NIGERIAN

GOVERNMENT
AND POLITICS I
(PAD121)
LECTURE NOTES/GUIDES

PREPARED BY:
BABAISAH YUNUSA
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT
TECHNOLOGY. THE POLYTECHNIC, BALI
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

THE CONCEPT OF POLITICS

Like many concepts in social sciences, the concept of politics has defied
universally acceptable definition. It has been defined differently by different scholars.
This is as a result of variations in time and context within which scholars have defined
the concept. For instance:

Aristotle observed that whenever men seek to define their position in society or as
they attempt to achieve personal security from available resources and as they try to
influence others to accept their points of view; they had engaged themselves in politics.
To him, politics was the search for the good life.

Today, the word ‘politics’ is an elastic one. To some authorities, such as Dudley,
Ball and Laski, politics is concerned with the ordinary day-to-day activities of the
community in which we are all personally involved. To others, including Harold Laswell,
politics has been equated with the study of power or the study of influence and the
influential. In fact, Laswell went as far as to define politics as “who gets what, when and
how” which underlines the importance of power as the major ingredient of politics. By
this definition, politics not only happens in states, but it happens in organizations, NGOs
and businesses, even universities and families. (Okuade, 2009)

In sum, politics is a widespread phenomenon that comprises all the activities of co-
operation, which take place within a state or society whereby all human species goes
about organizing the use, production and distribution of human, natural and other
resources in the course of production and reproduction of its biological and social life
(Leftwich, 1984:64-5 Cited in Muhammad, 2015)

MEANING OF GOVERNANCE

The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more originally from
the Greek word “kubernacin,” which means “to steer.” Basing on its etymology,
governance refers to the manner of steering or governing, or of directing and controlling,
a group of people or a state.

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Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political

leaders for the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects. It is the complex process
whereby some sectors of the society wield power, and enact and promulgate public
policies which directly affect human and institutional interactions, and economic and
social development. The power exercised by the participating sectors of the society is
always for the common good, as it is essential for demanding respect and cooperation
from the citizens and the state. As such, a great deal about governance is the proper and
effective utilization of resources.

The Relationship between Governance and politics

Governance is essentially related to politics, in that politics is often defined as the art of
governance. Just as politics talks about governments, institutions, power, order, and the
ideals of justice, governance also deals with the public sector, power structures, equity,
and ideals of public administration. Nevertheless, they are distinct from each other in the
sense that politics is broader than governance. Traditionally, the study of politics entails
the concept of the “good life” and the “ideal society,” which are so broad they include a
web of subjects and every possible form of government. The study of governance, on the
contrary, is generally attuned to the concept of democracy, and on how the government
and the civil society arrive at a decision in meeting their needs.

Understanding Government and Governance

Governance is traditionally associated with government. In literatures, they are often used
interchangeably. But in the 1980s, political scientists broadened the meaning of
governance as including, not just government actors, but also civil-society actors. Today,
governance includes three sectors: the public sector (state actors and institutions), the
private sector (households and companies), and the civil society (non-governmental
organizations). These three sectors are said to work hand in hand in the process of
governance. This new use of the term focuses on the role of “networks” in the
achievement of the common good, whether these networks are intergovernmental,
transnational, or international.

In other words governance is broader than government in that other sectors are included
in it. Therefore,

1. Many authors also distinguish the two by associating government with “control
and domination,” and governance with “decentralization and relational
management.”

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2. On the one hand, government refers to a central institution which wields power
over its subjects. It is the instrument patterned after the model of “command and
control,” the government being in command over the affairs of the people. On the
other hand, governance is closely associated with the concept of decentralization
of power and the need for inter-sectoral management.

3. Governance is based on the realization that the government cannot do everything

for the people, so that in order to survive the state should not only rely on
government but also on the other sectors of the society. Thus, under the current
trend, there is a need to move from the “traditional hierarchical exercise of power
by the government” to the new notion of a “dispersed and relational power in
governance” — from government to governance. To govern should now mean to
facilitate or regulate, not to dominate or command.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

The difference between Government and the term politics can be observed in many ways.

1. Government and politics are two interrelated terms in social science. Government
refers to a group of people in authority who govern a country or state at a given
time. Politics refer to the process used in the governance of the country.

2. Government is an institution of the state in which it makes and enforces laws

while politics is the management of one's society. Government has to do with
some chosen people while politics involve everybody. Every day is involved in
politics but few are involved in government.

3. Government is found only in the act of ruling the state, district or any social
setting. On the other hand, politics can be found in every discipline of that matter.
Politics can be seen in education, cultural relationship, sports, art, etc.

4. Government is all about the administration on the other hand politics is all about
the affairs of the government.

5. Moreover, politics deals with the role of the opposition leaders too. While
government deals with the rule by the elected party. In other words, the elected
party alone is fit to form the government. The opposition party that contributes to
politics cannot form the government. On the overhand, the allied parties of the
elected party can become a part of the government. These parties can lend a

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helping hand to the elected party. These are the difference between the two words
(government and politics).

NIGERIA BEFORE CONTACT WITH WESTERN EUROPE

 The patterns of traditional political systems in Nigeria before colonialism

Before the British amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914 the entity known as Nigeria
comprises of different ethnic groups that were co-existing as autonomous socio- political
units. As it is presently made-up Nigeria over 300 ethnic nationalities with over 500 spok
languages with Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo as dominant ethnic groups (Usman & Abba,
2005; Elaigwu, 2007; Otite, 1975).

However, there are many minor ethnic groups lik Tiv, Gwari, Kanun, Jukun, Nupe,
Wurkun Mumu Igala, Efik, Ijaw, Ogoja, Ibibio, Urhobo, and Itsekiri among others which
are found in the Northern, South- Western, South-South and South-eastern part of Nigeria
respectively. It is important to note that these groups have different culture, tradition and
values.

Hence, the state system (organization) of the pre-colonial Nigeria was characterized,
shaped by social and historical forces of its people. There are basically two types of the
state formation according to Falola et al (1989; p.3739) that shows how the traditional
pre-colonial administration works.

1. centralized States

2. acephalous (Non-centralized State).

States with a centralized form of government stressed a government organization

especially the status of kings, classes, administrative officials, privileges of rank,
differences in wealth and power, regulation of tax and tribute, territorial divisions of the
states, relations to central authority, rights of subjects, obligation of rulers, checks on
authority, fiscal and judicial administration, etc.

States that were non-centralized do not seem to possess these items in clear cut
manner. Importance is attached to kinship ties. For the purpose of this course, we shall
examine politics and governance in both Northern and Southern Nigeria before
colonialism. We will limit ourselves to the tripartite major ethnic groups (Hausa/Fulani,
Yoruba and Igbo)

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A. THE HAUSA/FULANI PRE-COLONIAL SYSTEM (THE SOKOTO

CALIPHATE)

The Hausas and of recent Hausa/Fulani are the largest ethnic group in Nigeria. It is one of
the oldest organized traditional systems of government in West Africa. There was
centralized system of state in the Hausa land area which covers the Sahel, Sahara in the
north to the Niger Basin in South, and Western border and Western frontiers of Rima
basin. Modern state formation in Hausa land can be traced between the 12" and 16
century.

The Hausa traced their origin to the popular legendary Bayajidda. They are mostly
Muslims even though before their encounter and subsequently conversion to Islam by
Arab traders they practice the African traditional religion known as Maguzanci. The
division of the centralized state system was into: the highly developed states like; Zazzau,
Kano, Kanem Borno, Katsina Jukun and Gobir. The formation and development of Hausa
land as an entity was achieved after Dan Fodio Jihad of 1804 which was based on emirate
system (Mahdi, 1978; Oyediran et al, 1990).

 Political Organization/Administration
The Hausa land political history in the pre-colonial Nigeria was an interesting
political structure revolved around the “Sarauta™ (Emirate), and “Sarki' (Kingship). The
Native Authority system was institutionalized throughout the Hausa land. Hence, the
Hausa land was categorized with a centralized state system.

The traditional Hausa society ethno-linguistically was divided into Hausa Bakwai
(Original Hausa States)which were as follows: Daura, Zaria, Kano, Gobir, Katsina, Biram
and Rano. On the other hand, were the Banza Bakwai (Non-Original Hausa) Zamfara,
Nupe, Kebbi, Gwari, Yauri, Kwararafa and Ilorin.

As a result of the contact with Islam and adoption of Islamic religion by the emirs,
the emirate system served the basis for political, economic and administrative
organization. There was bureaucratic and diplomatic procedures and relation in all the
centralized Hausa states of the northern Nigeria. The central administration was divided
into two parts; eastern and western headquarters of the Hausa emirate located at Sokoto
and Gwandu where all emirs pay tribute annually.

The Emir controls almost everything under through the Sarauta system where the
emir used the expanded administrative structure under him. For example, in all palaces
there are the following workers.

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1. The Galadima (Administrator of the capital city).

2. The Waziri (Emir’s prime minister)

3. The Ma’ aji/Jakadiya (Palace treasurer)

4. The Madaweaki/sarkin Yaki (Commander in-chief the armed force)

5. The Sarkin Dogarai (Head of the palace guards)

6. The Sarkin Kasuwa (Head of Markets)

7. The Sarkin Noma (Head of the farmers)

8. The Sarkin Ruwa (Head in-charge of water resources)

9. The Fawa (Head of the butchers)

The above formed the executive council under the emirate system. Hence, there
was huge power and resources under the control of the Emir. There was no much
separation of powers under this conservative system since the Emirs perform the
executive, legislative and judicial function at the same time. There 1s consultation and
dialogue (administration), while Sharia’ah for (legislation), and judicial adjudication 1s
carried by the Alkali (judge) using the Holy Qur’an.

Consequently, the Sheikh Uthman Bin Fodio Islamic reform (Jihad) of 1804 brought
little modification but consolidated it with the introduction of Sharia under the Sokoto
Caliphate. The system of taxation (Jangali, Jizyah, Kharaji and Zakat), and bureaucracy
was perfected by the Jihad under the Amirul-Mumineen (Commander of the faithful)
until the coming of the colonialists and the conquest of the caliphate. (Adeleye, 1971;
Falola et al, 1989).

 Pre-Colonial Economy of the Hausa/Fulanis

The political economy of the Hausa state was farming, livestock production and later
manufacturing. The Hausa land is a hinter land open to the trans-Saharan trade routes
since 11" century. However, by the end of the 18" century the level of integration and
large quantities of goods and services from the Hausa land had reached the whole of
West Africa, North Africa, Middle East and Europe respectively. Many products like
kolanuts, textiles, baskets, knives and the unit of production is the family while labor was
sought through lineage. In the Hausa land, household is central to production activities.

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It is important to note that the slave trade System was effectively used in the Hausa land
for labor to increase production and to satisfy the later colonialist demand for military
and plantations purpose in the developed world.

B. THE PRECOLONIAL HISTORY OF THE YORUBA. (THE KINGDOM OF

OYO)

The Yorubas according to their legend migrated into Nigeria from Egypt under their
progenitor Oduduwa (Johnson, 1950; Owoboh, 2010). The Yoruba came from the East
(North-eastern Africa).

They are classified as centralized states with the several ethno-linguistic groups like:
Egba, Ife, Tebu. Owo, Ile Egba, Ife, Ijebu, Ilesha, Ekiti, Ondo and Ibadan respectively. It
was believed that Oduduwa according to the Yoruba tradition descended from heaven
and later found the Yoruba kingdom in Oramfe in Ile-Ife. Hence, the Ife was regarded as
the political, cultural and religious headquarters for the Yoruba. Oduduwa has seven sons
who later founded the first seven kingdom of the Yoruba land. As a result of
disagreement an¢ hatred the seven kingdoms later split into fourteen kingdoms.

However, there were prominent kingdoms in the Yoruba states; Oyo, Ife and Bini but
the title of the Oba of different kingdoms differs; Oyo (Alaafin of Oyo), Ife (The Ooni of
Ife), and Bini (The Oba of Bini),

The founders of the kingdoms were the children of Oduduwa who directed them to go
and form the other kingdoms in Yoruba land. The centralized system have becomes of
community Chiefs as Oba’s council that ensure checks and balances,

 Political Organization/Administration
The Oba was the highest authority in Yoruba land who exercise political authority. In this
context, the Alaafin of Oyo represent the Spiritual gods and command respect and
Obedience from his subjects (Falola et al 1986; Falola, 1993),

In fact the Alaafin has different Eunuchs the most important was the Osi Efa Eunuch
responsible for help in political affairs of the Empire while the Ona Efa advised on
judicial matters the Orun Efa advised was on religious issues,

In the Alaafin's palace there were officers who usually assisted him in the daily
administration of the kingdom who were as follows:

i. Basorun (The Prime Minister)

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ii. Oyo mesi (Council of Ministers)

iii. Oramiyan (The eldest son of the king)
iv. Ogboni cult (The priest society)
v. Eso (The seventy gallant army officers)
vi. Aare Ona Kankafo (Commander of the army)
vii. Asoyy Oba (Palace administrative staff),
However, it is important to note many issues were attended to and executed through
the political system of administration like land allocation; tax Collection, marriage and
war etc.

 The Economic System of the Yorubas

According to Walter Rodney (1972) it is suggested that certain African kingdoms were
strong economically and politically as a consequence of the trade with Europeans. The
greatest of the West African Kingdoms, such as Oyo, Benin, Dahomey and Asante are
cited as examples. Oyo and Benin where great long before making com with Europeans,
and while both Dahomey and Asante grew stronger during the period of the European
slave trade, the roots of their achievements went back to much earlier years (1972:117).

The Yoruba Empire expanded and related with its neighbors. The land was fertile
especially the Oyo where agriculture was one of the factors for its rise. There was
exchange of goods and faring at the Yoruba land as an entrepot that facilitated trade
activities with the coastal states and special trade route were created to Timbuktu, Gao
and Dahomey. Some of the Yoruba specialized commercial activities includes’ bronze
casting textiles, Kola nut and smothery, etc.

C. THE PRE-COLONIAL IGBO POLITICAL SYSTEM

The Igbo myth of origin is complicated and controversial due to many theories been put
forward by scholars. The Igbos were said to have migrated from the east as either lost
tribes of Israel or Egypt (Nwankwo, 1990; Afis 1981; Owoboh, 2010).

According to Onwuejeogwu (2000) who considers the Nri version account of Igbo
early history as the most authentic on the existence of the Igbo people basing his reason
that it was found in the oral tradition. The Igbo Ukwu civilization and archaeological
evidences in the ancient eastern Nigeria was also recognized.

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 Socio-Cultural Tradition
The Igbo people consider themselves as one despite obvious differences. The Igbo
culture area according to Onwuejeogwu and More (1936) have six basic traits as follows;
the linguistic, social, political, economic, ritual and cultural traits.

Historically, there are five sub-cultures of people which are as follows:

1. Eastern or Cross River Igbo.

2. Southern or Owerri Igbo
3. Northern or Onitsha Igbo
4. Western Igbo and
5. North-Eastern Igbo
The oracles perform judicial functions which are known with different names as
Ibinukpabi or Long Juju, Amadioha. However, the earth goddess (Ala or Ani) also
performs judicial functions. There are several title holders among the Igbos like; Ozo,
Eze.

 The Igbo Socio-Political Organization

The structural organization of Igbo political system was based on the following:

1. Village Administration: a village is seen as inhabited by a group of related families.

Each family head held the Ofo title and all of them put together formed the “Council
of Elders” or the “Village Council”.

The village council performs legislative functions and each member has equal vote
in decision making process. this is manifest in the veto power of a member as the
mere walking out of the meeting signifies his rejection which rendered a decision
null and void.

2. The Age-grade: the age-grade are people of the same age group. They perform the
following functions

a. Public duties such as clearing the paths, construction of roads and markets etc.
b. They were involved in the administration of the villages
c. They served as army for the defence of the villages against external aggression
d. They acted as the police for the maintenance of law and order
e. They helped in the implementation of policies made by the village councils.

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f. They also performed ceremonial and cultural functions during important

ceremonies in the village.
Other important features of Igbo political system include:
1. Secret societies
2. Priest
3. Laws and oracles
Secret societies were important both for law making and for execution of specific
assignments.

Priests were important political men since they acted as the final arbiter in cases by
bringing in the oath. They were also the custodian of oracles whose declarations were
final in certain disputes.

The Ozo title holders played vital role in Igbo political system. They could intervene in
disputes and bring about quick settlement.

The women association cannot be let out in the discourse of Igbo political system. This is
because they also take part in politics and can influence decisions of the council.

The body of rules that governs the day-to-day activities of Igbo system were sourced
from practices and proclamations

 The Igbo Economic System

The Igbos are farmers and traders in their own right in Nigeria and Africa in general the
Igbos are considered the most industrious and enterprising people. They have a fertile
land, mineral resources like; coal, oil, iron ore, lead and zinc, and others include forest
products like timber, iroko and mahogany etc. (Azikiwe, 1949).

COMPARISON OF THE HAUSA/FULANI, YORUBA AND IGBE COLONIAL

POLITICAL SYSTEMS

1. The Hausa-Fulani political system is theoretic where the emir combines both religious
and political leadership which qualifies as absolute monarchy which facilitates and
maintains the centralized system of state to function effectively. In Hausa land there was
an organized taxation system and a standing army.

2. The Yoruba political system was a constitutional monarchy where there 1s a separation
between political leadership and religious one. There was no taxation and a standing
army.

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3. The Igbo political system was an individualistic and egalitarian democratic system.
The functions of government were performed by council of family elders, and village
assembly. There was no system of taxation and standing army.

GOVERNANCE AND ADMINISTRATION OF NIGERIA DURING THE

COLONIAL ERA

 Meaning of colonialism

There are quite a number of definitions attributed to the concept of colonialism. The
concept simply refers to the imposition of foreign rule on a group of people that are
hitherto considered independent. It involves both the use of force and the threat to use
military force by an alien power against an organized group of people with a view to
impose its control over the latter.

It is also defined as a policy which a country maintains or extends its control over foreign
dependencies. Thus, it refers to the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and
expansion of territories by a foreign power.

Furthermore, Colonialism is a process in which a particular foreign power claims control

over an independent territory, thereby relegating the latter to a colony.

For the purpose of this course, colonialism is defined as “a policy and practice of taking
over direct or partial control of a weaker country by a more power country for the
purpose of exploitation, domination and subjugation”. (Rodney, 1972; Tamuno, 1977;
Ake, 1981)

 Brief background to colonial rule in Nigeria

Colonialism generally began in Nigeria through the activities of British Explorers like
Henry Barth, Hugh Clapperton, Mungo Park, the Lander Brothers etc. as well as the

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writings and activities of early missionaries. Most of whom were sponsored by Royal
Geography of Britain.

The territory referred to as Nigeria was first annexed through the activities of the Royal
Niger Company and was handed over to the British government following the 1884-85
Berlin Conference. The conference partitioned Africa into spheres of influence and
handing over to then super powers including the Great Britain, France, Germany,
Belgium and Portugal.

 Strategies/Method of Colonial Occupation

1. Consensual method: this is a method of bargain and discussion where colonial

masters enter into agreement with the natives on conditions that the colonial
masters provide security and protect the lives of the natives.
2. Conquest or Arm Struggle Method: this involves the military force to attack and
conquer different societies. This method is adopted in societies that show
resistance to colonial rule.
3. Mixture of both: this is largely adopted in societies where colonial system
experienced mixed reactions.
 Reasons for introduction of colonialism

Some of the reasons advanced by colonial masters for conquering Nigeria and Africa in
general include:

a. Economic Reasons
b. The search for new markets
c. Civilization Reasons
d. Religious reasons
e. Political/imperial reasons
 SYSTEMS OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION

Long before the British government acquired Lagos s a colony in 1861, they had worked
out the system of administration for their tropical dependencies. This was the “crown

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colony system of administration” already established and tried in the West Indies (i.e. the
Island of the Caribbean sea). Thus, two level of administration was introduced in Nigeria
by the colonial masters namely:

a. central administration
b. indirect rule system
 Central Administration: at the central level, we have the Governor-General who
served as the chief executive for the whole country. He presides over the meeting of
various political and administrative institutions including central legislative council
and the executive council of Nigeria. In addition, he is empowered to make laws as
well as proclamations for the good governance of the country.
Apart from the Governor-General, there exists also a central legislative council whose
primary responsibility is advising the governor in relation to law making. The central
legislative council comprises of the Chief Justice, colonial Secretary and a senior
military officer in command of the British Forces within the country.

 The Indirect rule system: the indirect rule system has been defined as a system of
government that utilized the indigenous political system for easy governance or for
the purpose of local administration. It is a system that solely rely on the existing
political organization in the administration and enforcement of colonial laws and
policies

 Reasons for Adopting Indirect System in Nigeria.

A number of reasons have been put forward by scholars as to why colonial masters
introduced indirect rule system in Nigeria. Below are some of the major reasons

1. Administrative convenience
2. Lack of personnel
3. Shortage of fund
4. Its success in other countries
5. To preserve the culture of the people

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6. Language difficulties
7. It is very cheap to run
Generally, the indirect rule system was meant to reduce the cost of governance and
administration and to ensure unflagging obedience from mass of the people who are
governed through their existing traditional authorities. However, these traditional
authorities are more often than not found at the native level and their role is to among
other things guarantee security and serve as avenue for collection of taxes.

The system was adopted in all the three regions i.e. the North, The West, and the
East though with varying performance. For instance, in the northern region, indirect rule
system recorded a remarkable success simply because the system conform with the
already existing Hausa/Fulani Traditional system that was characterized by an organized
taxation system, centralization of powers as well as codification of Sharia laws utilizing
Alkali Courts.

In the Western region, indirect rule system recorded a mixed outcome. In some
areas, the system was successful, while in some other areas, it was accomplished with
some resistance. This is attributed to the fact that the provisions of the indirect rule
system contradict the Yoruba kingdom system especially the imposition of taxes as well
as concentration of power on few individuals

On the contrary, indirect rule system was a complete failure in the eastern region.
This is as a result of sharp contradiction between the system of indirect rule and Igbo
traditional system especially the introduction of ‘Warrant Chiefs’ as well as introduction
of revenue system.

In conclusion, it is evident that the traditional systems of administration have strongly

influenced the performance of the indirect rule system in different part of Nigeria.

 ECONOMIC POLICIES OF THE COLONIALIST

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It is a well-known fact that Africa went through a rough patch during colonization, during
which indigenous people suffered greatly (Mapuva and Chari, 2010:22). The way Africa
has been portrayed in the five decades since independence has provoked endless debate
and rich literature on the subject. Fifty year after most African countries regained
independence, today Africa is being considered the poorest continent in the world,
contributing less than three percent (3%) to international trade. The benefit or otherwise
of colonialism has been a recurring debate. Some argued that it was beneficial to the
African economy while some African scholars like Walter Rodney (2005) believed that
colonization has a dis-service to the world Countries. Some scholars that saw colonialism
as beneficial to African nations argue that colonization introduced formal education,
modern health facilities, modern markets, modem transportation and communication, etc.
The British penetration of African economies as argued by Ake (2008:38) created some
fundamental affinities between the African economy and that of the colonizing power.
They controlled the development of the economy in the interest of the metropolis which
went along with the expansion of colonial trade, which meant structural link and
structural interdependence. Economic dependency is the most telling punitive legacy that
colonization bequeathed to all countries in Africa.

The colonial administrative policies (particularly the indirect rule system discussed
above) adopted in Nigeria was designed to facilitate guarantee the exploitation of the
country.

Economically, colonial policies can be examined from the following areas:

 Production

The colonial economy encouraged the production of cash crops for exports rather than
food crops for domestic consumption. Under the colonial agriculture, Nigeria and indeed
Africa was forced to produce what they did not consume and made to consume what

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they did not produce. Among the cash crops grown by Nigerian peasants are cocoa,
groundnut, cotton rubber, etc.

 Mining

Minerals were ruthlessly exploited with foreign capital beyond the reach of Africans. The
colonial state deliberately and systematically excluded Africans from benefiting from the
mineral resources of their country, laws were made to penalize Africans found in
possession of minerals without license. Export of mineral and agricultural products was
characterized by (1) concentration on single cash crops (2) exported unprocessed.

 Currency

Modern currencies were introduced to replace traditional system of barter, commodity

currency and cowries. In 1912, the West African Currency Board was established and
linked with the Sterling in London. The increase use of currencies led to the introduction
of banking institutions. In West Africa, Bank of British West Africa of 1894 was
followed by Barclays Bank in 1926.

However, the banks invested all their money in England including savings made
by Africans themselves thereby promoting capital formation and thus economic
development of their metropolis. Moreover, lending is discriminated against African
businesses and Africans were denied acquisition of skills and expertise.

 Taxation

Nigerians and indeed Africans were forced to pay taxes in European currency. Worst
still, to get the money, they were forced to work in mining companies own by the
Europeans.

 Marketing

Peasant farmers were left at the mercy of European trading firms that controlled the
marketing sector. In West Africa, United African Company (UAC), a subsidiary of

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Unilever existed. They bought products at a very low price and export them to Europe.
They were also in charge of importing goods from Europe which were sold at a very high
prices.

 Infrastructure

Most railways that were constructed by colonial masters ran directly from Coast to
interior to link sources of cash crops or mineral deposits. For instance, given Kano’s
groundnut production, by 1912, the rail had reached their. Jos and Enugu were also
linked with rail because of coal and tin production.

 POLITICAL AND FOREIGN POLICIES OF COLONIAL RULE

Experience in foreign affairs started when Britain signed treaties with the Delta States of
Nigeria between 1830-1885. The purpose of these treaties was to stop the slave trade.
When Britain finally occupied Logos territory, the foreign relationship became that of a
master and a servant. This knowledge of foreign affairs was reflected in most Nigerian
leaders. In 1949, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe recalled to mind that Africans had been called
upon to participate in the Second World War. He Was contemplating on whether
Nigerians should align with the western powers or with the eastern bloc, or whether she
should adopt the policy of neutrality. In 1955, Dr. AZIKIWE also attacked the Afro-
Asian States for inviting the Gold Coast, and not Nigeria, to the Bandung Conference,
His interest in foreign affairs was observed in 1958 in Accra, where Pan-African
Conference was held. His speech below clearly reflected the interest in foreign affairs:

“We are on the eve of great events. A future Federation of Independent

West African States had made a beginning. It's my earnest hope that the
Federation of Nigeria, soon to be independent, will play a worthy part in the
Larger Federation.”

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NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

The idea of the West African Federation came from British officials who were in Nigeria,
the Gold Coast, and the Gambia. It was the wish of the fathers of the W.A.E, to promote
the unity of West African people.

The government which was to rule Nigeria for a quarter of a century required a good deal
of ingenuity and unremitting labor and skill. The executive and legislative bodies
functioned as in the parliamentary government. The members of the executive branch
were nominated by the governor. The legislative branch comprised officials and non-
official members but, nominated by the governor. Nominated Africans were the minority.
The executive council had advisory powers while the power of the legislative body was
limited to the Colony only. The legislative council was a mere debating body that could
not affect any outstanding Change aimed toward adequate representation. The
administrative branch was divided into two sections: one was departmental] and the other
was political. The departmental section was mainly concerned with the supervision of
Native Authority, directing of policy, education, legislation, levying of taxes and
administration of justice. The departmental sub-division was in charge of technical
functions Such as communications, transportation and other material developments of the
country. The political officers were directly responsible to the governor. They supervised
both technical and political matters. The lieutenant governors and the Residents were able
to devote more time to the work of the Native Administrations.

Below is brief examination of the impact of colonialism in Nigeria

 THE NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE IMPACT OF COLONIALISM

Negative Impacts of Colonialism

1. Means of communication: They were not constructed for the benefit of Africans.
They were not laid down to’ facilitate internal trade in African commodities. All roads
and railways led down to the sea. They were built to extract cotton, gold, palm
produce, groundnut, cocoa, etc.

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NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

2. Exploitation: Africa was being exploited by capital pronounced out of African labour.
When Lever Brothers took over the Niger company in 1929, they became heirs to one
of the most notorious exploiters of 19 century Africa.

3. Human historical development: Colonialism tailed to advance Africa along the path of
human historical development.

4. African raw-materials: The industries using African raw materials were located
outside of Africa, and then there could be no beneficial backward and forward linkage
inside Africa. For example, after the 2 world wars, Guinea began to export bauxite, in
the hands of French and American capitalists, the bauxite become aluminum and in
the metropolis, It went into the making of electrical conductors, kitchen utensils,
glass, etc. but in Guinea, the colonial bauxite mining left holes in the ground.

5. Negation of freedom: Colonialism was a negation of freedom; it could not possibly

bring modem political liberation to Africans.

6. Relinquishing of power: Power is the ultimate determinant in human society being

basic to the relations within any group and between groups when one society finds
itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself, is a form of
underdevelopment.

7. Set of indigenous cultural goals: Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and
standards and lost full command of training young members of the society.

8. Puppets: Most states lost their power, independence and irrespective of whether they
were big empires or small polities. Certain traditional rulers were kept in office and
the formal structure of some kingdoms or empires were partially retained but political
power had passed into the hands of foreign overloads. Sometimes, some African
rulers were chosen to serve as agents of foreign colonial rule and they were nothing
but puppets.

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

9. Education: The purpose of colonial education was to train Africans to help man the
local administration at the lowest rank and to staff the private capitalist firms owned
by Europeans.

10. African culture: Examples abound in present-day Africa, of the Insulting and
dehumanizing treatment of aspects of African culture in the colonial period, based on
cultural imperialism and white racism. For example, France did not respect African
culture, instead of imposed hers on the people of the colonies.

11. Production of cash crops: They concentrated their efforts in the areas of procuring
cash crops &.g. cocoa, cotton, palm produce, groundnut, etc, for industries in Europe,
without efforts made to “courage the people to go into the production of food crops.

POSITIVE IMPACT OF COLONIALISM

3. Military and technical aid: Some former colonial territories especially the French
territories receive military and technical aid from their former colonial masters.

4. Trade relations: It was established with Britain and France. For example, Britain is
the major trading partner with its four former West African colonies.

5. Development of political parties: One of the impacts 0 colonialism in British and

French West Africa was the development of political parties. Many of these political
parties emerged to champion the struggle for political independence.

6. Common language: Colonialism promoted the development of common languages

among the colonial territories. English was developed and spoken In. British
territories while French developed in French territories.

7. Uniform civil service: The civil service was developed along with that of the British
and the French systems.

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

8. Common legal system: There was the development of a common legal system among
the colonial territories.

9. The Commonwealth: This organization was formed to accommodate full former

colonies under Britain and Britain itself. They co-operate with one another in
different areas of human Endeavour e.g. sports, scholarship programme, etc.

10. The emergence of the press: Another impact of colonialism was the emergence of the
press, especially the print media e.g. Newspapers. The press developed and became
the mouthpiece of the people in the struggle for political independence

PATHWAY TO NIGERIA’S INDEPENDENCE

Factors That Influenced the Emergence of Nationalism in Nigeria

Introduction

Nationalism is regarded as one of the most powerful ism of modern world. There are
numerous definitions of the term nationalism offered by many scholars.

According to Dictionary of International Relations, nationalism as a term is defined in

two related senses. In the first usage, nationalism seeks to identify a behavioural entity
(the nation) and thereafter to pursue certain political and cultural goals on behalf of it. In
the second usage, nationalism is a sentiment of loyalty towards the nation which is shared
by people.

In the classical sense, nationalism encompasses two phenomena:

a. Attitude that the members of a nation take with their identity as members of the
nation
b. Actions they take to achieve or sustain some form of political sovereignty.
In the context of Africa continent, the term nationalism “implies a collectivity of group of
individuals who come together to fight the imposition of colonial rule.

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

It is a response of Africans towards the colonial rule of Africans by Europeans.

Nationalism is any conscious movement that was made as a matter of fact to subdued the
colonialist.

Factors Responsible for the Emergence of Nationalism

A number of factors were responsible for the emergence of nationalism in Nigeria. These
factors are categorized into two namely; a) external factors and (b) internal factors

Internal factors

1. The resistance to colonial occupation by the traditional rulers such as Sultan

Attahiru in the North, King Jaja of Opobo in the Delta region, Nana Olomu of
Itsekiri, Oba Kosoko of Lagos, etc. served as a great inspiration to nationalist
movement.

2. Acquisition of Western Education: Most of the few Nigerian elite that acquired
western education appreciates the values of freedom, liberty and human dignity
and thus opted for the struggle towards emancipation of their fellow natives from
the injustice, racial segregation and maltreatment by the colonialist.

3. The activities of labour unions and professional groups seeking for better
condition of service also opposed colonial rule and supported liberation struggles.

4. The thirst for political power by the leader of the nationalist movement further
motivates them to fight against colonial rule.

5. Political parties, media, and other cultural organizations and associations gave
tremendous boost to the efforts of nationalist liberation movement.

Other internal factors include:

a. The return of Ex-servicemen
b. Racial segregation and discrimination in the civil service
c. Poor price for African products

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

External factors

1. The granting of independence to India in 1947 by Britain

2. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations in 1948: this
gave the nationalist the legal and political boost to their struggle for independence

3. The impact of the First and Second World Wars: Participation of Nigerian soldiers
in both wars expose the weaknesses of the European soldiers and therefore
psychologically strengthened the struggle for liberation.

4. The activities of the Pan-African Congress from 1945 also influenced nationalism
in Nigeria

5. The condemnation and criticism by the British Labour party

6. Socialist and communist influence

7. The Atlantic Charter signed in 1941 which gave right to choose any form of
government sparked the zeal of nationalism.

NIGERIA’S CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT FROM 1922-1960)

The Clifford Constitution of 1922

This was the first attempt toward constitution making in Nigeria. Sir Hugh Clifford was
not comfortable with the Lugard’s arrangement of Nigeria as neither federal state nor a
unitary state. He made series of reforms for political development.

Features of Clifford’s Constitution 1922

1. The creation of legislative council holding in Lagos in place of Nigerian council.

The legislative council was official members 46 members out of this, 27 were
official members whereas 19 were unofficial members, moreover, out of 19
unofficial members 4 were elected in Lagos and Calabar. This because the two
towns had large members of elites, hence 3 elites members for Lagos and Calabar.
The other 15 members were nominated. The legislative in all had 10 Africans with
4 that were elected for the first time in colonial British West Africa

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

2. The executive council was made up of entirely British officials who were
responsible to the Governor. While the principal administrative officials of the
government were made ex-officio members of the council

3. The legislative council made laws for the colony of Lagos and colony of Southern
protectorates. The North was ruled through proclamations by Sir Clifford

4. The legislative council was answerable and subordinate to the executive council
dominated by the members of the British oligarchy

5. The tenure of the un-official nominated 1s five years subject to renewal

6. The franchise was conditional with £100 pounds per annum for eligibility

 Merits of Clifford’s Constitution of 1922

1. Introduction of elective principle for the first time in Nigeria

2. Expansion of the legislative council after the amalgamation to 46 and the inclusion of
Nigerians in the new legislative council
3. The Cameroons was brought as part of Eastern Nigeria as a respect for the defeat of
Germany the World War I
4. It served as impetus to political activities lb formation of political parties
5. It’s stimulated the process and prepared Niger! for self-government
 Demerits of Clifford’s Constitution of1922

1. Very few Nigeria were elected into the legislative council

2. The legislative council was advisory rather independent of the Governor
3. The executive council was entirely dominated the Whites only
4. The functions of the executive was directed * Britain by Royal instruction
5. No effort was made to unify the North and South the colonial administration since
amalgamation from 1914-1934 (Divide and mie policy of the Bnitish).

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NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

THE RICHARD'S CONSTITUTION OF 1946

The necessity of another constitution became paramount as a result of the criticism and
short comings of the Sir Clifford's Constitution of 1922. Especially, the constitution of
1922 failed to achieve its. stated objectives and was done without wider consultation with
Nigerians. Hence, the Sir Arthur Richard's Constitution of 1946 was sct to address some
of the contentious issues like Separation of the North from the rest of the country and the
inclusion of the educated elites in the administration. It was intended to consolidate the
Sir Bemard Bourdillion 1938-1945 who spht Nigeria into three regions of North, East and
West in 1939,

 Features of Richard's Constitution 1946

1. Establishment of legislative council for the whole Nigena

2. Regional legislative councils were introduced (West, East and North)

3. The Number of official and unofficial members of legislative council were increased

4. Native administrative system was incorporated into the Nigerian constitution

5. The constitution reduce the franchise to £50 per annum

 Merits of Richard's Constitution of 1946

1. It gave Nigeria a legislative council (central legislative council)

2. It introduced regionalism/regional council
3. It introduced mass adult suffrage/ballot boxes System
4. The Native authorities were to choose Members of regional council
5. It introduced bicameralism in Nigeria

 Demerits of Richard’s Constitution of 1946

1. The constitution was criticized for lack of consultation

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

2. Regionalism paradoxically promoted ethnic rivalry

3. The chiefs and unofficial members nominated were colonial stooges

4. The retention elective principle/franchise was a weakness

5. Some nationalists’ consider the constitution an obstacle towards independence

THE MACPHERSON’S CONSTITUTION OF 1951

Sir John Macpherson wanted to find a solution to the issues not resolved by the Richard’s
constitution of 1946. The constitution consolidated the federal system in Nigeria. The
constitution enjoyed wider consultation 1948-1951 with Nigerians unlike the two
previous constitutions.

 Features of Macpherson’s Constitution 1951

1. It introduced the central legislative council known as “House of Representatives”.

2. It retained the office of the Governor in Lagos
3. It maintained the three (3) regional structures; North, East and West
4. It introduced the direct and indirect electoral provisions
5. It provided for the central executive council (Cabinet)
 Merits of Macpherson Constitution 1951
1. It provided avenue for consultation/participation of Nigerians
2. It introduced quasi-federalism
3. It introduced the office of ministers for first time

4. It introduced public service commission/revenue allocation formula in Nigeria

5. It provided for the bicameral legislature for the Northern and Western regions

 Demerits of Macpherson Constitution of 1951

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

1. Too much legislative powers to the Governor and Lieutenant Governor

2. Its Features are both unitary and federal system of government
3. The electoral laws were not democratized as qualification, was bases on taxes
4. Creations of regionalism deepened ethnic rivalry.
5. It did not make provision for the office of the Prime Minister
THE LYTTLETON’S CONSTITUTION OF 1954

Sir Lyttleton’s constitution was an aftermath of the London conference of 1953 and lagos
constitutional conference of 1954. It was intended to address the polarizing imbalance
created by the previous constitutions on regionalism and other boiling issues in Nigeria t.

 features of Lyttleton ’s Constitution of 1954

1. The central legislative was unicameral

2. The Governor came to be Known as the Governor- General of the federation

3. The establishment of premiers

4. The office of the speaker and deputy speaker were introduced for regions.

5. The federalism was divided into five component Parts: Northern, Western,
Eastern, Southern Cameroon and Federal Territory of Lagos

Merits of Lyttleton’s Constitution of 1954

 It introduced division of powers between federal and regional governments.

 It introduced direct elections to both federal and regional legislatures
 It provided for the post Of permanent secretary parliamentary secretaries
 Nigerians were appointed for the first time ministers with port-folios.
 The constitution facilitated and serves as impetus for Nigeria’s independence.
Demerits of Lyttleton Constitution of 1954

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NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

 There was no provision for the office of Prime Minister

 The appointment of ministers were based on the three major political parties which
were regionally based
 There was despotic/veto powers for the Governor — General and Governors
 There was a different electoral system in the federation
 There was absence of a bicameral legislature to checkmate the central legislative
council.
THE ROLE OF THE NATIONALIST IN PATHWAY OF INDEPENDENCE

The Second World War accelerated the decolonization process in several parts of the
world, Nigeria inclusive during the war. Three battalions of the Nigeria regiment fought
in the Ethiopian ‘campaign. Nigerian unit also contributed to two divisions serving with
British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily, and Burma where they won many honors.
Wartime experience provided a new point of reference for many soldiers, who interacted
across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The Nigerian soldiers
returned have to boost nationalism ideology.

The war years, moreover, witnessed a pulsation between the older, more parochial
Nigeria leaders inclined towards gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in
more immediate terms. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political
future. The devolution of power to Nigerians by the British Government started after the
war. This created vacuum and triggered off the formation of political parties to fill the
vacuum. Devolution of powers also increased the pace of Nationalism.

Below are highlights of the role of nationalists in Nigeria’s pathway to independence:

a. Nigerian nationalist formed political parties and association: Political parties were
formed by nationalist example were the NNDP formed by Herbert Macaulay NNC led
by Nnamdi Azikiwe, NYM led by Earnest Ikoli, AG led by Obafemi Awolowo and
NPC led by Ahmadu Bello.
b. They organized strikes and boycotts as powerful instrument to back up their demand.

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

c. They organized labour unions and meetings that put pressure on the colonial
employers and government.
d. The nationalist Set up newspapers been as the Lagos daily News and West African
Pilot that were in the vanguard of demand for independence.
e. They wrote a petition to the secretary of the state for the colony in London. An
example is the one sent to him in March 1920 by the delegates to the national
congress of British West African.
f. They took an active part in the constitutional conference.
g. In parliament, they tabled and voted in favour of motion/policies favourable to n
attainment of self-rule.
h. They sent a delegate to the British government in London and to the colonial
government # Nigeria to press forward their demand.
i. They organized rallies symposia and lectures to educate the people.

j. They used other propaganda machinery such as the activities of the West African
Student Union (WASU) in London to present their position on the need for
independence in Nigeria.

GOVERNANCE OF NIGERIA IN THE FIRST REPUBLIC (1960-1966)

On 1st October 1960, Nigeria became independent. This meant that Nigeria was a
sovereign state independent of colonial influences. However, this was not fully the case.
The Eastern queen was still the head of state, although she was represented by a Nigerian
in the person of Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe who was the governor General while Tafawa
Balewa was the prime minister.

The constitution was like the 1954 constitution but with some changes. There was the
inclusion of provisions for acquiring citizenship of the country. There was also included
in the constitution provisions for the procedure for amendment of the constitution.
Judicially, judges of the courts were appointed through nomination by the judicial service
commission upon the assent of the Privy Council. The Privy Council was also the highest
court of appeal in the country.

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NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

The constitution divided legislative power between the center and the regional legislature.
It made provisions for an exclusive legislative list. It also made provisions for an
exclusive list were to be legislated by only the central legislature. Items in the concurrent
list were to be legislated upon by the central legislature and the regional legislature.

 Features of Independence Constitution of 1960

1. Federalism was retain for Nigeria with three regions

2. The Governor-General was made the representative of the Queen of England. The
Governor-General was Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe as the black indigenous Governor-
General.

3. A parliamentary system was adopted in line with the Westminster model with
bicameral legislature; The Senate and House of Representatives.

4. Executive powers were conferred on the Prime Minister and premiers

5. Provisions for Nigerian citizenship were laid

6. The Privy Council in London was the highest court of appeal in Nigeria

 Merits of the Independence Constitution of 1960

 Nigeria became an independent state

 It allowed a Nigerian to became Governor-Genera

 It spelt-out clearly the nation’s foreign policy.

 It provided for citizenship/human rights for Nigeria

 It provided for a bicameral legislature for Nigeria.

 Demerits of the Independence Constitution of 1960

1. The Queen of England was retain as Head of State for Nigeria.

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

2. The highest court of appeal was still the Privy Council of England

3. Members of the senate were not to be elected but were appointed by regional
governments

4. It was not representative of total self-government agitation

5. The Northern-region was bigger in size than the two other regions which created
problem in the federation

THE 1963 REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION

The republican constitution was passed into law by the federal House of Representatives
on September 19, 1963, and came into force on 1 st October 1963. This was after the
constitutional conference held in Lagos on July 25 and 26 1963 where issues bordering
on the real independence of Nigeria were resolved.

However, due to political crises in the country, the republican constitution did not last.
On January 15 1966, there was a coup d’ eat which removed the politicians. This brought
about military rule until 1979.

Features of Republican Constitution of 1963

1. The queen ceased to be Head of State (Nigeria became a Republic)
2. The Supreme Court of Nigeria became the highest court not the London Privy
Council any more
3. The tithe Governor-General was changed to President
4. The president was empower to appoint Supreme and High Court Judges for Lagos
instead of the judicial services committee
5. Nigerians fundamental human rights were guaranteed.
6. Some emergency power were conferred on the Federal Government
Merits of the Republican Constitution of 1963
1. Nigeria became a Republic

33
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

2. The Queen of England ceased to be the Head of State replaced by elected

president

3. The Supreme Court of Nigeria became the highest court in the country instead of
the Privy Council

4. The constitution provided for revenue allocation formula.

5. The Constitution protects and guarantees fundamental human rights of Nigerian
6. The Republican constitution was entirely an autonomous one
 Demerits of the Republican Constitution of 1963
1. There was no provision for the independence of f, judiciary
2. The emergency powers of the federal government was subject to abuse
3. There was fusion of power instead of Complete separation of powers in the
government.
4. The revenue allocation formula later became contentious
5. Regionalism created healthy and unhealthy rivalry among the regions
MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM IN THE FIRST REPUBLIC
The history of political parties in Nigeria began when the first political party in Nigeria
was established in 1959, the year before Nigeria gained her independence from Great
Britain. In 1959, there were three political parties in the country and they include the
following: National council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). This party was a
pen-Nigerian political party led by the last Governor general and first president of
independent Nigeria, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe (Ejibunu, 2007). The second political party
was the Northern people’s congress (NPC) and it was led by the former Sardauna of
Sokoto, Sir Ahmadu Bello. The party was a regional party majorly populated by the
Hausa- Fulani from the North. The third political party in Nigeria as at 1959 was the
Action Group and it was led by the former premier of the western Region, Chief Obafemi
Awolowo. Like the NPC, the AG was regional too and it was mainly populated and
dominated by the Yoruba’s from the southwestern part of Nigeria (Naude, 2013).
In the 1959 general elections, no single party was able to win the majority. This led to a
merger of the NPC and the NCNC which formed the National government that brought
Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa in as prime minister and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe as the
General on independence day in 1960.

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NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I PAD121

Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe later became the first president of Nigeria in 1963 after Nigeria
became a republic, while Tafawa Balewa maintained his position as the prime minister.
The census conducted in 1963 was thought to favour the Hausa-Fulani more than the rest
of rest Nigeria and this dissatisfied the Igbos, leading to the splitting of the NCNC with
the NPC.
The NCNC then joined with a faction of the AG. This group was led by Obafemi
Awolowo and a formation of political party named united progressive Grand Alliance
(UPGA) was formed. The NPC on the other hand joind with the remaining faction of the
AG led by Samuel ladoke Akintola to form yet another political party, the Nigerian
National Democratic party (NNDP) (International Herald Tribune, 2007).

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