and soften soil arond a banana corm. This renders the plant
vulnerable to winds (toppling).

BANANA DISEASES
Leafspots
There are two economically important leaf spot diseases on bananas and both are caused by fungal
pathogens. These are black Sigatoka (caused by mycosphaerella fijiensis) and leaf speckle (by Periconiella
sapientumicola). Another leaf spot disease called yellow Sigatoka (by Mycosphaerella micola) is common
but not important Compared with yellow sigatoka and leaf speckle.

Black and yellow Sigatoka produce similar symptoms and are hard to distinguish. However, yellow
Sigatoka is characterised by appearance of small yellow streaks (1-2mm long) parallel to the secondary
veins of the blade. The yellow streaks grow into brown spots that in turn develop into dark-brown (dead)
spots that are more or less round (Plate 7). On the other hand black Sigatoka streaks are brown and
gradually enlarge and fuse to form black patches which later develop
spots with grey centres.

Factors that favour leafspot diseases.

Leafspot diseases, especially black Sigatoka is seen to be more serious in the rainy than dry season. This is
because the fungus requires water for producing and spreading the spores that infect other leaves or
plants. High humidity in the field also encourages rapid development of the disease. Conditions that
encourage high humidity in the field include high plant density, poor field sanitation, high weed growth
and poor drainage, in addition to heavy rainall.
Control ofleafspot diseases (black Sigatoka and leaf speckle)
The cheapest and most effective method of controlling plant diseases is by use of resistant cultivars.
Banana hybrids resistant to the disease have been developed. (e.g. FHIA 01, FHIA 03, FHIA 17 and FHIA
23) In susceptible cultivars the level of leaf spot diseases can be reduced and build up of the
disease prevented by carrying out practices that reduce humidity in the field. These include maintenance
of correct spacing or plant density, good field sanitation, absence of weeds and good drainage. Good
fertilisation of the banana plant also reduces the impact of leaf spot diseases through an increase in the
rate of leaf production as a result of photosynthesis. Otherwise, the disease itself can only be controlled
by using chemical fungicides.

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 Banana StreakVirus (BSV)
Leaves initially have yellow streaks which later turn to golden necrotic streaks. The plant has reduced
growth and vigour, may fail to flower or put on smaller bunches which may bear distorted or poorly
filled fingers. Some plants develop internal pseudostem necrosis or top die back. Emerging leaves may
have no or slight symptoms, which may disappear and re-appear later.
Control of BSV
uproot and chop infected plants to restrict the spread of BSV within the field, start new plantations with
clean planting materials and provide enhanced nutrition to the plants.

Fusarium wilt disease

Fusarium wilt, also known as Panama wilt, is a soil borne disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum [Link].
Cubense.

Symptoms ofFusarium wilt

Yellowing of leaves, or premature collapse of leaves. Examination of a cross section of a pseudostem
and/or corm reveals a characteristic discolouration of the vascular bundles, usually stained purplish-
brown. Sometimes the leaf sheaths loosen and/or the pseudostem splits. A severely infected plant fails to
flower, or if it does, the bunch fails to develop and fill up.

Control of Fusarium wilt

Farmers are advised to grow resistant cultivars. These include cultivars like Cavendish, FHIA 17 and FHIA.
Otherwise, use of clean planting materials (preferably tissue culture plantlets) in fusarium-free soils is the
only solution if the susceptible cultivars have to be planted.

Corm rot
This disease usually occurs in plantations planted on cleared forestland. It is caused by a fungus
ArmiIIaria sp. which also survives on some tree species. It persists in stumps and roots of cleared trees,
and later invades planted bananas through corms and roots.
Aerially, its symptoms resemble those of fusarium wilt (yellowing and death of banana leaves).
Examination of the corm however reveals white strands of a fungus. Sometimes toadstool-like threads
appear at the base of the plant. The spread of this disease can be reduced by uprooting and burning of
infected plants, and planting replacements a few metres from the infected site.
Antracnose

Is a disease caused by a fungus Colletotrichum musae and attacks the fruit. It is most common on cooking
bananas. Its symptoms include initially, small black circular specks on the flowers and skin, and distal
ends of banana hands. The damage increases in size and later become sunken and coalesces, forming
large spots on the surface. As the fruit matures, typical spots develop. It is however observed that only
the cosmetic value is lost. The quality of pulp is not affected by the disease. However, for export fruits, it
is a major disease because affected fruits are rejected. Export fiuits require treatment with fungicides
recommendations ofwhich vary with distributors inthe consumer country.
Cigar end disease

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This is a disease that gives bananafruits an appearance of a lit cigarette with an ashy tip. It is air-borne
and caused by fungi, Verticillium theobromae. Pulps of infected fruits get rotten (either dry or wet
rotting). Cigar end rot disease tends to be favoured by high humidity. Old and badly maintained
plantations suffer most damage. The disease incidence can be reduced by removal of flower remains
from fruit.

Passion Fruit (Passiflora Edulis)

Introduction
Passion fruit is a climbing plant of the Passifloraceae family. Purple passion fruit is subtropical, important
in some countries, while the more tropical yellow passion fruit excels in others. Both yield delicious juice.
Commercial farming of purple passion fruit begun in Kenya in 1933 and was expanded in 1960, when the
crop was also introduced into Uganda for commercial production. In both countries, the large plantations
were devastated several times by easily-spread diseases and pests. The purple passion fruit (passiflora
edulis) is the most commonly grown passion for commercial purpose in Kenya. It is mainly grown for

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fresh and juice extraction. Passion fruit grows in warm to cool climates within altitude ranging from 1200-
2000m. above sea level and minimum rainfall of 900mm per annum. The most suitable soil is medium
texture (loamy), which are deep and well drained, with PH ranging from 5.5-7.5.
Distribution
Native Range: Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Kenya, South Africa, Paraguay, India, Java, Western Samoa
Exotic Range: Hawai, Jamaica, Israel, Florida
In Kenya, it grows in high potential or cool areas of Central, Coast, Eastern, Western, Rift valley and
Nyanza
Propagation
Pollination: yellow passion fruit flowers are perfect but selfsterile. Yellow passion fruit is pollinated by
Carpenter bees(Xylocopa megaxylocopa frontalis and X. neoxylocopa) or Honey bees (Apis mellifera
adansonii). In crossing the yellow and purple passion fruits, it is necessary to use the purple as the seed
parent (root stock) because the flowers of the yellow are not receptive to the pollen of the purple.

The yellow form has a more vigorous vine and generally larger fruit than the purple, but the pulp of the
purple is less acid, richer in aroma and flavor, and has a higher proportion of juice-35-38%. The purple
form has black seeds, the yellow, brown seeds KARI in Kenya is already developed a highbred by grafting
the yellow in to purple Varieties.
With the yellow form, seedling variation provides cross-pollination and
helps overcome the problem of self-sterility. If planted soon after removal from the fruit, seeds will
germinate in 2 to 3 weeks. Cleaned and stored seeds have a lower and slower rate of germination, thus
it’s important to use fresh seeds. Sprouting may be hastened by allowing the pulp to ferment for a few
days before separating the seeds, or by chipping the seeds or rubbing them with fine sandpaper.

Seeds are planted 1.25 cm deep in beds, and seedlings may be transplanted when 25-30 cm high. Some
growers prefer layers or cuttings of matured wood with 3 to 4 nodes. Cuttings should be well rooted and
ready for setting out in 90 days. Rooting may be hastened by hormone treatment. Scions from healthy
young vines are preferred to those from mature plants. The diameter of the selected scion should match
that of the rootstock. Either a cleft graft, whipgraft, or side-wedge graft may be made.
Field establishment: Grafted vines must be planted with the union well above ground, not covered by
soil or mulch;
otherwise the disease resistance will be lost. Mounding of the rows greatly facilitates fruit collection.
In Kenya the spacing normally used is 2m x 3m or 3m x 3m to allow easy movement when collecting
fruits. Dig holes of 45 cm x 45 cm. mix the topsoil with farm yard manure and 125g of Double Super
Phosphate (46 % P205) if available; fill the hole with this mixture at least 3 weeks before transplanting.
Plant at the on set of rain.
Staking and Trellising-the common system of support is by use of plain wires strung on post referred to
as trellises. Post for trellising should be about 3 m long and have a diameter of 15 cm. These posts should
be put 60cm deep in the ground at a spacing of 6m apart in a row. A single strand of wire is tightly
stretched over each row of posts and fixed firmly to the end posts.
Training-Alight stick is driven into the ground close to the plant or a piece of sisal twine tied to the wire
from the base of

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the young plant to the wire above. Two healthy shoots at the base of the plant are then selected and
trained up to the stick or the sisal strands by twining them regularly. The laterals bearing the fruit should
hang down once from the wire. Inter crop the fruit with vegetables such as beans, cabbage and tomatoes
during the first year.
Production
The purple fruit is fast growing as it bears fruits within 7-9 months after transplanting and has two peak
harvesting seasons in Kenya-July to August and December to January; however the yellow begin to bear
in 1 to 3 years. Ripening occurs 70 to 80 days after pollination.
Harvesting
For fresh markets-ripe fruits should be picked when they turn Purple incase of purple passion and yellow
color for yellow
passion. Ripe fruits naturally fall to the ground and will roll in between mounded rows. They do not
attract flies or ants but should be collected daily to avoid spoilage from soil organisms. Harvest early in
the morning when it is cool to
prevent them from sunburn, sort and grade in the shade. Harvest period is 2 to 3 times a week for 2 to 3
months. For juice processing, the fruit is allowed to attain a deep-purple colour. In India and Israel the
fruits are always picked from the vine rather than being allowed to fall. It has been found that fallen fruits
are lower in soluble solids, sugar content, acidity and ascorbic acid content. The fruits should be collected
in cartons or boxes, not in bags which will cause “sweating”. If not sent immediately to processing plants,
the fruits should be spread out on wire racks where there will be good air circulation.
Yield-many factors influence the yield of passion fruit vines. In general, yields of commercial plantations
range from 9 tons to 15 tons per 1.0 ha.
Shelf Life: Fruits can be stored for 1-2 weeks at ambient temperature or for 4-5 weeks at 7C. If stored
below 4.4 C, the
fruits get fungus attack while high temperature leads to mouldiness. If the fruits are waxed, they can be
stored for 2-3
months at optimum temperatures.
Market
Passion fruits are grown for both the export and domestic markets. It is a very popular fruit in the
domestic market either used as fresh fruit or for processing into juices. The major challenge in passion
fruit production is lack of clean planting materials free from Fusarium wilt which is rampant in the
country. Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (KARI) has been researching and has established a
screening lab to facilitate production of clean planting materials.
Other efforts have been through the PSDA/ GTZ who in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture,
HCDA and
KHDP especially in Rift valley province. Thika District HCDA is also assisting farmers groups in enhancing
production of
clean planting materials. The leading passion fruit processors include Kevian Ltd, Milly processors and
FIPS Ltd, Ruaraka.
Extensive juice extraction is carried out at household and cottage industries.
Economic Importance:
Commercial processing of the passion fruit may yields 36% juice, 51% rinds, and 11% seeds. Passion fruit

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is used as food, which has high content of iron and vitamin C
Health Aspect: Passion reduces Iron deficiency anemia since it has high content of iron and vitamin C.
Constipation- the pulp and juice act as a mild laxative and protects the stomach lining.
Nervousness & Anxiety-passion fruit juice is appropriate for those wishing to relax the nervous system. In
Madeira, the juice of passion fruits is given as a digestive stimulant and treatment for gastric cancer.
Seeds: The seeds yield 23% oil which is similar to sunflower and soybean oil and accordingly has edible as
well as industrial uses. The juice but mainly the leaves of passion fruit contain the alkaloids, including
Harman, which has blood pressure lowering action.

Anti-cancer effect: Researchers at the University of Florida have found that yellow passion fruit extracts
can kill cancer cells in vitro. The phytochemicals which are responsible for this anti-cancer effect are
carotenoids and polyphenols.

Passion can be used as hedge and also for soil improvement

Challenges
a. Limited clean planting materials
b. Producers have limited knowledge in adding value to the fruit products.
c. Poor pollination can be due to bees not working on the flowers, temperatures being too low or too
high for pollination or rain directly reducing the viability of the pollen.
d. Many pests and diseases affecting passion fruit-Coried Bugs, Green stinkbug, The Kenya Mealybug,
Brown Spot Disease, Fusarium wilt Disease: Phytophthora Root Crown rots, Woodiness virus.

PAPAYA (Carica papaya L; Caricaceae; 2n = 18)

It is generally grown as fruit plant in kitchen garden, home garden or
nutrition garden and later as commercial fruit. It is also planted as a filler plant in a fruit orchard.
COMPOSITION AND USES:
 The ripe fruits are used for desert purpose, preparation of jam, jelly, soft drinks, ice cream, flavoring,
crystallized fruits, canned in syrup, fruits salad.
 The unripe fruits are consumed as vegetables also as a contraceptive.
 The milky latex which is obtained from immature fruits is known as papain, which is a proteolytic
enzyme used in several ways.
 As a digestive aid and for the treatment of ulcer & diphtheria.
 In the industry of pre-shrinking of wool and degumming of natural silk and rayon.
 Tenderization of meat and it is used for tanning of leathers.
 Used in brewing industries as a clarifying agent for beer etc.
 Used in preparation of drugs for treating intestinal cancer, tape worms, round worms and kidney
disorders.
 Preparation of chewing gum, cosmetics, papers and adhesive materials.
 It contains high quantities of vitamin A and ranks second to mango in the content of vitamin-A
(carotene), the vitamin A is associated with carotene but the yellow pigment of papaya is caricaxanthene.
 It also contains Vit. C, riboflavin, niacin, good source of Ca, P, Fe, fat and carbohydrates.

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 Apart from papain, raw fruits can also be used for extraction of pectin. Pectin is generally extracted
using alcohol precipitation method. It is used in food industry as flavouring extract and emulsifying agent.
ORIGIN & DISTRIBUTION:
 It is a fruit native to tropical America and Commercially grown in many parts of the world

CLIMATE AND SOIL:

Papaya is tropical in its climatic requirement. It is susceptible to frost. It requires worm humid climate
and can be cultivated up to an elevation of 1000-1200 m above MSL. It thrives well at temperature
between 38-440C, but optimum range is 22-360C, a day temperature of 350C and 250C night
temperature are most suitable.
Papaya grows well under well drained soil with a pH range of 6-7. It prefers fertile soil, deep clayey and
calcarious and rocky soils are not suitable.
Varieties/ cultivars:
1. Honey dew: it is dioecious with less per centage of male plant and breeds true to the type from seed,
semi tall variety, bear fruits low on the trunk heavily.

2. Sunrise Solo: The variety is named ‗solo‘ because one man can easily consume one fruit. This is
gynodioecious variety from Hawaii with small sized fruits and yellowish orange pulp and keeping quality
is good.
3. Coorg honey dew: This variety produces no male [Link] plants are either hermophorodite or
female. Fruits borne on female plants are almost seedless and are of excellent quality.
4. Washington: The plants are vigorous, stem and leaf stalks are with purple ting, fruits medium to large,
round to ovate, sweet, pulp orange colour with good flavour.
PROPAGATION:
Papaya is usually propagated by seeds. The seeds should be collected from healthy ripe fruits essentially
from the plants free from pest & diseases.
The seeds should be rubbed with ash to remove mucilaginous coating to facilitate better germination.
However seeds can be stored for 45 days in an air tight container and stored at 100C. Before sowing,
soaking seeds in 100ppm GA solution to enhance germination percentage.
SOWING:
Seeds may be sown in poly bags 6 weeks prior to [Link] media should be disinfected by using
2 % formalin solution. 4 seeds per polybag should be sown, if it is dioecious variety or 2 seeds, if it is
hermaphrodite variety.
Seeds also sown in raised nursery beds; about 350 g seeds are required to plant one hectare area.
Germination will be observed in 2-3 weeks after sowing. About 6-7 weeks old seedlings will be ready for
transplanting.
PLANTING:
The pit size of 1 -1.5 cubic feet should be dug at 1.8 x 1.8m or at 2.4 x
2.4m apart and filled with 30-40 kg FYM with 25gm aldrin 5 % dust will
be added to the pits and filled with top soil.
Due to sex variation more than one seedling are required per pit. In case of dioecious varieties four
seedlings are transplanted/pit, Whereas, two seedlings are sufficient in case of hermaphrodite types like

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After planting irrigate the pit & provide staking.
INTERCROPPING & INTERCULTIVATION:
Different short duration vegetables can be profitably grown for about six months from planting.
For control of weeds, weedicides like fluchloralin or butachlor at 2.0 kg/ha have to be applied. Post
emergent herbicides - Glyphosate has also been found effective.
FLOWERING AND FRUIT SET:
Papaya starts flowering in 5-6 months after planting; When the sex of the plant is identified, surplus male
plants (plants with long 1 -1.5 meters flower
stalk hang out with small tubular flowers contains stamens only), may be removed keeping one male
plant for every 10 female plants, as pollinizers.
Manuring: The recommended dosage of fertilizers are 250g N, 200g P, 200g K and 10kg of FYM per plant
per year in 4 splits at 1st, 3 rd, 5th and 7th months after planting. While applying fertilizers it is not
necessary to fertilize the male trees left as pollinizers as they will regularly put forth necessary male
flowers without any extra manuring.
Irrigation: Papaya should be irrigated once in 8-10 days by ring system.
Weed Management: Application of weedicide such as Fluchloralin or Butachlor at 2.0 kg/ha, Post
emergent herbicides - Glyphosate has also been found effective.
Sex distribution in papaya:
Papaya is a polygamous species; many forms of inflorescence have been reported. In general there are 3
important types of flowers.
1. Staminate or male flowers:
Spleder spoon shaped buds with long, narrow tubular flowers on long peduncles, from leaf axil petals
fused at base and contains stamens but no ovary, it cannot develop into fruits
2. Pistilate/Female flowers:
Large yellow, borne singly or in groups of three in the leaf axils, close to the trunk. These flowers have
five large twisted and fleshy petals, surrounded ovary, which swells and develops in to a papaya fruit.
3. Hermophrodite flowers:
These are bisexual flowers, having both female and male organs, they are creamy white in colour, big
sized flowers no peduncle. They are also borne in the same manner as of female flowers i.e. closer to the
trunk in leaf axils. In papaya change in the sex expression is influenced by environmental factors like, low
temperature favoring production of perfect flowers on the male tree.
It was observed that fertile hermaphrodite types had some pistillate flowers which showed male
tendency in summer and female tendency in winters.
Seedless fruits are developed from the pure female flowers which are not cross pollinated.
After flowering the fruits mature within 5 months.
Under adverse climatic condition flowers & fruit drop is very common, to avoid this problem spraying of
planofix @ 1ml/liter.
Fruit thinning is suggested to get good size and quality.
Harvesting Indices:
Papaya comes to bearing with 10 months after planting. The economic life is only 3-4 years.
Fruits are harvested when the fruit turn slight yellow in colour. While harvesting, fruit should not be
damaged to prevent rotting. Manual harvesting is commonly practiced.

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Wash the fruits with water or fungicide i.e., Benlate at 0.05per cent and pack in boxes with cushioning
materials.
After harvesting in about 5-6 days fruit ripens depending upon room
temperature. Fruits could be stored for more than 4-5 weeks at 00C; also individual fruits are wrapped in
the newspaper for ripening
YIELD: The average yield is 30-80 tons/ha.
PAPAIN EXTRACTION:
Papain is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the milky latex obtained from immature papaya. About
400 tons of papain is produced throughout the world. The USA and UK are the major consumers of
papain.
PROCEDURE OF EXTRACTION:
The immature fruits of 90-100 days old are used for extraction of milky latex by giving 4-6 cuts of about
2mm depth, the latex is collected by tapping, sieved and dried in sun or in vacuum shelf dryer.
The quality and grade of papain is determined by colour and enzyme activity (Tyrosine unit).
Some of the important points to be considered while collecting the latex.
 Fruits of 90-100 days from fruit set are generally preferred.
 Oblong fruits relatively yield more than round ones.
 There will be a 4 fold increase in papain yield by using ethrel at 200 ppm.
 Always collect the papain in glass vessels or Aluminum trays.
 Use Potassium Metabisulphite (0.05 per cent) to extend the storage life
 About 450g/plant and 250-375 kg papain could be extracted from an hectare area.
POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND STORAGE:
 After harvesting the fruits are graded on the basis of their weight, size and colour.
 Fruits are highly perishable in nature.
 They can be stored for a period of 1-3 weeks at a temperature of 10-13 0 C and 85-90% RH.
Plant protection:-
Insect pests: Few insects like scales, mealy bugs, aphids and thrips have been reported infesting the fruit
tree. Scale insects and mealy bugs on stem and leaves.
Mite incidence may be occasionally noted especially during dry seasons.
Diseases:
 Caller rot and wilt: This occurs mainly due to the incidence of pythium aphanidermatum and
phytopthora palmivora.
 Anthracnose: (colletotrichum gloesporiodes): The initial symptoms are small round water soaked area
on fruits which later develop into sunken or concentric lesions. The disease also affects the petioles of
lower leaves leading to their shedding.
 Powdery Mildew:- (Oidium caricae)- The fungus is found mostly growing on the upper surface of the
leaves with drawing nutrients from the cells of the leaf surface. Under severe attack the top portions of
the seedling may die.
 Viral Diseases:
1) Mosaic
2) Leaf curl

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3) Ring spot –
 Of these, the papaya ring spot virus is common
 Nematodes: Root knot (Meloidogyne Sp) - Affects the root systems and cause yield reductions.

GUAVA (Psidium guajava; Myrtaceae; 2n= 22)

It is a very hardy sub-tropical plant, prolific bearer.
COMPOSITION AND USES:
The fresh fruits are very rich in vitamin C (100-260 mg/100g pulp). Vit-A, B2, and minerals like Calcium, P,
acidity 2.4 %, carbohydrates 9-10 %, TSS-13 %, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, thiamin and niacin, also rich
source of pectin.
The fresh ripe fruits are used as table/salad fruits.
The leaves yield a dye and are used in dying industry and also have medicinal values for curing diarrhea.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION:
A native of tropical America.
Guava was spread rapidly throughout the world‘s tropics by the Spanish and Portuguese.
SOIL AND CLIMATE:
Being very hardy, is grown successfully in wide range of soil like light sandy loam, clayey, deep, rich
alluvial with the pH of 4.5- 8.2.
It is the fruit crop of sub-tropical region; the young plants are susceptible to drought and cold. The trees
are very hardy and can withstand heat and prolonged drought.
The rainfall of 1000mm with uniform distribution is ideal for production.
The optimum temperature lies between 23-28 0C and can be grow up to 1500m above mean sea level.
Varieties:
1. L-49 (Lucknow-49) : It is prolific bearer, greenish yellow with milky white sweet pulp and rough
surface. Shell is fairly thick, contains fairly soft few seeds in inner portion of pulp.
2. Allahabad Safeda : Tree is medium in height (5.8-6.5m) with vigorous branching and dense foliage.
Fruits are medium in size (180g), round in shape with few seeds. Fruit is white fleshed with good keeping
quality.
3. Chittidar : The Chittidar is similar to the Safeda except that, it has many pinkish red dots of the pinhead
size on the surface of fruit.
4. Red Fleshed : Tree attains 3-5m height. The branches are spreading with roundish oval fruit, which has
yellowish skin with pink colour flesh.
Hybrids:
5. Arka Mridula : This hybrid was obtained by crossing of Seedless x Allahabad safeda. Plants are semi-tall
in nature and spreading. Fruits are round in shape and weigh about 180g. Skin is yellow in colour and
smooth. Flesh is white in colour.
PROPAGATION: Commercially guava is propagated by grafting /Air layering/Ground layering.
RAISING OF SEEDLINGS:
Rootstocks are raised from the seeds extracted from healthy fruits and stored for 100 days by treating
with ferulic acid. Potassium nitrate also used at 1 per cent to prolong storage of seeds.
The seedlings will be ready for grafting in 45-60 days after sowing. The layers should be treated with IBA

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@ 10,000 ppm for better rooting.
PLANTING:
Planting is done at a spacing of 6m x 6m by opening 90cm3 pits, Filled with 30-40 kg FYM, dried leaves
and 1 kg SSP. After planting they are supported by stakes.
IRRIGATION:
Immediately after planting, plants are watered. During dry season orchard is irrigated at an interval of 10-
15 days
MANURING:
The tree should be provided with 25kg FYM/plant, at the time of planting, the fertilizer dosage should be
given based on the age of the plant.
The recommended dosage of fertilizers are 600g N, 250g P, 250g K and 15kg of FYM per plant per year.
Fertilizers are applied in 2 splits
Foliar application of urea (3 %) along with Calcium, Phosphate and Muriate of Potash (Kcl) at 1 per cent
could increase the yield. The deficiency of micronutrients such as Zn and B are rectified by spraying with
Znso4 (0.3 per cent) and Boron – Boric acid (0.4 %) before flowering.
INTERCROPPING:
During pre-bearing age, some of the fruits and vegetables can be taken as the remunerative crops i.e.,
Leguminous vegetables or green manuring crops are grown during first 1 -2 years.
WEED MANAGEMENT:
Weed is a problem at the early stage of growth, for conservation of moisture, proper utilization of
nutrients as well as for effective control of pests and diseases weed free environment is essential.
Integrated weed management programme should include growing of cover crops, use of herbicides, inter
cropping and hand weeding where ever necessary.
TRAINING & PRUNING:
Training is done primarily to give form to the tree.
For development of a strong framework, the first 60 to 90 cm from base of the trunk should be cleaned
followed by 4 to 5 scaffold branches at an interval of 20-25 cm.
When the plants attained a height of about 1.5m to 1.8 m, it is headed back to make the center open.
The branches are bent down ward and tied toeach other. Thus forcing the dormant buds to grow. This
results in increased yields.
Light annual pruning after harvesting to promote vegetative growth and flowering is desirable. All dead,
diseased, crowded growth and suckers sprouting from the base and sides of the framework are pruned
back annually.
Pruned trees give larger fruits and early ripening.
FLOWERING AND FRUITING:
Guava tree flowers throughout the year, but the peak flowering is observed in 2 season, rainy crop (April-
May) and (Aug- Sept).
Flowers are produced in leaf axils or in cyme the period of flowering varies from 25-45 days. Honey bees
are the pollinators.
FRUIT SET:
Only 35-50% fruits are carried to maturity though initially 80-86% fruit sets. In seedless variety, it is as
low as 6 %, to improve fruit set GA3 at 200ppm.

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Fruits take 105-140 days to mature from fruit set. Spraying GA3 at 1000-8000 ppm is suggested to
improve fruit set.
HARVESTING:
Guava, being a climacteric fruit, it ripens after harvesting;
Change in colour of fruits from dark green to pale green is the indication of maturity. The fruits are
harvested at their full yellow but firm for local market, whereas half yellow fruits should be picked for
distant markets.
YIELD:
The tree reaches its peak bearing stage within 15 to 16 years after planting.
A mature tree yields about 90-150kg fruits or 10-15t/ha.
POSTHARVEST HANDLING AND STORAGE:
Because of their perishable nature, guavas are disposed off immediately after harvesting in the local
market and a very small quantity may be sent to distant market if they are not kept in cold storage.
However, the shelf-life of guava can be extended up to 20 days by keeping them at low temperature of
50C and 75-85% RH.
It can also be stored for about 10 days at room temperature (180 -23 0C) in polybags, providing a
ventilation of 0 .25%.
IMPORTANT PEST AND DISEASES
PESTS:
1. Fruit fly- Chaetodacus spp- It is severe during rainy season crops
2. Mealy bugs- Cryptolems spp.
 The other insect pests causes problems to this crop are scale insects, Tea mosquito, shoot & bark borer.
DISEASES:
1. Guava wilt - Fusarium spp.
2. Anthracnose - Colletotrichum psidii- It is also severe during rainy season crops.
3. Fruit canker - Pestlotia psidii.
4. Cercospora leaf spot - Cercospora sawadal

6. French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Introduction:
French beans (also known as green beans or snap beans), is one of the most important
export crop in Kenya. It is grown mainly for fresh export market and elite local urban
markets. The produce from Kenya is mainly sold to France and U.K. It is a cool season
crop whose flowers may be red, pink or white. They have a short growing season and are
harvested when pods are immature. They are bushy types that are self supporting or pole
types which require support such as trellise or stakes.

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Ecology
Optimum temperatures ranges between 14-32oc. extreme temperatures result in poor
flower development and poor pod set.( i.e Above 30°C flower buds are likely to fall and
seeds are rarely formed at temperatures over 35°C)
They do well in altitudes of between 1000-2100 m a.s.l. they mature faster in warm areas.
The most ideal areas to grow are the medium altitude to the highlands e.g Maragua, Naru
moru, Njambini,Naivasha,Narok,Matuu,Machakos,Thika,Kitale,Mwea,Kajiado,Vihika
and many other areas not very high in elevation(does not grow well in the tea zone)
They grow well in full sunlight
Soils should be moist, well aerated, friable and moderately fertile. Sandy loams are
preferred at a PH of 6-6.5.
Moderate rainfall of 900-1200 mm/yr is adequate but to maintain a continuous production
during the dry season, irrigation is essential.

Varieties
variety Days to maturity Characteristics
Amy 50-60 Excellent shelf life, tolerant to anthracnose
Julia 58 Ideal canning variety, extra fine
Monel 65 Good yields
Paulista 58-60 Tolerant to anthracnose with good yields
Samantha 58-60 Tolerant to anthracnose with good yields
Teresa 60 Tolerant to rust,anthracnose and bean mosaics
Tanya Anthracnose / Common bean mosaic virus / Halo
blight
RS 1518 Anthracnose / Common bean mosaic virus
RS 1389 Common bean mosaic virus / Bean rust
Others
Vernadon, glona, Claudia,super monel, espada maasai, morgan,coby,nerina,bobby beans

Propagation
Normal propagation is by seed but for special purposes stem cuttings can be rooted
easily. French beans, grown for fresh consumption, canning or freezing should be planted
at 2-3 week intervals in order to harvest all year round, but main export season for fresh
beans is October to May. Hence planting for export at 2-3 week intervals should start
mid-August and cease end February. They mature in 50-60 days. They can be harvested
20-25 days after plants flower.
Single rows of 30 x 15 cm (one seed per planting hole) or double rows 60x30x10 cm are
used at a depth of 3cm. For single rows it is advisable to plant in blocks of four single
rows separated by a path of 50 cm for ease of management. Seed rate is 50-60 kg per
hectare.
Manures and fertilizer application
Where soils we low in organic manure, F.Y.M are recommended at the rate of 10t/[Link]
should be applied in planting furrows and worked into the soil before planting. At
planting 200kg/ha DAP is applied in the furrow and mixed well with the soil before
placing the seed.

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At the first trifoliate leaf stage, they are top dressed at the rate of 100kg/ha CAN and a
second application of CAN at the onset of flowering. Excessive application of N
promotes vegetative growth at the expense of pod formation. They don’t need much
nitrogen since they are able to take nitrogen from the air and fix it on their roots.
Application of K early in the growing season is not recommended because it can cause
excess salt formation in the soil.

Weed control
Timely and thorough weeding is essential. First weeding should be done 2-3 weeks from
emergence followed by a second weeding 2-3 weeks later care should be taken not to
damage the shallow roots. The crop should not be weeded at the onset of flowering to
avoid flower shedding, spread of diseases and soil compaction. Herbicides are also
economical for commercial growers’ e.g.
Lasso (alaclulor), Stomp (pendimethalin), Basagran (bentazon).

Water management
A regular water supply is essential for French beans as moisture affects yields, uniformity
and quality. Water stress during flowering reduces yields, as does waterlogging.
Irrigation in dry spells is recommended as 35 mm per week at planting and 10 days post
emergence, followed by 50 mm per week thereafter till end of production.

Pest and disease control

Disease control is key to produce the best quality and highest yield. Most common
disease includes;
 Root rots
 White mold
 Gray mold
 Bacterial blights (brown spot, common blight and halo blight)
 Bean garden mosaic virus (BGMV)
 Rust (Uromyces appendiculatus)
Rust is a big problem in warm humid [Link] is available and can be used. The
diseases can be prevented by Cultural methods which include;-
i) Plant spacing is most important as wider spacing results in good air circulation
therefore reduction in tapped moisture on the plants which reduces disease
severity. The most appropriate spacing for both good yields and disease
management is 61by [Link] is particularly important for management of
white mold.
ii) Turning the soil at least 15cm deep also reduces severity of the disease.
iii) Use of disease-free seed is mostly effective control of common blight disease.
Avoid planting in infested fields for at least 3 years since the bacteria survive
in the soil.
iv) The bacteria is also easily spread throughout the field under wet conditions, so
staying out of the field when plants are wet helps in disease management.
v) Use of protective fungicides and immediate destruction of crop debris
manages rusts.

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 vi) Apply foliar fertilizer to encourage general crop growth and reduce the period
that the plants are susceptible.
vii) Root rots are controlled by using disease – free quality seeds that germinates
quickly, avoid deep seeding, planting when soil temp favorable for rapid
germination, reduce old plant residues on the soil surface, controlling insects
nematodes and avoiding overcrowding.

[Link]
Cause: Uromyces appendirulatus
It is a very serious disease of French beans and can appear and damage on any above
ground part of beans but is severe on leaves. Warm humid weather favours rust
development
Symptoms: initially there are small whitish slightly raised round spots on the
underside of the leaves which turn reddish brown. These discharge the rusty coloured
dust- like spores. The spots turn reddish-brown circular fruiting bodies that will
rupture the leaf releasing many spores (seen as powder on leaves) on susceptible bean
varieties, pustules may be surrounded by yellow halos while on resistant varieties
very small haloes could forms
Control:
 Use of resistant varieties if available
 Chemical control when weather conditions are favorable for disease
development
 Wet foliage and dew should be avoided. No working in wet fields.
 Irrigation should be in the morning hours to avoid wet foliage during the
night
 Maintain good air circulation by correct spacing
 Crop rotation and avoid fields previously grown with food beans
2. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum)

Symptoms of anthracnose can appear on any plant part. Pale brown sunken spots may
appear on the cotyledons of infected seedlings. Water may spread the disease to the
hypocotyl, which if girdled, kills the seedling. Lesions on leaves are dark brown. They
are restricted to the veins on lower leaf surface. On stems, lesions are elongated and
sunken. On the pods, the fungus produces black, sunken lesions. These lesions penetrate
deep into the pods and may cause shrivelling of the young pods. Infected seed become
discoloured changing to yellow through brown to black. In damp weather, the centres of
anthracnose lesions become covered with a pink spore mass. The disease is seed borne.

Control:

 Use certified disease-free seeds. Plant resistant varieties (e.g. French variety
'Paulista')
 Remove from the field and destroy crop debris after harvest
 Practise a 2 to 3 year rotation
 Avoid overhead irrigation
 Avoid movement of workers in the field when wet

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3. Common blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli)

This disease is a constraint to bean production in Kenya. Percentage crop losses of

between 10 and 75% have been reported. The common blight produces similar symptoms
on leaves, pods, stems and seeds. Small water-soaked spots are the first symptoms
observed on leaves and appear within 4 to 10 days of infection. As the spots develop, the
centre becomes dry and brown. The lesion is surrounded by a narrow band of bright
yellow tissue. However, yellowed tissue is occasionally absent

Control:

 Intercropping bean with maize was shown to reduce the severity of common
bacterial blight during 1987-88 in Tanzania
 Use certified disease-free seed
 Plant resistant varieties (e.g. French bean variety 'Paulista'
 Plough under bean debris after harvest
 Practise a 2-3 year crop rotation without legumes
 Do not work in bean fields when the plants are wet
 If blight is observed on scattered plants, spot application of copper hydroxide could
be considered

Pests

1. Bean flies (Ophiomyia spp.)

Bean flies also called bean stem maggots are serious pests in Africa. The adult is a tiny
(about 2mm long) fly, shiny black-bluish in colour. The female fly pierces the young
leaves to lay eggs and sucks the exuding sap. This leaves yellow blotches on the leaves,
which are the first signs of bean fly attack and may serve as early symptom useful for
monitoring the presence of this pest in the field. Maggots mine their way from the leaves
down to the base of the stem, where they complete their development.

Maggot feeding destroys the tissue causing the steam to swell and split and reducing
formation of lateral roots. Attacked plants tend to produce adventitious roots in
compensation. Maggots (yellow in colour) and pupae (brown or black in colour) can
often be seen through the stem splits. Young seedlings and plants under stress wilt and
die when attacked by bean flies. Older or vigorous plants may tolerate bean fly attack, but
their growth will be stunted and their yield reduced. Damage is more severe in plants
growing under poor conditions such as infertile soils and drought.

Control:

 Plant early in the season. Bean fly numbers tend to be low during the early stages of
the growing season and increase with time.

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  Provide favourable growing conditions to improve plant vigour and to enhance
tolerance to insect attack and damage. For instance, soil fertility can be improved by
adding organic fertilizers and well decomposed farmyard manure.
 Mulch (e.g. with straw and cut grasses) helps conserve moisture, promote
adventitious root development and enhances tolerance to maggot damage.
 Avoid planting beans near cowpea, soybean and many other leguminous crops, that
may be the source of bean flies.
 Remove and destroying crop residues and all plant parts with symptoms of damage
by bean flies.
 Earth up (building up) the soil around the plants to cover the roots at 2-3 weeks after
the plant emerges help the adventitious roots to grow more quickly. Thus, provided
there is enough moisture, the plants are able to recover from the damage.
 Use botanical insecticides such as neem. It has been shown that frequent foliar
application with neem extract gives satisfactory control of this pest.
 Use resistant varieties

2. Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica)

They cause stunting and yellowing of plants with a tendency to wilt in hot weather. If
infested plant are pulled out from the soil, the roots can be seen to be distorted, swollen
and bearing knots of various sizes. Infested roots under severe infestation decay.

Control:

 Practise a 2-3 year crop rotation with cereals, maize or grasses

 Direct surface irrigation water from new to old bean fields
 Maintain fields weed-free
 Uproot and destroy entire plants after harvest
 Amend soil with neem cake or green manure of marigold or sunnhemp
 Maintain high levels of organic matter in the soil

3. Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.) `

Spider mites feeding on bean plants may cause reduction in plant growth, flowering,
number and length of pods, and number of seeds per pod. Damage is most severe when
mites attack young plants. Mite damage may be particularly severe during the dry season.

Control:

 Avoid planting next to infested fields.

 Avoid frequent use of broad-spectrum pesticides, in particular pyrethroids; this may
lead to spider mite outbreaks.
 Use overhead irrigation or wash plants with a strong jet of water to knock off mites
and destroys their webs. Be sure to include the underneath of the leaves. However,
this should be done early in the day to allow the foliage to dry. Wetness of the
foliage for an extended period is conducive to development of fungal diseases

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 Harvesting
French beans are harvested as immature pods before the seeds are well developed at this
stage they have the best flavors and nutritional value. This is around 6-8 weeks after
planting and continues for1.5-2 months. They must be picked 2-3 times a week to ensure
a continuous harvest and maintain export quality because, If left to mature the plant stops
flowering. The pods are carefully picked and should have their stalk still attached .the
length of the bean is not a maturity indicator but texture of the beans. They are past their
best when the skin is loose textured and the beans inside begins to be visible on the pod.
They should be picked when you to encourage new beans to grow. The pods are best to
pick when they snap easily and the seeds are not fully developed if the pod snaps cleanly
it is ready for harvesting, older pod will usually have a string between the two halves
avoid harvesting in hot or cold weather to avoid shriveling and deterioration of quality. If
picking is unavoidable in wet conditions place the produce on a clean cloth to dry them
before packing.

Post harvest handling

Due to need of quality assurance clean facilities must be installed in the packing/grading
sheds to ensure that workers wash their hands regularly and sick workers not to handle
the produce.
Place harvested pods in clean containers and cover with a clean damp cloth to avoid
shriveling.

Sorting and grading

Sorting is done to remove broken, malformed, overgrown, off types and insects and
disease damaged pods.
French beans meant for export must be:
 Intact of fresh appearance, clean and free from excess external moisture
 Beans must of specified size and should withstand transport and handling to meet
market requirement at their destination.

Beans have three main grades;

a) Extra fine grade
Are beans superior quality and shape, size and color characteristics of variety. They must
be turgescent, very tender, seedless, string less and free from any defect.
Width of pod must be <6mm and min length of 10cm
b) Fine grade
Beans in this class must be of good quality, turgescent, tender and must have
characteristic size and color of that variety. Small seeds and short soft strings are allowed
so long as the pod snaps clean when broken width of pod is between 6-9mm
c) Bobby beans
This category comprises beans of marketable quality which do not qualify for inclusion
in the higher classes but satisfies min requirements specified above. The beans must be
reasonably tender and seed not too large.

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Packing
They are packed in corrugated fibreboards carton 3kg gross weight or in plastic pre-packs
weighing 250,500 or 1000g.

Pre-cooling and storage

Done using forced air coolers at 7-8OC. They are stored at temp of 7-8OC and R.H of 95-
100% for 1-2 weeks

Marketing
Most are exported to France and UK. They must arrive at the airport 12 hours of harvest
and must conform to the following regulation Cap 319. (Agricultural Export Act).
 All French beans for export shall be well formed with a min length of 10cm, a
good green color, undamaged and without excessive seed development, provided
that when broken, pods shall snap cleanly without any protruding fibers.
 Pods in every container shall be of same length and size.

 Net at of pods in every container shall be clearly marked on the outside of every
such container
They shall be picked in well ventilated cardboard or timber containers. Each container
shall not exceed 5kg
Every container shall be lined with clean tissue paper and the pods packed in even
parallel rows

Banana (musa spp)

Introduction
-The ancestors of the commercial bananas originated from the Malaysian Peninsula, New Guinea
and South-East Asia. Main growing areas in Kenya are western nyanza central and coast
-Are perennial tropical plants whose fruit are used for cooking and as table fruits. They can also
be planted as windbrakers east,werstern,nyanza,eastern
Uses

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  Used mainly as cooked banana or ripe as a desert fruit
 They may also be processed into starch, chips, purée, beer (in Africa), vinegar, or may be
dehydrated and sold as dried fruit.
 Flour is produced from both plantains and table bananas, which can then be used in
soups, baking or as a drink.
 The flowers can be used as a vegetable, but they have to be heated briefly in salty water
to remove the bitterness.
 The fresh leaves have a high content of protein and cattle and chicken like them because
of their taste.
 The leaves are also used as packing material and for roofing.
 Together with the stem (it’s actually a pseudo-stem) it also offers an excellent mulching
material.
Plant characteristics
-Is shallow rooting –they have adventitious roots arising from the basal rhizome
Leaf scars and buds are found on the rhizomes which emerge close to the parent giving rise to a
duster or stool of suckers
-Suckers which originate from the lower part of the parent rhizomes at first are small, pale,
pointed leaves are called sword suckers
Those which originate near the soil surface immediately have large, green and wide leaves similar
in form to those of mature plants are called water suckers
-The stem of each sucker consist of the flesh leaf sheaths which encircle one another called
pseudo stem in which the true stem begins to grow which later bears the florescence
-Mature suckers are 1.5m-6.0m high depending on the variety up to 8m
There are 5 to 15 leaves on each plant grow are largest of all plants becoming up to 3m long
and0.6m wide
-Each sucker produce one inflorescence which vary depending on variety e.g color, geotropism of
stem and fruits ,size and shape of fruits, compactness of bunch etc 1-5 bunches produces females
10th onwards males
-The time of emergency of the inflorescence depends mostly on the size of planting material,
altitude and variety usually 9 and 18 months
-The time from shooting of the bunch to harvest is about 3 months.
Ecology
 Rainfall and water requirements
Ideally bananas requires annual rainfall of 1000-2500mm/p.a and should be well distributed
Artificial irrigation is used in areas that do not have enough rainfall as they require constant
supply of moisture
 Altitude and temperature
Requires warm conditions of annual temperature of 20-30oc lower than 20oc plant growth is
impaired cool conditions cause slower development and in some cases inflorescences fail to
emerge completely. Temperature is a major factor; the optimum for growth is about 27°C and the
maximum 38°C. Plant growth is retarded and chilling injury occurs below 13°C.
Altitude of below 1800m a.s.l is recommended.
 Wind
Banana is sensitive to strong wind, which shreds the leaves, causes crown distortions and blows
plants over, and is susceptible to lodging in the absence of windbreaks. They can be considerably
damaged by wind so should be planted in sheltered position.
It is recommended that they be planted in blocks rather than strips for self protection.
 Soil requirement
It should be well drained loams high in humus content with a ph of 5-8.
High fertility is a great advantage and organic matter content should be 3% or more. Plantains
require more fertile soils than table bananas. Agricultural lime or preferably dolomitic lime (Ca +

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Mg content) can be added to soils that are very acidic in order to make them less acidic and better
suited for banana production.
Varieties
 Gros michel
 Lacatan brause and male flowers are persistent on lower part of male axis
Giant Cavendish resistant to panama disease and fruit with blunt tips
Bunch is irregularly shaped
 Dwarf Cavendish
 Lady finger
 Williams hybrid
 Plantain
 Apple (sweet banana)
 Red banana
 Sabaki
 Payo male braits fallmoff
Land preparation and planting
-Plough land during the dry season and kill all weeds particularly couch grass planting should be
done at the beginning of the rains
-Dig holes 60cm square and 60cm deep mix the top soil with 2 debes of well rotten manure and
fill in the hole. Plant the suckers some 30cm deep so that it is firm in the soil
-Spacing depends on the variety
Short-3 by 3m, top medium 3 by 4m while tall varieties are 4 by 4m
- Planting material should be selected from healthy plants, free of diseases and pests (e.g.
bunchy top virus, nematodes and banana weevils), having all the desirable bunch qualities and
high yielding ability. It is very important that the planting material is undamaged. Prior to
planting, the roots and any damaged part of the rhizome should be removed with a sharp knife.
Rhizomes or suckers showing symptoms of disease or pest attack (in particular nematodes or
banana weevils) must be discarded
Propagation
They are propagated vegetative means. There are several types of vegetative planting material.
Selection is done according to availability, required amounts and transport possibilities:
 Smallholders propagate banana mostly by corms / rhizomes (the bottom part of the plant
that remains underground and bears several buds which develop into suckers) and
suckers. Corms / rhizomes can be used as a whole or in pieces each bearing one or more
buds. Using whole corms is laborious, requires a large amount of starting / planting
material and generates high transport costs. Using corm pieces is less expensive.
 Suckers are produced profusely at the base of each plant.
-Very young suckers just appearing above the ground, known as peepers, are easy to transport,
but will produce first yield after two years
-Sword suckers-These are taken from parent plant when about 1m high and 15cm in diameter.
They will produce the first yield about 18 months after planting.
-Water suckers are 6-8months old, 25cm at the base, have a well-developed base with narrow
sword-shaped leaves. Water suckers, which have broad leaves should not be used for propagation
since do not produce healthy banana clumps and the survival rate after planting is low.
-Maiden suckers are tall suckers normally 5-8 months, which have not yet set a bunch. They will
produce a bunch in the first year.
 Banana plants are also propagated through tissue culture (TC). Normally disease and
pest free plantlets are multiplied under controlled conditions. Plantlets are supplied in
pots and are planted in the field after hardening them off. These tissue culture bananas
yield considerably better than traditionally propagated bananas when planted in clean
soil that has not been previously used for banana production in the recent past. They are

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 commercially available in Kenya from Kenya Agricultural Research Centre, Thika,
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Juja and several private
companies. The TC banana plants should be minimum 200-300 mm high at planting and
have at least five healthy dark leaves and wider internodes at time of transplanting.

Field maintenance
1. Weeding
Keep the orchard weed free by planting a cover crop. Frequent shallow weeding is required until
the plants shade out weeds. Weeds are controlled by mechanical means (slashing, hoeing, etc.) or
by hand
2. fertilizer and manure application
Mix 100-150gm of double super phosphate with the soil per hole at planting time
Apply 100-125gm of C.A.N per stool per year at the beginning of the rains
3. mulching
Use of stems cut during thinning, pruned suckers
They should not be aloud to come into contact with banana stems as this would provide moist
conditions which encourage entry of banana weevils
4. inter cropping
Intercrop with crop growing and shallow rooted crop in the first year afterwards mulching should
begin
5. Thinning / Desuckening
To produce large bunches with fingers (individual banana) hands-bananas occurring in a cluster
and to increase yields
Generally the banana stools should be thinned to leave one bearing plant one half grown and one
just starting to grow
Follower sucker selection
Following is considered
a) the stage of plant development
Selection should be done when mother plant is 1m tall
b) number of suckers and direction of selection
Three vigorous sword shakers facing eastward or up the slope after 1-2 months the most vigorous
should be selected and rest removed
6. staking /propping
Banana stems is liable to break under the weight of heavy ripening bunch and the fruit may rot on
the ground
Forked poles are used to keep the stem upright
7. Irrigation
Irrigation is necessary in areas with a long dry season but also if rainfall is less than 220mm per
month.
8. Pest control
 banana weevil (cosmopolitics sordidus)
This is a brown black weevil with a curved hard shell and are nocturnal
Symptoms
Form irregular tunnels in the rhizomes at ground level reducing it to a mass of rotten tissue
The leaves turns yellow wither and die prematurely
Infested are easly brown over by wind
The hearth leaf may also die
Control
Plant clean healthy suckers
Chemically by use of dieldrin

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  The burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis)
The burrowing nematode is the most destructive nematode species attacking bananas. Dark
patches or spots on the roots indicate nematode infestation. Severely infected plants may show
only stubs of rotted roots and may fall down when the bunch has formed. Bananas are also
attacked by other nematode species such as Pratylenchus spp., Helicotylencus spp. and
Meloidogyne spp.

Control

-Remove infested plants

-Use nematode-free planting material

-Plant resistant cultivars

-Biological control is possible by Paecilomyces lilacinus, a fungus, which parasitizes the egg, larva
and adult of the nematode.

-All nematode species can also be controlled incorporating neem cake powder into the soil near the
banana plants. In Uganda neem extracts spread around the banana plant are recommended for
control of nematodes

The banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa

It is a small aphid about 1-2mm long and blackish-brown in colour. Colonies are usually present
on the base of young leaves. The direct damage caused by aphids sucking the plant sap is
negligible. However, they are important pests as vectors of the virus causing the bunchy-top
disease.

Large colonies of aphids can occur around the base of pseudostems of Musa, down to 7-8 cm
below the soil surface. Dense colonies can also occur between the sheath of outer leaf and
pseudostem. During drought, aphids seek sheltered locations on the plant. In dull and humid
weather, however, aphids may spread to foliage generally, and to the bases of maturing hands of
fruit and all over the hands of young fruit.

Colonies of P. nigronervosa are attended by ants, which feed on the large quantity of honeydew
produced. Many species of ant are involved worldwide. Stechmann et al. (1996) described how
ant-attendance reduced the density of indigenous predators of P. nigronervosa considerably,
which has implications for biological control (e.g. Wellings et al., 1994). Ants also transport
aphids from plant to plant, establishing new infestations.

P. nigronervosa is not normally found on plantains, suggesting that they may have resistance to
the aphid.

Banana cultivars are all thought to be susceptible to Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV); although
wide variations in the onset and severity of symptoms have been observed,

Control

-Conserve natural enemies. They are important in natural control of aphids

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-Monitor regularly the crop.

-Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is best controlled by quick and efficient early detection in
banana, with frequent surveys by trained inspectors. Diseased plants should be removed and
destroyed. Replanting is increasingly done with virus-free tested material.

9. Disease control;
 Bacterial wilt

Initially one of the youngest three leaves turns pale-green or yellow in color and breaks down at
the petiole and the pseudostem. Later all the other leaves collapse around the pseudostem. An
infected finger or fruit shows dry and rotted pulp that is colored brown or black, and the presence
of bacterial discharges.

control:

-Use resistant varieties, if available

-Use certified disease-free seeds

-Remove infected plants from fields and destroy affected plants

 The bunchy top disease

It is a virus disease transmitted by aphids the typical symptoms of bunchy top of banana are very
distinctive and readily distinguished from those caused by other viruses of banana. Plants can
become infected at any stage of growth and there are some initial differences between the
symptoms produced in aphid-infected plants and those grown from infected planting material.

In aphid-infected plants, a few dark-green streaks or dots usually appear on the minor veins and
the midrib of the second leaf to emerge after inoculation. They are best seen from the underside
of the leaf in transmitted light. The 'dot-dash' symptoms can sometimes also be seen on the
petiole. The following leaf may display whitish streaks along the secondary veins when it is still
rolled. These streaks become dark green as the leaf unfurls. Successive leaves become smaller,
both in length and in width of the lamina, and often have chlorotic, upturned margins. The leaves
become dry and brittle and stand more erect than normal giving the plant a rosetted 'bunchy top'
appearance.
Suckers from an infected stool can show severe symptoms in the first leaf to emerge. The leaves
are rosetted and small with very chlorotic margins that tend to turn necrotic. Dark-green streaks
are usually evident in the leaves.
Infected plants rarely produce a fruit bunch after infection and do not fruit in subsequent years.
Plants infected late in the growing cycle may fruit once, but the bunch stalk and the fruit will be
small and distorted. On plants infected very late, the only symptoms present may be a few dark
green streaks on the tips of the flower bracts.
Control:

-Eradicate diseased plants. The whole stool, including rhizome/corm and all associated suckers,
must be destroyed by uprooting and chopping into small pieces, as the virus can ultimately spread to
all parts of the mat. Control must be practiced across the whole production area to avoid the rapid
re-infection.

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-Use of virus-free planting material

-Genetic resistance to black leaf streak is a long-term goal for disease management, especially for
smallholders who cannot afford to purchase chemicals.
Cultivars with high levels of resistance include 'Yangambi Km 5' (AAA), 'Mysore' (AAB), 'Pelipita'
(ABB), 'Saba' (ABB) and 'Pisang Awak' (ABB).
However, these do not suit all local tastes and some are susceptible to Fusarium wilt (Fusarium
oxysporum [Link]. cubense).

 Black leaf streak (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) (also called black Sigatoka

It is a very serious disease that affects the leaves of banana. The spores of this fungus are carried
in the wind. The spores germinate in moisture and infect the leaves. The lesions gradually grow
larger and kill large areas of the leaf. This results in lower yields and causes the premature
ripening of the fruit.

Control:
-Remove and destroy diseased leaves, as this will reduce source of infection. If diseased leaves
cannot be removed from the plot and burnt, they should be deeply buried.

-Overhead irrigation encourages the disease. Under-canopy micro-irrigation or drip-irrigation is

preferable. Plants are also more vulnerable to black leaf streak in sheltered areas where the humidity
is high. Good drainage systems that take surface water rapidly out of plantations can reduce
humidity.

-Avoid overcrowding of plants.

 The cigar end rot disease (Trachysphaera fructigena)

It is a fungal disease that can attack the ripening fruit of banana, causing a dry rot of the flower
end that produces an ash grey wrinkled lesion similar to the burnt end of a cigar. In storage or
during transport the disease may progress to involve the whole fruit. Symptoms are: lesions,
abnormal shape, and visible mould.
The disease is usually of minor significance and seldom requires targeted control.

Control

-Practise sanitation

-Avoid damage to the fruit and deflowering 8-11 days after fruit bunch emergence

-Bagging of maturing banana stems

Anthracnose

It is an important post-harvest problem of bananas especially during transport and storage. On

green fruit, pin-size brown or black sunken spots develop. Infection in young fruit is not always
manifested until the fruit ripens, when black, round, slightly sunken spots appear. The centres of
the spots become dark because of the formation of small black fruiting bodies of the fungus.

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 Under moist conditions, masses of spores are produced having a characteristic salmon (pinkish)
colour. Pulp of diseased fruit is usually not affected unless the fruit is over-ripe.
Control

-Practise good field sanitation

-Minimize bruising during fruit handling

-Hot water treatment the fruit for 5 min at 50°C. Proper sanitation of handling facilities

-Reports from Philippine claim that sprays of jathropa oil extract at 5000 ppm (5 ml of oil extract
in 5 litres of water) significantly controlled anthracnose on bananas and ripening was delayed by 12
days

Harvesting
-Harvesting banana bunches is usually spread evenly throughout the whole year. Whilst still
green, the fruits have a distinctly edged appearance, which gradually becomes almost round as
they ripen. The stage of maturity is judged by the angularity of the fingers: The more rounded a
finger is in a cross-section, the more mature it is. The fingers are considered mature for
harvesting when they are ¾ round (75% maturity) and still green.
-The fruits in a bunch do not ripen at the same pace. If some fruits have begun to turn yellow on
the plant, then it is already too late to transport them any great distance, as they quickly become
too soft and rot.
-Bunches are harvested by cutting them away from the plant just above where the fruit begins.
The stem is cut-off with a clean cut at ground level after harvesting the bunch. It is very important
that bunches do not fall or bump during transport, as this causes them to blacken and rot. To
avoid damaging the bunches during harvesting at least two people should be involved in
harvesting, in particular heavy bunches or tall varieties, one to do the cutting and the other one to
support the bunch so that it does not fall to the ground. An experienced worker, however, can
harvest alone.
-Harvested bunches should be kept in the shade. It is advisable to handle and transport banana
hands rather than the whole bunches because this reduces physical damage. -Bunches are
dehanded and the hands are deflowered, washed, sorted and packed in carton boxes.
-Storage life of green bananas ranges from 21 to 30 days at 13-15°C.
-Ripening is increased when bunches are packed in closed chambers with restricted air
circulation.

Fresh Quality Specifications for the Market in Kenya

Physical appearance specifications;
 Color; should be Good yellow color with minimal black markings
 Visual appearance; should be shiny plump looking fingers
 Sensory; should be firm not soft with nil foreign smells and taste.
 Shape; should be slightly arched, with blunted butt end and intact undamaged necks.
 Size; should be finger length measurements: pulp to pulp, across the back of the banana
and we have; X large 22-26 cm; large 20-22cm clusters of 3-9 fingers ideal 5-9 fingers.
 Maturity; Should be yellow color will determine maturity and not green color

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  Insect and physical damage; Should be with no obvious live insects or other pests.
With no splits, holes, deep bruises or cuts through the peel into the pulp. With no
severed or broken necks.

ASIAN VEGETABLES
Asian vegetables’ refers to a variety of products which are traditionally consumed by
people of Asian origin. In Kenya, the term broadly refers to such crops as
 Okra: is the most important Asian Vegetable for Kenya. The long harvest period
makes it a favorite for farmers.
 Ravaya;
 Valore;
 Tindori; these can be described as baby cucumbers
 Dudhi; is a smooth skinned gourd which is easily mistaken for the local
‘muratina’
 Karela; resembles a spiny cucumber
 Turial
 Tuwer and
 Other Indian herbs.
The value of Asian vegetables exported from Kenya, although under pressure from the
strong shilling and stiff emerging competition, has remained high over the last few years,
amounting to just under Kshs. 700 million in 2006.
This performance is due to:
 The growing demand for exotic produce especially in the UK, as the Asian
Diaspora expands in Europe and Asian cuisine gains in popularity across the
globe.
 The growing local consumption of Asian food has led to increased interest in
these products among farmers and the general public.
 Their origin in the tropical climates of India, Indochina and Africa, these
particular Asian vegetables take very well to the warm, humid conditions found in
Kenyas’ fertile, sandy lowlands. Indeed, they have their local counterparts in
some of the various African vegetables such as the African horned melon, (also
known as Kiwano), gourds, pumpkins, tomatoes and others.
 The fact that, although the particular varieties may appear strange to local
farmers, they will find that the agronomy does not present any particular technical
challenges beyond those already known.
 Its proximity to Europe
 Its year long production season, Kenya has strategic potential for being a world
leader in these particular Asian Vegetables.
N.B
Asian vegetables from the Far East however are a different story. The Chinese lettuces,
gourds and other products such as Chinese cabbage, mustards, radish, beet, and
chard;Japanese pumpkins, bunching onion, and honewart; Ceylon spinach; water spinach;
loofahs; oriental mushrooms and pickling melon would be well suited for Kenyas’ cool
loamy highlands, but are not as widely marketable and therefore are of less importance to
Kenyan growers. They also present particular challenges in post harvest handling due to
their low shelf life and susceptibility to microbial contamination. They however remain
an interesting potential for development.

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Challenges
 On the whole, Asian vegetables are still considered a minor, or ‘specialty’ crop
under the category of ‘ethnic exotics’, due to the relatively low volumes
consumed compared to other traditional vegetables. The six most important
Asian vegetables together amounted to just 3.4% of kenya’s total vegetable
exports value in 2006.
 there exists limited information on research
 There exists limited information on Production techniques and Kenyan
producers have relied on many years of experience to develop the local industry.
 Pest control in Asian vegetables presents the biggest challenge to growers. By far
the most important are the borers, aphids, and mites. Fungal and bacterial diseases
also take their toll of profits, with damping off and mildews being significant.
 Soil fertility is important as most of the products are heavy feeders and quickly
deplete soils if not managed well.
 The availability of high quality seeds. Foremost among Kenyan suppliers of
certified seeds are East Africa Seeds, Seminis East Africa, and Kenya Seed Co.
Ltd. Informal seed sources run a very high risk of bearing seed borne diseases
such as Bacterial Blight, and should thus be avoided.

Despite this, the role Asian vegetables have played in fighting rural poverty in Kenya can
not be downplayed. Nearly all production is by small scale, low income growers,
concentrated in Kibwezi, Makindu, Matuu, Mitunguu, Mwea, Nguruman, as well as
magadi, Kilifi and Taveta. Many have made the leap from subsistence to commercial
agriculture, through the production of these vegetables on contract with exporters such as
Mboga Tu, Makindu Growers, East Africa Growers, Sunripe (1976)

INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES
They include;
i. Spider plants (sagaa) ;Cleome gynandra
ii. Black night shade (manage/sucha); Solanum nigrum
iii. Crotolaria/ slender leaf (mitoo) ;Crotalaria brevidens
iv. Corchorus jute mallow (mrenda) ;Corchorus olitorius
v. Cow pea (kunde); vigna unguiculata.
vi. Pumpkins (malenge); cucurbita moschata
vii. African spinach;Amaranthus (terere or mochicha); Amaranthus blitum
viii. Ethiopian kales (kanzira);
ix. African spinach (nderema); Basella alba

4. Courgettes (Cucurbita meduliosa)

Introduction:

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Courgettes are also called marrow zuchinni or [Link] belongs to the family
cucurbitaceae grown for its immature fruits which are used in salads. It is a valuable
export crop in Kenya.
Climatic requirement:
It is a warm season crop but there are some forms which perform well in areas with low
temperatures. It does not tolerate excessive heat or cold and optimum temp is 17-22oc
They are sensitive to high rainfall which may result to high disease infection. Rainfall of
800mm during the growing season is ideal. They are drought-tolerant, requiring relatively
little water, and are sensitive to waterlogging. Excessive humidity is harmful because of
the development of leaf diseases, so none of the species do well in the humid tropics.
They can grow from 500-2000m a.s.l and at wide range of soil but light, loams fertile
soils are the best at a ph of 5.5-7.5.
Varieties:
 Ambassador F1 hybrid
 Cocozelle
 Fortune
 Sunbar
 Dark green zucchini
 Little gen
Propagation and planting:
Deep cultivation is recommended and ridges 15-20 cm high prepared. They are directly
sown in the field into furrows about 2cm deep on ridges spaced at 90cm by 90cm at seed
rate of 6-8kg/ha.2-3 seeds are sown per hole and about 2wks later after emergency
thinned to one plant per hill. The cropping period is 5-6 months. First harvesting is
expected 2-21/2 months after planting.
Manure and fertilizer application:
One to two handful of well rotten manure per hill (20t/ha) should be applied. One
teaspoon/hill (150-200kg/ha) of phosphate fertilizer such as TSP or DAP is applied as a
basic dressing and mixed well with soil. After thinning the crop is top dressed with 1
teaspoon of CAN (200kg/ha) around the base of the plant and second CAN dose of 2
spoonful/plant (400kg/ha) applied prior to flowering.
NB;-Excessive manuring or application of nitrogenous fertilizer should be avoided
because it induces vegetative growth at the expense of fruit setting.
Disease control:

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium (= C. orbiculare))

It is a very destructive disease. It causes defoliation and lesions on the fruits.

The fungus can attack all the above-ground plant parts. Cotyledons (seed leaves) of
affected seedlings droop and wilt. Lesions (elongated spots) may form on stems of
affected seedlings near the ground. Spots on leaves start as small yellowish areas that
enlarge and turn brown. The affected tissue dries, breaks and the whole leaf dies. On
vines, the spots are elongated and may kill the vines. Symptoms are most noticeable on
fruits. Spots on fruits are circular, black, and sunken. When wet, the centres of the spots
become salmon coloured due to a mass of fungal spores. Affected fruits can be destroyed

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 by secondary soft-rot organisms, which enter through broken rind. The fungus is seed-
borne. It can survive in crop debris and in weeds belonging to the cucurbit family. Fungal
development is promoted by wet conditions, high relative humidity and moderate
temperatures (20 to 23.9º C). Its host range includes cucumber, gherkin, gourd,
muskmelon, and watermelon. Cucurbit weeds can also be attacked.

Control:

 Use certified disease-free seeds

 Treat own seeds in hot water for 20 minutes at 135° F (43° C)
 Plant resistant varieties, if available
 Practice crop rotation with non-cucurbits
 Destroy volunteer cucurbits in the field

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum)

Symptoms first develop as a whitish talcum-like powdery growth on lower leaf surface.
The powdery growth is composed of fungal spore mass. These areas covered by white
powdery growth may enlarge and join up to cover both lower and upper leaf surfaces.
Severely affected leaves dry, turn brown and become brittle. Vines can be also attacked.
Secondary effects of the disease include sun-burning and premature ripening of fruits.

Powdery mildew affects cucumber, gourd, muskmelon, pumpkin, squash and

watermelon. Other hosts include African violets and pawpaws. The powdery mildew
fungi are influenced by plant age, humidity and temperature. Foliage is most susceptible
16 to 23 days after unfolding. The fungi reproduce under dry conditions. Infection
increases as humidity increases, but does not occur when leaf surface is wet. Optimum
temperature for infection is about 27.4º C. However, infection can take place at a
temperature as high as 32º C and relative humidity as low as 46%.

Control:

 Use resistant varieties, if available

 Spray with sulphur based organic fungicides, which provide good control
 Destroy weeds belonging to the cucurbit family

Downy mildew (Peronospora cubensis)

Symptoms on leaves appear as small, pale-yellow areas on upper leaf surface. Under
humid conditions, a purplish, grey whitish growth may be seen on the underside of the
yellowish spots. Affected leaves curl, shrivel and die. Most downy mildew fungi require
cool weather for reproduction and development. This is not true of the cucurbit downy
mildew fungus. Optimum temperature for infection is at 16 to 22º C. It can survive when
temperatures are over 37.8º C. The most critical factor for infection is a film of moisture
and / or long dew periods on leaves.

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 Disease spread is primarily thorough by wind and rain splash. The fungus attacks only
members of the cucumber family, mostly those that are cultivated, although it can infect
wild cucumber and a few other weed hosts.

Virus diseases

Many important virus diseases affect cucurbits. These include:

 Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV)

 Watermelon mosaic 2 potyvirus (WMV-2)
 Watermelon mosaic 1 potyvirus
 Zucchini yellow mosaic potyvirus (ZYMV)
 Squash leaf curl bigeminivirus (SLCV)

Cucumber mosaic virus

it is not seed transmitted except through seed of perennial wild cucumber (Echinocytis
lobata) and chickweed (Stellaria media). It is mechanically transmitted and in nature it is
spread by various species of aphids. It has a very extensive host range including such
varied species as bananas, carrots, cowpeas, lupine, lilies, onions, passion fruit, potatoes
and tomatoes.

Watermelon mosaic virus

This virus is mechanically transmitted and also spread by several species of aphids. It is
not seed transmitted. Its host range is primarily restricted to cucurbits although one of its
strains infects peas.

Squash mosaic virus

It is mechanically transmitted. It is transmitted through seeds of melons and squash. It is
also transmitted by spotted, striped and banded cucumber beetles, which attack
cucumbers in the Americas. The Epilachna beetle (Epilachna chrysomelina) a pest of
cucumber in Africa, is also vector of squash mosaic virus. Its host range includes
cucurbits, peas, coriander, and salad chervil.

Control

 Use tolerant / resistant varieties if available

 Remove infected plants (disinfect hands and tools with 70% alcohol after contact
with infected plants)
 Do proper weeding
 Control insect vectors. A sustainable approach of controlling aphids is important
to prevent aphids reaching the crops and transmitting virus.
 In case of squash mosaic virus use disease-free seeds

Pests and their control

Fruit flies (Bactrocera cucurbitae, Dacus spp and Ceratitis capitata)

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 Fruit flies are important pests of cucurbits including pumpkins. Fruit flies pierce the fruits
and lay eggs in them. The fruit fly maggots feed inside the fruit causing sunken,
discoloured patches, distortions and open cracks. These cracks serve as entry points for
fungi and bacteria, which cause fruit rot.

Control

 Avoid continuous cultivation of cucurbits at the same place.

 Destroy all infested fruit
 Wrap or bag individual fruits with newspaper or paper bags to prevent fruit flies
form laying eggs on the fruit. Wrapping or bagging should be started shortly after fruit
set.
 Spray with a pyrethrum solution in the evenings after the bees are mostly back
in their hives (after 6 pm). There is a product commercially available called Flower-DS,
made of natural pyrethrum and acceptable in Organic certified systems (see Hygrotech
Company, contact-addresses below).
- Precautions: Be careful to spray late in the evening, follow the spraying instructions.
Wear masks and skin protection.
All insect poisons are also poisonous to humans even if coming from natural sources.
- Frequency of spraying: start shortly after beginning of flowering, and repeat approx
every 5 days or according to counts.
 Frequent applications of neem can keep fruit fly attack to a minimum.

Harvesting

Harvesting starts 2-21/2 months after planting and continues for 2-3months .immature
tender fruits are picked twice a week once they have attained proper marketable size around
40-70 days after planting to ensure good quality. The fruits are removed from the plant by a
slight twist. The surface of the fruits should be shiny and free from damage and about 15-
20cm long. The fruit should not be left to ripen on vines as the plant ceases to bear.

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