2014-10-17

Frictional force

Engineering physics
Hanna Jędrzejuk, Ph.D., eng.
Kaszuby 2012
(fot. HJ)
The force of friction between
any two surfaces depends directly on:
the force holding the two surfaces
in contact with each other
the mechanical properties of the two surfaces (the coefficient of friction)
whether or not the surfaces are at rest with respect to each other

but does not depend on directly on surface area.

Lecture 3. 16.10.2014

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Frictional force Frictional force

The coefficient of friction
between two surfaces is a measure
of the degree
to which two surfaces
resist moving with respect
to each other:
Coefficients of friction depend on the mechanical, electrical,
chemical properties of the surfaces and the temperature of the surfaces. = ⟹ = ∙
There are two main types of frictional forces:
those arising from static friction and those arising from kinetic friction. = ⟹ = ∙
Static friction is the friction that results between two relatively smooth,
flat objects in contact that are at rest with respect to each other. fk – magnitude of frictional force
(coefficient of kinetic friction).
Kinetic friction is the friction that results between two relatively smooth,
flat objects in contact that are in motion with respect to each other. fs – magnitude of frictional force
(coefficient of static friction).

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Frictional force Approximate values of the coefficients of fric7on

fr – magnitude of frictional force (coefficient of rolling friction). surface-on-surface fs fk
hook velcro-on-fuzzy velcro >6.0 >5.9 Sticky
avg tire-on-dry pavement 0.9 0.8
grooved tire-on-wet pavement 0.8 0.7
glass-on-glass 0.9 0.4
metal-on-metal (dry) 0.6 0.4
smooth tire-on-wet pavement 0.5 0.4
metal-on-metal (lubricated) 0.1 0.05
steel-on-ice 0.1 0.05
fr < fk < fs steel-on-Teflon 0.05 0.05 Slippery

Conservative and dissipative forces 10 http://regentsprep.org/regents/physics/phys01/friction/default.htm 11

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Newton's laws of motion Momentum change law

(Principle of Impulse and Momentum)
First law:
If an object experiences no net force, then its velocity is constant:
the object is either at rest (if its velocity is zero), Momentum – mass in motion
or it moves in a straight line with constant speed (if its velocity is nonzero)
Second law: = ∙
The acceleration a of a body is parallel
∆
= ∙∆
and directly proportional to the net force F acting on the body,
is in the direction of the net force,
and is inversely proportional to the mass m of the body, i.e., F = ma.
Third law: ∆ = ∙∆
When a first body exerts a force F1 on a second body,
the second body simultaneously exerts a force F2 = −F1 on the first body.
This means that F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Momentum change law 12 Momentum change law 13

Momentum change law

(Principle of Impulse and Momentum) Momentum conservation law
The linear momentum of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity The total momentum of an isolated system at all times
is defined to be the product of the mass and velocity: =m equals its initial momentum:

The sum of external forces acting on a body equals

∑&!'( ! ∙ ! = "#$% .
the rate of change of linear momentum of the center of mass. When the sum of external linear impulses
The impulse of the force F acting on a particle equals the change acting on a system of rigid bodies
in the momentum of the particle caused by that force: or particles is zero,
then the linear momentum
is conserved.

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= Δ = Δ ; = = Δ

The Principle of Impulse and Momentum describes

how an object's linear and angular momentum change
with applied forces and moments.

Momentum change law 14 Momentum conservation law 15

16 Moment of inertia 17

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Moment of inertia

Center of mass (COM) • Rotational inertia (moment-of-inertia -MOI)

is a measure of how difficult it is to change
)*+, + = )(
the rotational velocity of an object
( . ( +). . which is rotating about a pivot point.
/ 0 10 + / 2 12
)*+, =
• The larger the moment-of-inertia,
10 312
the more difficult it is to change
the rotational speed of the object.
∑450 / 1 ∑450 / 1
)*+, = =
• The value of the MOI depends on the total
∑450 1 6
mass of the object as well as the way
in which that mass is distributed about the
∑450 8 1 ∑450 8 1 pivot point.
7*+, = =
∑450 1 6
1
& =∑ ! ;!
.
∑450 : 1 ∑450 : 1 ;*+, = > ! ;!
9*+, = ∑450 1
= =
6 !'( Divers reducing their moments of inertia
to increase their rates of rotation
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List of moments of inertia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia

Description Figure Moment(s) of inertia

Steiner law (Parallel-Axis Theorem)
= ∙ ;.
Point mass m at a distance r
from the axis of rotation.
Two point masses, M and m, =∙
with reduced mass µ = ) . = ?) . COM
and separated by a distance, x. =+
Rod of length L and mass m
∙ B. The rod is an infinitely thin (but rigid) wire. Calculations for the moment of interia (MOI) of a body ( = ∑ ! ;!
.)
(Axis of rotation at the end @&A = are not easy in general.
of the rod) 3 A special case of the thin rectangular plate
with axis of rotation at the center of the plate, Steps:
Rod of length L and mass m with w = L and h = 0.
∙ B. - establish axes to take advantage of geometric symmetries,
D@& @E =
12 - use the physical homeogeneity (i.e. uniform mass distribution)
making the density function ρ(r) become constant
A hollow sphere can be taken to be made up of two stacks (elementary calculations, or generally an approximation)
Sphere (hollow) of radius r 2∙ ∙ ;.
=
of infinitesimally thin, circular hoops, where the radius
- apply if needed: Steiner law :
3
= + = ∙ H.
and mass m differs from 0 to r (or a single stack, , where the radius
differs from -r to r).
LM6
Ball (solid) of radius r A sphere can be taken to be made up of two stacks
of infinitesimally thin, solid discs, LM6
- moment of inertia about an axis through the center of mass (COM)
2∙ ∙ ;.
and mass m of an object,
=
where the radius differs from 0 to r (or a single stack,
5 where the radius differs from -r to r).
Also, it can be taken to be made up of infinitesimally thin,
M – mass of a body,
hollow spheres, where the radius differs from 0 to r.
h – perpendicurlar distance between an axis through the center of mass
and the given axis (two axis must be parallel)
Thin rectangular plate of height ∙ H. + I .
D =
h and of width w and mass m 12
Moment of inertia 20 Steiner law 21

Torque (moment, moment of force)

Steiner law (Parallel-Axis Theorem) The tendency of a force to rotate an object about some axis
is measured by a vector quantity called torque τ.
= *+, + = ∙ H. The force F has a greater rotating
tendency about O as F increases
*+, - moment of inertia about an axis through the center of mass (COM)
and as the moment arm d
of an object,
M – mass of a body, increases.
h – perpendicurlar distance between an axis through the center of mass It is the component F sinϕ that
and the given axis (two axis must be parallel) tends to rotate the wrench
1∙N2
about O.
Rod of length L and mass m: D@& @E = (.
The magnitude:
Rod of length L and mass m (Axis of rotation at the end of the rod): O = ; ∙ ∙ sin S = ∙

??? O=;×∑
Torque is defined only when a reference axis is specified.

22 Torque 23

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Torque
Torques obey the superposition principle.
When several torques acts on a body,
the net torque (or resultant torque)
is the sum of the individual torques.
The force F1 tends to rotate the object counterclockwise about O, angular momentum,
and F2 tends to rotate it clockwise.
or moment of momentum,
> O = O( + O. = (∙ (+ .∙ . or rotational momentum
Forces can cause a change in linear motion,
as described by Newton’s second law.
Forces can also cause a change in rotational
motion, but the effectiveness of the forces
in causing this change depends on both
the forces and the moment arms of the forces,
in the combination that we call torque.
3.F. Torque 24 25

Angular momentum
Angular Momentum of a Particle
The instantaneous angular momentum L
of the particle relative to the origin O
The angular momentum of a particle of mass m
with respect to a chosen origin:
is defined as the cross product of the particle’s
instantaneous position vector r
B= ; sinθ
and its instantaneous linear momentum p:
B=; T
B=;T
The direction is given by the right hand rule AN A AV AE
which would give L the direction =A ;T =; T A + A T
A
out of the diagram.
For an orbit, angular momentum is conserved ( = ;/dt is parallel to )
>O = ; T> =;T
(this leads to one of Kepler's laws)
For a circular orbit, L becomes:
B= ;
AN
∑O =
A

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Moment of momentum conservation law Moment of momentum conservation law

Moment of momentum measures an objects tendency to continue to spin,

it describes the rotary inertia of a system in motion about an axis.
Angular Momentum is defined as a moment of inertia
times the angular velocity.
The total angular momentum of a system
is constant in both magnitude and direction
if the resultant external torque acting on the system is zero.

Moment of momentum conservation law 28 Moment of momentum conservation law 29

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Moment of momentum conservation law

Moment of momentum conservation law

B = const = ∙ Z

B= !&! ∙ Z!&! = [!&\] ∙ Z[!&\]

^4_
Z[!&\] = ∙ Z!&!
^ 4`a

!&! < [!&\] ⟹ Z!&! > Z[!&\]

(the moment of inertia increases,

the angular velocity decreases)

3.G. Moment of momentum conservation law http://physics.ucsc.edu/~josh/6A/book/torque/node15.html 30 Moment of momentum conservation law 31

Moment of momentum conservation law

Angular and Linear Momentum
Angular momentum: The same form and are subject to the fundamental constraints
ℓ=;x = ;x
& of conservation laws:
B = > ℓ! the conservation of momentum
!'( and the conservation of angular momentum:
; - position vector of the particle
Moment
Angular Angular
The total angular momentum of a system is constant in both magnitude
and direction if the resultant external torque acting on the system is zero:

> O@/ =
f
=0
momentum = of
inertia
· velocity

L = I ∙ ω
f = const or ∑ f& = const

Linear
This conservation law mathematically follows from continuous directional symmetry of space
(no direction in space is any different from any other direction). momentum = Mass · Velocity

p = m ∙ v
Moment of momentum conservation law 32 http://hydrogen.physik.uni-wuppertal.de/hyperphysics/hyperphysics/hbase/amom.html 33

Angular Momentum
Figure (a) shows a disk is rotating counterclockwise when viewed from above.
Figure (b) shows the right-hand rule.
The direction of angular velocity ω size and angular momentum L
are defined to be the direction in which the thumb of your right hand points
when you curl your fingers in the direction of the disk’s rotation as shown.

Relationship between:
force (F),
torque (τ),
momentum (p),
and angular momentum (L) vectors in a rotating system
r - the position vector of the particle relative to the origin

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Translational and rotational motion

Translational motion Rotational motion
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Position
Bibliography
; Angle l
vector
Halliday, D., Resnick, R., and Walker, J.:
∆; Angular ∆l Fundamentals of Physics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011
Velocity = Z=
∆ velocity ∆
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∆ Angular ∆Z
Acceleration = m=
∆
∆ acceleration WIKIPEDIA: http://en.wikipedia.org

.
Schoolphysics: http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/
Mass m
Moment => ! ;!
of inertia http://www.uproxx.com/gammasquad/2012/10/best-of-cosplay-nycc-2012-2/attachment/cosplay-community-greendale-human-being-nycc2012/
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B= Z
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Angular
Momentum = http://www.phy.davidson.edu/fachome/dmb/PY430/Friction/rolling.html

B=;×
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momentum
∆ ∆Z
Force = = Torque O=
∆ ∆
Angular
Impuls ∆ =∆ O ∆ = ∆B
impuls
Rotary motion versus linear motion 36 38