OVERVIEW: ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 1
An Overview of Anatomy
▪ Anatomy
▪ The study of the structure of the human body
▪ Physiology
▪ The study of body function
-form is related to function
The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
▪ Chemical level – atoms form molecules
▪ Cellular level – cells and their functional subunits
▪ Tissue level – a group of cells performing a
common function
The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
▪ Organ level – a discrete structure made up of
more than one tissue
▪ Organ system – organs working together for a
common purpose
▪ Organismal level – the result of all simpler levels
working in unison
The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Systemic v. Regional Anatomy
▪ Systemic – study of anatomy by system
▪ Regional – study of anatomy by region
▪ Most studies use a combination of regional and
systemic study
SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN
BODY
Integumentary System
▪ Forms external body covering
▪ Protects deeper tissues from injury
▪ Synthesizes vitamin D
▪ Site of cutaneous receptors
▪ (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands
Skeletal System
▪ Protects and supports body organs
▪ Provides a framework for muscles
▪ Blood cells formed within bones
▪ Stores minerals
Muscular System
▪ Allows manipulation of environment
▪ Locomotion
▪ Facial expression
▪ Maintains posture
▪ Produces heat
Nervous System
▪ Fast-acting control system
▪ Responds to internal and external changes
Endocrine System
▪ Glands secrete hormones that regulate
▪ Growth
▪ Reproduction
▪ Nutrient use
Cardiovascular System
▪ Composed of:
1. Blood vessels - transport blood
▪ Blood:
-Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
-Also carries nutrients and wastes
2. Heart - pumps blood through blood vessels
Lymphatic System/Immune System
▪ Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
▪ Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system
▪ Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes)
▪ Mounts attack against foreign substances in the
body
Respiratory System
▪ Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
▪ Removes carbon dioxide
▪ Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in
the lungs
Digestive System
▪ Breaks down food into absorbable units
▪ Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
Urinary System
▪ Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
▪ Regulates water, electrolytes, and acid-base
balance
Reproductive Systems(Male & Female )
▪ Overall function is to produce offspring
▪ Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
▪ Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
▪ Mammary glands produce milk
Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
▪ Anatomical position – a common visual reference
point
▪ Person stands erect with feet together and eyes
forward
▪ Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed
away from the body
▪ Directional terminology – refers to the body in
anatomical position
▪ Standardized terms of directions are paired terms
Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
▪ Directional terms
▪ Regional terms – names of specific body areas
▪ Axial region – the main axis of the body
▪ Appendicular region – the limbs
Orientation and Directional Terms
Orientation and Directional Terms
Orientation and Directional Terms
Regional Terms
Regional Terms
Body Planes and Sections
▪ Coronal (frontal) plane
▪ Lies vertically and divides body into anterior and
posterior parts
▪ Median (midsagittal) plane
▪ Specific sagittal plane that lies vertically in the
midline
Body Planes and Sections
▪ Transverse plane
▪ Runs horizontally
and divides body
into superior and
inferior parts
Oblique Section Through the Trunk
CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
Cell Theory
▪ The cell is the basic
structural and functional
unit of life
▪ Organismal activity
depends on individual
and collective activity
of cells
▪ Biochemical activities
of cells are dictated by
subcellular structure
▪ Continuity of life has a
cellular basis
Structure of a Generalized Animal Cell
Plasma Membrane
▪ Separates intracellular fluids from extracellular
fluids
▪ Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
▪ Glycocalyx is a glycoprotein area abutting the cell
that provides highly specific biological markers by
which cells recognize one another
Fluid Mosaic Model of the Plasma Membrane
▪ Double bilayer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed
proteins
▪ Bilayer consists of phospholipids, cholesterol, and
glycolipids
▪ Glycolipids are lipids with bound carbohydrate
▪ Phospholipids have hydrophobic and hydrophilic tails.
▪ Water is attracted to the outside of the membrane but is
prevented from going through the non-polar layer.
▪ Hydrophilic
▪ Water loving.
▪ Hydrophobic
▪ Water fearing
Fluid Mosaic Model
Membrane
Junctions
a. Tight
junction –
impermeable
junction that
encircles the
cell
Membrane
Junctions:
b. Desmosome
– anchoring
junction
scattered along
the sides of cells
Membrane
Junctions:
c. Gap
junction – a
nexus that
allows
chemical
substances to
pass between
cells
Cytoplasm
▪ Cytoplasm – material between plasma membrane
and the nucleus
▪ Cytosol – largely water with dissolved protein,
salts, sugars, and other solutes
▪ Cytoplasmic organelles – metabolic machinery of
the cell
▪ Inclusions – chemical substances such as
glycosomes, glycogen granules, and pigment
Cytosol, Cytoplasm, and Cytoplasmic Organelles
Cytosol, Cytoplasm, and Cytoplasmic Organelles
Cytoplasmic Organelles
▪ Specialized cellular compartments
▪ Membranous
▪ Mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus
▪ Nonmembranous
▪ Cytoskeleton, centrioles, and ribosomes
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
▪ Granules containing protein and rRNA
▪ Site of protein synthesis
▪ Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins
▪ Membrane-bound ribosomes synthesize proteins
to be incorporated into membranes
Ribosome
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
▪ Interconnected tubes and parallel membranes
▪ Continuous with the nuclear membrane
▪ Two varieties – rough ER and smooth ER
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Rough (ER)
▪ External surface studded with ribosomes
▪ Manufactures all secreted proteins
▪ Responsible for the synthesis of integral
membrane proteins and phospholipids for cell
membranes
Signal Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
▪ The protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation
▪ The protein is enclosed in a transport vesicle and moves
toward the Golgi apparatus
Signal Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
Smooth ER
▪ Tubules arranged in a looping network
▪ Catalyzes the following reactions in various organs of
the body
▪ In the liver – lipid and cholesterol metabolism,
breakdown of glycogen and, along with the kidneys,
detoxification of drugs
▪ In the testes – synthesis of steroid-based hormones
▪ In the intestinal cells – absorption, synthesis, and
transport of fats
▪ In skeletal and cardiac muscle – storage and release of
calcium
Golgi Apparatus
▪ Stacked and flattened membranous sacs
▪ Functions in modification, concentration, and
packaging of proteins
▪ Secretory vesicles leave the Golgi and move to
designated parts of the cell
Golgi Apparatus
Role of the Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
▪ Spherical
membranous bags
containing digestive
enzymes
▪ Digest ingested
bacteria, viruses, and
toxins
▪ Degrade
nonfunctional
organelles
▪ Breakdown non-
useful tissue
Endomembrane System
Peroxisomes
▪ Membranous sacs
containing oxidases
and catalases
▪ Detoxify harmful or
toxic substances
▪ Neutralize dangerous
free radicals
▪ Free radicals –
highly reactive
chemicals with
unpaired electrons
(i.e., O2–)
Cytoskeleton
▪ The “skeleton” of the cell
▪ Consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
▪ Small barrel-shaped organelles located in the
centrosome near the nucleus
▪ Pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules
▪ Organize mitotic spindle during mitosis
▪ Form the bases of cilia and flagella
Centrioles
Cilia
Cilia
Nucleus
Chromatin
▪ Threadlike strands of
DNA and histones
▪ Arranged in
fundamental units
called nucleosomes
Figure 3.29
Cell Cycle
▪ Interphase
▪ Growth (G1),
synthesis (S),
growth (G2)
▪ Mitotic phase
▪ Mitosis and
cytokinesis
Figure 3.30
Cell Division
▪ Essential for body growth and tissue repair
▪ Mitosis – nuclear division
▪ Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm
Mitosis
▪ The phases of mitosis are:
▪ Prophase
▪ Metaphase
▪ Anaphase
▪ Telophase
Cytokinesis
▪ Cleavage furrow formed in late anaphase by
contractile ring
▪ Cytoplasm is pinched into two parts after mitosis
ends
Early Prophase
Early mitotic Pair of
spindle centrioles
Centromere
Aster
Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids
Early prophase
Late Prophase
Fragments Polar
of nuclear microtubules
envelope
Kinetochore
Kinetochore Spindle
microtubule pole
Late prophase
Figure 3.32.2
Metaphase
Metaphase plate
Spindle
Metaphase
Figure 3.32.4
Anaphase
Daughter chromosomes
Anaphase
Figure 3.32.5
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Nucleolus
forming
Contractile
ring at
cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
envelope
forming
Telophase and cytokinesis Figure 3.32.5
DNA Replication
Figure 3.31
Protein Synthesis
▪ DNA serves as master blueprint for protein
synthesis
▪ Genes are segments of DNA carrying instructions
for a polypeptide chain
▪ Triplets of nucleotide bases form the genetic
library
▪ Each triplet specifies coding for an amino acid
From DNA to Protein
Transcription
• Takes place in the cytoplasm
in prokaryotes and in nucleus
in eukaryotes.
• It uses DNA as a template to
make an RNA (mRNA)
molecule.
Translation
• Is the process
of translating the sequence of
a messenger RNA (mRNA)
molecule to a sequence of
amino acids during protein
synthesis.
• The mRNA is made by
copying DNA, and the
information it carries tells the
Figure 3.34
cell how to link amino acids
together to form proteins.
THANK YOU ☺
