Introduction to Computers

A Computer is an electronic device that can store, manipulate and process data according to set
of instructions. The term computer is derived from the latin word “computare” which means “to
calculate”.

FEATURES OF COMPUTER

SPEED :- A computer can process millions of calculations per second. The speed of
computation is very high

ACCURACY :- As computers work on inbuilt software programs, there is no scope for human
errors and highly accurate.

DILIGENCE:- Computers are highly reliable. They can perform complex and long calculations
with the same speed and accuracy.

VERSATILITY:- Computers are versatile in Nature. They can perform various operations at the
same time.

STORAGE:- Computers can store a large amount of data or instructions in its memory which
can be retrieved at any point of time.

PLUG & PLAY:- Computers has the ability to automatically configure a new hardware and
software component.

FUNCTIONING OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

INPUT:- Information or data that is entered into a computer is called input. It sends data and
instructions to the central processing unit (CPU).

PROCESSING:- It is the sequence of actions taken on data to convert it into information which
is meaningful to the user. It can be calculations, comparisons or decisions taken by the
computer.

OUTPUT:- It makes processed data available to the user.

STORAGE: - It stores data and programs permanently.

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE COMPUTER

HARDWARE : - Hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitute a computer
system. For example, display screens, disks, keyboard, mouse, scanners, printers, chips etc.

SOFTWARE :- It is a set of programs and procedures. Software tells the hardware what to do
and how to accomplish the task e.g.; web browsers, word processors etc.

DATA:- Unprocessed raw facts and figures, like numbers, text on pieces of paper are known as
data.

INFORMATION: - When data is processed, organised, structured or presented in a given

context so as to be useful, then it is called information.

INSTRUCTION: - It is a command given to a computer in the computer language by the user.

PROGRAM: - It is a set of instructions given to a computer in order to perform some task.

History of Computer

Abacus

● Description: First mechanical counting device.

● Components: Rectangular wooden frame with horizontal rods and beads.
● Functions: Simple addition, subtraction, and square root calculations.
● Origin: Developed in China.

Napier's Bones

● Description: Three-dimensional calculating device using rods.

● Inventor: John Napier, a Scottish mathematician.
● Features: Holds digits 0 to 9; performs multiplication.
● Technology: Known as Rabdologia; also led to the invention of logarithms.

Pascaline

● Description: First mechanical calculator for addition and subtraction.

● Inventor: Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician.
● Design: Rectangular box with interlocked cog wheels and discs.
● Significance: Introduced the concept of "carry" in calculations.

Punched Card System

● Inventor: Herman Hollerith.

 ● Purpose: Data storage and retrieval using punched holes.

Charles Babbage’s Calculating Engines

● Difference Engine: Solved algebraic expressions.

● Analytical Engine: Early design of a general-purpose computer with input, output,
memory, and CPU.
● Legacy: Babbage is known as the Father of Computers; first general-purpose computer
with program storage.

Tabulating Machine

● Inventor: Herman Hollerith.

● Purpose: Process census data using punched cards; counted holes, recognized
numbers, and performed calculations.

Mark I Computer

● Developer: Howard Hathaway Aiken and IBM.

● Type: First electromechanical computing device.
● Evolution: Followed by Mark II, Mark III (electronic components), and Mark IV
(all-electronic).

First Un-programmable Electronic Digital Computer (ABC)

● Developers: John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry.

● Function: Solved linear algebraic equations; first to use capacitors for storage and
binary system.

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)

● Inventors: J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.

● Purpose: General-purpose electronic digital computer for numerical problems; used in
scientific calculations.

Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)

● Successor to: ENIAC.

● Features: Used binary numbers for arithmetic operations; internal instructions stored
digitally.

Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC)

 ● Significance: First computer with storage capacity; built on von Neumann architecture
principles.

Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC)

● Features: First commercially available computer; processed both numeric and textual
information; used magnetic tapes.

Microprocessor – Intel 4004

● Year: 1969.
● Description: First general-purpose programmable processor.
● Components: Part of MCS-4; included CPU, ROM, RAM, and shift-register chip.

COMPUTER GENERATION

GEN 1 [1946-1959]
The first-generation computers were used vacuum tubes as the electronic components. They
occupied a very large space and performed computations in milliseconds. Machine languages
are used (Binary number 0 and 1). It has magnetic drums as storage device. It was used for
scientific purpose.
Examples – EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM-701, IBM-650.

GEN 2 [1959-1965]
The second-generation computers used transistors as the electronic components. They used
assembly languages and batch processing operating system. Magnetic cores and magnetic
tapes were used as storage.
Examples – IBM-1620, IBM -7094, CDC-1604, CDC-3600.

GEN 3 [1965-1971]
The third-generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) as the electronic components.
They performed computation in Nanoseconds. It used high-level languages like FORTRAN,
COBOL, PASCAL, ALGO-68, BASIC. In this generation, remote precessing, time-sharing,
multiprogramming operating system were used.

GEN 4 [1971-1980)
The fourth-generation computers are used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. Semi-
conductor devices are used as primary memory. Magnetic disks are used as secondary storage.
Problem-oriented fourth generation languages (4GL) are used. Multiprocessing and
multiprogramming operating systems are used.
Example Apple series - I & II, IBM 4341, DEC 10, STAR 1000, PUP 11.

GEN 5 [1980-PRESENT
The fifth-generation computers use ultra large scale integrated (ULSI) chips that contain millions
of components on a single chip. They are in the developmental stage which is based on the
artificial intelligence. These computers can also respond to natural language input. Biochips will
be used as memory devices and KIPS (Kernel Integrated Processing System) architecture will
be used.
Examples - Robots, Supercomputers.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Based on Operation

Analog Computer - An Analog computer stores data continuously in the form of physical
quantities and perform calculations with the help of measures. It produces output in the form of
a graph. They are used in the calculation of physical variables such as voltage, pressure,
temperature, speed, etc.

Digital Computer - A Digital computer is the most commonly used type of computer and is
working with data represented in digital form, usually binary 0s and 1s. It can perform faster and
give more accurate results. They are extensively used for solving complex problems in the field
of engineering & technology, design, research and data processing.

Hybrid Computer – A Hybrid computer is a combined feature of Analog and Digital computers.
In large industries and businesses, a hybrid computer can be used for logical operations as well
as efficient processing of differential equations. Machines used in hospitals like ECG and
DIALYSIS are the commonly used hybrid computers.

Based on Size

Micro Computer – Microcomputers are small, inexpensive computer for personal use. They are
popularly used at homes for playing games and surfing the Internet. These are also known as
portable computers. Microcomputers consists of three basic categories of physical equipment
i.e., system unit, input/ output and memory. Some types of microcomputers are Desktop
computer or PC, Notebook, Handheld computers or palmtops, Tablet computer, Smartphones.
Mainframe Computer – Mainframe computers are expensive and large size computers and they
are capable of supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. They are used for specific
large-scale applications. Examples are IBM-370, IBM-S/390, and UNIVAC-1110.
Mini Computer - Minicomputers possess most of the features and capabilities of a large
computer but are smaller in physical size. They are used as small or mid-range operating
business and scientific applications. Initially minicomputer was designed to carry out some
specific tasks, like engineering and computer aided design (CAD) calculations. But now, they
are being used as central computer which is called as server. Examples are IBM-17, DEC
PDP-11, HP-9000 etc.

Super Computer - Supercomputers are powerful, expensive and the fastest computers. They
have architectural and operational principles from parallel and grid processing for performing
billions and trillions of calculations per second. They are used for applications that require large
amounts of mathematical computations like weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, graphic design
etc. India launched ‘Mihir’ supercomputer recently to improve India’s weather forecasting. The
speed of supercomputers is measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations per Second).

Points to Remember

● Father of Computer - Charles Babbage

● First Non-programmable Electronic Digital Computer - Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC)

● Father of Modern Computer Science - Alan Turing

● First General Purpose Electronic Digital Computer Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC)

● First Micro Processor - INTEL 4004

● First Super Computer in the world - Cray CDC 6600 - Designed by Seymour Cray

● First Commercially Available Computer - Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC)

● Fastest Super Computer in the world - Frontier

● First Super Computer of India - PARAM 8000

● Fastest Super Computer in India - Pratyush

● The first computer architecture was introduced by John Von Neumann in 1948

● EDVAC was the first electronic computer constructed at the Moore school of engineering
(USA)
● ENIAC was the world's first successful electronic computer which was developed by the
two scientists namely JP Eckert and JW Mauchy. It was the beginning of the first
generation computer.

● A device driver or hardware driver is a group of files that enable one or more hardware
devices to communicate with the computer's operating system. Without drivers, the
computer would not be able to send and receive data correctly to hardware devices,
such as a printer.

● BIOS (basic input/output system) is the program a computer's microprocessor uses to

start the computer system after it is powered on. It also manages data flow between the
computer's operating system (OS) and attached devices, such as the hard disk, video
adapter, keyboard, mouse and printer.

● Supercomputers are sometimes called number crunchier. They can do a great deal of
arithmetic very quickly, have a great deal of high-speed storage (main memory) and
have very fast internal communications. The term number crunchier is sometimes
applied to programs. For example, statistical programs are number crunchers because
their main task is to perform mathematical calculations Binary number system was
suggested by John Von Neumann.

● Cold boot is the process of starting a computer from shutdown or a powerless state and
setting it to normal working condition. A cold boot refers to the general process of
starting the hardware components of a computer, laptop or server to the point that its
operating system and all start up applications and services are launched. Cold boot is
also known as hard boot, cold start or dead start.

● In 1971, Ted Hoff invented Intel 4004 chip which was the world's first single chip
microprocessor.

● Transistors were invented by Bell laboratory of America in 1953 and were made up of

● semiconductors like germanium and silicon. In 1958, Jack St. Clair Kilby and Robert
Noyce invented the first IC. IC was made up of silicon material and consists of
thousands of transistors on a single chip.

● Siddhartha was the first computer developed in India.

● The world's first computer called the Z1, was invented by Konrad Zuse. Tianhe-2 is the
world's fastest supercomputer launched by china at NUDT University in 2013. It is based
on Rylin Linux operating system with 33.86 petaflops.

● Quantum computers was first introduced by Richard Feynman. It uses quantum

mechanical phenomena. It is the fastest computer imitating brain working.
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Computer Architecture
Processing Unit (CPU)

Definition: The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the hardware component that handles the
execution of computer program instructions. It is often referred to as the "brain" of the
computer.

Primary Functions:
● Transfers instructions and input data from memory to registers.
● Executes instructions in sequence.
● Transfers output data from registers to main memory when needed.

Alternate Name: Also known as the Microprocessor, as it is fabricated as a single integrated

circuit (IC) chip.

Main Responsibilities:
● Controls all internal and external devices.
● Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

Sub-Systems:
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
Performs arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, etc.).
Executes logical operations (Boolean logic like AND, OR, XOR, NOT).
2. Control Unit (CU):
Manages various computer components.
Reads and decodes program instructions into control signals.
Uses clock inputs to maintain processing sequence.
Instructs memory, logic units, and input/output devices on how to respond to instructions.
3. Registers:
Built into the CPU for storing and manipulating data during instruction execution.
Can hold instructions, storage addresses, or data (bit sequences, characters, etc.).
Number and size of registers vary by processor.
PRIMARY/MAIN MEMORY

Primary memory or Main memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is
currently working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is
generally made up of the semiconductor device. It is a volatile memory. The two types of
primary memory are (RAM) & (ROM).

RAM (Random Access Memory) - RAM is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program and result of the program. It is read/write memory which stores data till the machine is
working. RAM is a microchip implemented using semiconductors. Some types of RAMs are
Dynamic RAM (DRAM), Static RAM (SRAM) and Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDRAM), etc.
Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM) – Dynamic memory must be constantly refreshed,
or it loses its contents. This type of memory is more economical.
1. 2.
Static Random-Access Memory – SRAM is faster and less volatile than DRAM but requires
more power and is more expensive. It does not need to be refreshed like a DRAM.

Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory - A type of DRAM that can run at much higher
clock speeds.

ROM (Read Only Memory) - ROM stores data permanently on personal computers (PCs) and
other electronic devices. It performs major input/output tasks and holds programs or software
instructions. It is non-volatile. It can only be read not written. Types of ROM are as follows:

MROM (Masked ROM) - The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a
preprogrammed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs
which are inexpensive.
1. 2.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) PROM can be modified only once by a user. It is
also non-volatile in nature. The user can buy a blank PROM and enter the desired contents
using a PROM program. PROM was invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956.
3.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) - The EPROM can be erased by
exposing it to ultraviolet light. It is similar to PROM, but it can be erased by exposure to strong
ultraviolet light, then rewritten. So it is also known as Ultraviolet
Erasable Programmable ROM (UVEPROM)
4.EEPROM

EPROMs have a Quartz window in the package to expose the chip to UV light. They were
widely used as the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) chips in computer motherboards. EPROM
was invented by Dov Frohman in 1971.

(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) - EEPROM is programmed and
erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing
and programming take about 4 to 10 milliseconds. They were also used as BIOS chips.

Secondary Memory

Definition:
Secondary memory, also known as auxiliary memory, stores data on a long-term basis and
cannot be processed directly by the CPU. Data must first be copied into primary storage before
processing.

Types of Secondary Memory Devices:

1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

○ Description: Non-removable storage device with rotating magnetic disks
(platters).
○ Components:
■ Spindle: Holds platters.
■ Platters: Flat, circular disks coated with magnetic material.
■ Read/Write Heads: Two per platter for data access.
■ Tracks: Bands of recorded data on platters.
■ Cylinders: Tracks that cut across all platters.
■ Sectors: Pie-shaped sections of tracks.
○ Speed: 5,400 to 15,000 RPM.
○ Capacity: Up to 1 TB.
2. Floppy Disk:
○ Description: Thin, flexible magnetic disk coated with iron oxide, enclosed in a
plastic carrier.
○ Types and Capacities:
■ 8 inches: Not specified.
■ 5.25 inches: 1.2 MB.
■ 3.5 inches: 1.44 MB.
○ Drive Required: Floppy Disk Drive (FDD).
3. Compact Disc (CD):
○ Description: Portable storage medium with a fragile surface prone to scratches.
○ Capacity: 700 MB.
 ○ Diameter: 12 cm (4.5 inches).
○ Layers:
■ Top Layer
■ Lacquer Layer
■ Reflective Layer
■ Polycarbonate Disc Layer
○ Read/Write Speed: Relatively low compared to HDD or DVD.
4. Types of Compact Discs:
○ CD-R (Compact Disc – Recordable): Writable once, cannot be erased.
○ CD-ROM (Compact Disk-Read Only Memory): Read-only, cannot be updated.
○ CD-RW (Compact Disc-Rewritable): Writable multiple times, can be erased.
5. Digital Video Disc (DVD):
○ Description: Stores large amounts of data, supports high definition material.
○ Capacity: Approximately 17 GB for a two-layered DVD.
○ Types:
■ DVD-ROM
■ DVD-R (DVD-Recordable)
■ DVD-RW (DVD-Rewritable)
6. Blu-ray Disc:
○ Description: Upgraded version of CD and DVD, also known as BD-ROM.
○ Capacity: 25 GB (single layer) to 50 GB (dual layer).
7. Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD):
○ Description: Holographic storage format.
○ Capacity: 3.9 terabytes.
8. Flash Drives:
○ Description: Small, portable storage devices connecting via USB.
○ Other Names: Pen drives, thumb drives, jump drives.
○ Capacity: 8 GB to 64 GB.
9. Zip Disks:
○ Description: Advanced version of floppy disks, developed by Iomega.
○ Capacities: 100 MB, 250 MB, and 750 MB.
10. Cache Memory:
○ Description: High-speed semiconductor memory that acts as a buffer between
the CPU and main memory.
○ Example: Registers.
11. Virtual Memory:
○ Description: Utilizes hard disk drive (HDD) as temporary storage to extend
available memory.
12. Magnetic Tape:
○ Description: Sequential memory with a thin plastic ribbon coated with magnetic
oxide.
○ Storage Capacity: 100 MB to 200 GB.
○ Width of Ribbon: 4 mm to 1 inch.
○ Read/Write Speed: Slower due to sequential access.
Secondary Memory Device Summary:

● Floppy Disk (5.25 inches): Magnetic, 1.2 MB

● Floppy Disk (3.5 inches): Magnetic, 1.44 MB
● Floppy Disk (3.55 inches): Magnetic, 80 KB to 242 KB
● Hard Disk: Magnetic, Up to 1 TB
● CD-ROM: Optical, 640 MB to 680 MB
● DVD-ROM: Optical, 4.7 GB to 17 GB
● Pen Drive: Solid State, 1 GB to 512 GB
● Magnetic Tape: Magnetic, Up to 1 TB
 Memory Storage Unit
Types of file sizes

Bit:- In a computer, data is stored in the form of 0s and 1s. We can store each and every data in
a computer with the help of 0s and 1s. Each digit, either 0 or 1, is called a Bit. The Bit is the
smallest unit of memory. Bit simply refers to the binary digit.

Byte- A byte is the representation of a group of 8 bits. Moreover, a byte is a unit that expresses
any word, symbol, or character in the computer language. Besides, computer memory is always
in terms of multiples of bytes. Kilobyte (KB) - Equal to 1,024 bytes, often used to quantify small
files.

Memory Units :

1. Bit (b): Smallest unit of memory, representing either 0 or 1.

2. Byte (B): 1 Byte = 8 bits
3. Kilobyte (KB): 1KB = 1024 Bytes
4. Megabyte (MB): 1MB = 1024 KB
5. Gigabyte (GB): 1GB = 1024 MB
6. Terabyte (TB): 1TB = 1024 GB
7. Petabyte (PB): 1PB = 1024 TB
8. Exabyte (EB): 1EB = 1024 PB
9. Zettabyte (ZB): 1ZB = 1024 EB
10. Yottabyte (YB): 1YB = 1024 ZB
 Key and Core Concepts

Electronic Machine vs. Electromechanical Machine

Electronic Machine:
A machine that uses electronic components, such as:
1. Transistors
2. Diodes
3. Integrated Circuits (ICs)
4. Microprocessors
To process information, control operations, and perform tasks.
Characteristics:
1. Fast processing speeds
2. Low power consumption
3. High reliability
4. Small size
5. Digital signal processing
Examples:
1. Computers
2. Smartphones
3. Tablets
4. Digital Watches
Electromechanical Machine:
A machine that combines electrical and mechanical components to perform tasks, using:
1. Electric motors
2. Relays
3. Switches
 4. Gears
5. Mechanical linkages
To control and execute mechanical movements.
Characteristics:
1. Slower processing speeds
2. Higher power consumption
3. Lower reliability
4. Larger size
5. Analog signal processing
Examples:
1. Old calculators
2. Mechanical computers (e.g., Charles Babbage's Difference Engine)
3. Industrial control systems
4. Automotive systems (e.g., ignition systems)
5. Robotics (older systems)
Key differences:
1. Processing: Electronic machines process information digitally, while electromechanical
machines use analog signals.
2. Speed: Electronic machines are significantly faster.
3. Power consumption: Electronic machines consume less power.
4. Reliability: Electronic machines are more reliable.
5. Size: Electronic machines are generally smaller.
The transition from electromechanical machines to electronic machines marked a significant
milestone in the development of modern technology, enabling smaller, faster, and more efficient
devices.

1. Definition and Overview of ROM Types

● Masked ROM: Data is permanently embedded during manufacturing using physical

masks. The data is hardwired and cannot be changed.
● PROM (Programmable ROM): Data can be written once using electrical means by
blowing fuses in the memory cells.
● EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Data is written by trapping electrons in
floating-gate transistors using high voltage. Data can be erased using UV light, which
affects the entire chip uniformly and does not allow for selective data cell erasing.
● EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): Data is written and erased
electrically, with floating-gate transistors storing data by trapping or releasing electrons.
This method allows for selective erasing and rewriting of data, improving flexibility and
convenience.
 2. Equipment Used for Storing Data

● Transistors: Used in masked ROM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM for storing data
either by altering the physical state or electrical characteristics.
● Capacitors: Used in DRAM (Dynamic RAM) but not in ROMs.

3. Methods of Writing Data to ROM

● Fusing: In PROM, fuses are blown to alter the state of transistors and store data.
● UV Rays: In EPROM, UV light is used to erase data by clearing electrons from
floating-gate transistors. This method erases the entire chip at once, lacking the
capability for selective data cell erasing.
● Electron Trapping: In EEPROM, data is stored by trapping electrons in floating-gate
transistors through electrical means, allowing for both selective erasing and rewriting of
data.

4. Direct vs. Indirect Alteration of Transistors

● All methods (fusing, UV rays, electron trapping) ultimately alter the state of transistors to
store data, either directly by modifying physical connections or indirectly by changing the
electrical characteristics of the transistors.

5. Comparison with Normal Programming

● ROM Programming: Involves altering the state of hardware components like transistors
at a low level, often during manufacturing or with special equipment.
● Normal Programming: Involves writing software code to be executed by a computer's
processor, typically using higher-level programming languages and tools.

Conclusion

● The transition from EPROM to EEPROM was driven by the need for more convenience
and flexibility. EEPROM allows for both writing and erasing to be done electrically,
eliminating the need for UV light and the complex process of physically handling the chip
for erasure. It enables selective data management, which is more practical for updating
firmware and managing data compared to the uniform erasure of EPROMs.

The classification of computers into categories like mainframe, mini, micro, and server reflects
the evolving stages of technological advancement through the decades. Each category
represents a significant milestone in the gradual development of computing power and
capabilities, tracing the journey from the colossal mainframes of the early days to the versatile
servers and powerful personal computers of today. This progression highlights how computing
technology has advanced from large, room-sized machines to more compact and efficient
systems, capturing the essence of technological growth over time.