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FEDERAL POLYTECHIC BALI
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SCHOOL OF GENERAL STUDIES AND MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY

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DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATON
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PAD112 (THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION AND

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MANAGEMENT)
LECTURE NOTES/GUIDE

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BABAISAH YUNUSA

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1.1. INTRODUCTION

This course aims at exploring the major organizational theories. Specifically, with
emphasis on the classical theories of administration/management (i.e. Scientific
Management theory, administrative management theory and bureaucratic
management theory) whose focus are on organizational structure and its related
issues as well as the humanistic, behavioural and general systems theories of
management. Similarly, the course will acquaint you with growing trends in the
theories of management especially decision-making models, motivation theories
and leadership theories.

1.2. Definition of a Theory

The word theory originally derives its name from the Greek word theoria, which
roughly translated to means contemplation or speculation. Modern
understanding of the word “theory” are slightly different from the ancient Greek,
but the idea of contemplating an idea or speculating about why something
happens is still very much in line with the modern definition.

For the purpose of this course, a theory is defined as a “group of related

propositions designed to explain why events take place in a certain way.” (Infante,
D., Rancer, A., & Womack, D. 2003)

Let’s break this definition into its basic parts. First, “a theory is a group of related
propositions” which is a series of statements designed to be tested and
discussed. secondly, these statements propose an explanation for why events
take place and why they occur the way they do. For example, Sir Isaac Newton
created the modern theory of gravity to explain why the different planets and
stars didn’t go crashing on each other. Given the lapses in Newton’s theory,
Albert Einstein developed a theory of relativity to further our understanding of
how gravity actually works. In both instance, we see two well-respected
researchers making attempts to understand a basic phenomenon of our physical
world, gravity. Just like the physicist have been trying to understand why the
planets rotates and don’t crush into each other, organizational scholars have
attempted to create theories for how and why organizations structure
themselves the way they do; why people behave the way they do in organizations;
why leaders and followers interactions lead to specific outcomes, etc.

John Clancy (1989) defines a theory as a coherent group of assumptions put

forth to explain the relationship between two or more observable facts. A theory

1
embraces a set of interrelated definitions, and relationships that organizes our
concepts of and understanding of the empirical world in a systematic way.

For the purpose of this course, a theory is an assumption and generalization that
systematically describe and explains behavior of individuals in an established
organization. This definition suggestion three (3) things.

1. It means that a theory is logical and comprises of concepts, assumptions

and generalization

2. It equally suggests that a theory is meant to described explain and predict

human behavior.

That a theory is tentative i.e. it is subject to further research development

an investigation by other scholars.

1.3. Importance of theories to Public Administration

Theories provide the basis for administrative practices. They contributed majorly
to how to deal with employees in an organization in different situations. All
theories were responses to each other and the questions and issues that kept
cropping up in organisations from time to time, for which answers had to be
delivered (Waldo, 1994). For instance:

a. Scientific management and classical theorists, Max Weber as well as Mary

Parker Follett helped in developing a formal structure of organisation and
streamlined each and every task as well as principles of management thus
developing the theory of management and taking to a subject of study.

b. The Human relations and Behaviourists approach gave life to that formal
structure and mechanical jobs by studying the human being working in it
and running the organisation and the problems he faced and how
managers are to deal with them and solve them in the best possible way
(Albrow, 1970).

All these participative management theories contribute to the concept of

motivation and human behaviour and aspirations that need to be kept in mind
while boosting their morale to work better and to the ideas of decentralization,
innovation and development of professional managers.

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In sum, theories of administration and management seek or attempt to answer
such questions as:

a. Why should there be a particular administrative organ?

b. Where and how should such an organ be set up?

c. On what basis shall the organ be set up etc.

WHAT IS ADMINISTRATION?

The term administration is a multidimensional concept. It covers almost every

sphere of activity of human endeavour. It can be taken to mean anything ranging
from the directing of the affairs of enterprises to the simple paying of monthly
pension.

In his opinion, Presthus( 1962) says administration is an activity or process

concerned with the means of carrying out prescribed ends. For him
administration is a process or activity to achieve a giving ends.

Simon Smithburg and Thompson (1956) chose to make use of an illustration in

their definition; they pointed out, that when two men cooperate to roll a stone
that neither could have moved alone, the rudiments of administration have
appeared.

WHAT IS MANAGMNENT?

The definition of management like administration cannot easily be stated in

one sentence, individuals differs in the understanding and definition, some use
management as a collective – noun referring to it as certain group of people
within an organization, others consider management as a process of performing
certain or specific functions to run an organization. “Management can be defined
as the process of combining and utilizing or of allocating organizations-inputs
(men, material and money) by planning, organizing, directing and controlling for
the purpose of producing outputs (goods and services or whatever the objects
are) desired by customers so that the organizational objective are accomplished.

Akpala (1988) says that management refers to persons who work with and
through others to achieve organizational goals. He is equally of the view that, all
organizations operate by the provision, combination and utilization of
organizational resources of “men, material (material inputs and technology) and

3
money, and this combination/utilization, as management work cannot be
operated without planning organizing, directing and controlling. )

1.4. Evolution/Origin of Administrative Theories

Even though administrative and management practice dates back to several

years ago, the development of management as a field of knowledge is a relatively
recent development. The industrial revolution served as the impetus for this
development. This industrial revolution led to the emergence of factories, and
with the development of many factories came the widespread need to
coordinate the efforts of large numbers of people in the regular production of
goods.

The emergence of large-scale business enterprises in Western Europe and United

States of America raised and created challenges that were previously faced only
by governments. Businesses needed the equivalent of government leaders -to
hire and train employees and then to lead and motivate them. Managers were
also needed to develop, plan and design work units and in addition make profit.
Changes in management practices occur as managers, theorists, researchers
and consultants seek new ways to increase organizational efficiency and
effectiveness.

These situation led to the birth of different schools of thought on management

as a response to the basic question management question “what is the best way
to manage an organization?” some of these theories include

 The traditional/classical theories

 The behavioural theories

 The human relation theory

 The system theory

2.0. THE CLASSICAL THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT.

The classical approaches are perspectives on management that emphasized

finding ways to manage work and organization more efficiently. They are
primarily concern with the structure and activities of formal or official
organizations. Issues such as division of work, establishment of hierarchy of
authority and the span of control were seen to be utmost importance in the

4
achievement of an effective organization.

To sum it up, all classical theories are concern with:

a. Understanding the behaviour of individual worker

b. Explaining possible behaviour of people

c. Explaining the nature and structure of an organization

d. The performance of functions

e. The outcome of individual behaviour not actual performance and

f. How productive is an organization.

The classical theories of administration include; the scientific management

theory, the administrative management theory and the bureaucratic management
theory.

2.1. THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY

th
This is the first coherent theory of administration developed in the 20 century.
The theory was developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1917) also known
as the father of scientific management and efficiency movement.

The emergence of the theory can be attributed to the numerous challenges faced
by managers in the wake of industrial revolution across Europe and America.
Industrial revolution refers to the development and adoption of new and
improved production method that changed America and much of Europe from
agrarian to industrial society. Some of these challenges include

1. The inability of managers to control the large quantum (number) of

workers brought about by the new technologies as against the former
method where families were used as units of production.

2. Managers became exposed to the competitive nature of the industrial

society. Hence, there were desires to maintain superiority or even
monopoly in the production society.

3. Most importantly was the challenge of efficiency of work method given the
advent of new machines, abundance of labour, new factories, etc. The
problem was how to organize all these elements into efficient and

5
 profitable operation.

It was against this backdrop that Frederick W. Taylor (1913) published

Principles of Scientific Management. He based his theory on three
assumptions:

1. The organizational function can be improved with the application of

scientific methods

2. A worker is one who does not initiate action but accepts the order from the
management

3. Every worker is an economic man that can be motivated by monetary

factors

Prior to the turn of the twentieth century, there was almost no systematic study
of management. The practice of management was based on experience and
common sense. Frederick W. Taylor tried to change that view. An engineer, he
pursued the idea that through careful scientific analysis the efficiency of work
could be improved. His basic theme was that managers should study work
scientifically to identify the “one best way” to perform a task.

F. W. Taylor’s scientific management consists of four principles (1911):

1. Scientific Job Analysis. Through observation, data gathering, and careful

measurement, management determines the “one best way” of performing
each job. Such job analysis replaces the old rule-of-thumb method.

2. Selection of Personnel. Once the job is analyzed, the next step is to

scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop workers. In the past,
workers chose their own work and trained themselves.

3. Management Cooperation. Managers should cooperate with workers to

ensure that all work being done is in accordance with the principles of the
science that has been developed.

4. Functional Supervising. Managers assume planning, organizing, and

decision-making activities, whereas workers perform their jobs. In the past,
almost all work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrust on
workers.

Taylor’s four principles of scientific management were designed to maximize

6
worker productivity. In his early career as a laborer in the steel industry, he
observed firsthand how workers performed well below their capacities. He
referred to this activity as soldiering. Taylor felt that scientific
management—“time study” for setting standards, separation of managerial and
employee duties, and incentive systems—would correct the problem. Rather than
relying on past practice or rules of thumb, he provided managers with explicit
guidelines for improving production management, based on proven research and
experimentation.

2.1.2. Application of Scientific Management Theory

The application of the principles of scientific management theory can be seen

through the following

1. Standardization:- the application of scientific principles in organizations

results in the systematic cataloguing and storage of expensive tools that
were usually carelessly thrown aside when job was completed. Similarly,
the application of his methods yielded significant improvements in
productivity. For example, improvements such as his shovel work at
Bethlehem Works, which reduced the workers needed to shovel from 500
to 140.

2. Time and task study: - This brought about time and motion studies – a
method of calculating production efficiency by recording outcomes and
time to produce those outcomes. Taylor believed that if each task was
designed scientifically and workers could be trained, then production can
be measured by timing the labour embedded in the production process.
This also resulted in resizing and shaping the shovel as well as the actual
quantity to be fed on the machine.

3. Systematic selection and training: - The application of this principle has

resulted in less fatigue and increase in pay rate. Taylor maintained that
there should be only one way to explain the job and one way to execute the
task.

4. Pay incentives: the economic man assumption motivated Taylor’s pay

incentive scheme. He introduced differential-piece rate plan. under this
plan,

a. Time study be carried out to determine the company’s idea of fair day’s

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 work.

b. Two piece rates were put into effect.

i. A low rate would be paid if the worker finished the day below
the company’s standard and

ii. High rate when the day’s output met or exceed the standard

2.1.3. Shortcomings

It can be deduced that the major premise of Taylor’s assumption is that an ideal
organization is one that runs like a machine. This is because all tasks were clear-
cut and simple. However, this premise fell short of criticism owing to lack of
flexibility, creativity or originality. Moreover, there is no clear-cut distinction
between managers who think and workers who labour. Hence, this perspective
did not account for worker’s motivations, relationships and turbulence in
organizations.

In addition, Taylor’s style of communication fell short of building rapport among

workers. Rather, he emphasized that managers needed to communicate in a
clear-cut and candid manner. Employees do not need to provide input, they just
need to know how to execute their jobs.

2.2. THE CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATION

The term organisation is defined in many ways and 'each definition tries to reflect
a particular perspective which scholars adopt about organisations, One of such
definitions views organisation as “a highly rationalized and impersonal
integration of a large number of specialists cooperating to achieve some
announced specific objective” Another definition sees organisation as a system
of consciously co-ordinated personal activities or forces of two or more persons.
Yet another view defines organisation as a continuing system of differentiated
and co-ordinated human activities utilizing, transferring, and welding together a
specific set of human;' material, capital, land natural resources into a unique,
problem solving whole, whose function is to satisfy particular human needs in
interaction with other systems of human activities and resources in its particular
environment.

For the purpose of this course organization is defined as a systematic

arrangement of ‘people to accomplish some specific purpose (Robbins: 1991),

8
Examples of organizations in clued university, government agencies, Petroleum
station, churches etc. These are all organizations because they all have. three
common characteristics:

 First, each has-a distinct purpose i.e. goal or set of goals:

 Second, each is: composed of. people; and

 Third, all organizations develop a systematic structure that defines and

limits the behavior of its members: such as creating rules: and regulations,
authority and responsibility, job description, procedure: for: employment,
discipline and dismissal.

Thus, an organization refers to an entity that has a distinct purpose, includes

people or employees, and has a ' systematic structure. However, while it is true
that all managers work in Organizations, not all those who work in organizations
are called managers. Members of an organization can therefore be divided into
two groups for simplicity sake: managers and managers and operatives. The
latter are peoples who work directly on a job or task and have no responsibility
for overseeing the work of others e.g. typists, cleaners etc. Mangers however,
direct activities s of other people and are operating in three levels of
management: top (e.g. president, vice president, chancellor, managing director,
chairman of board etc.), middle (e.g. departmental heads, project leader, bishop,
district manager etc.) and lower (foreman, coach, teachers etc.) levels.

2.2.1. Types of Organisation

1. Formal organization

This refers to an organisation that is established as a means for achieving

defined objectives. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in
subdivisions of the organisation. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs,
and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal organisation is expected
to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members.
According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit
or seniority. Each employee receives a salary and enjoys a degree of tenure that
safeguards him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients.
The higher his position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in
adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at
lower levels of the organisation. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the

9
basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the
organisation and endows them with the authority attached to their position.

2. Informal organisations

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader

emerges within the context of the informal organisation that underlies the formal
structure. The informal organisation expresses the personal objectives and goals
of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not
coincide with those of the formal organisation. The informal organisation
represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize
human life – the spontaneous emergence of groups and organisations as ends
in themselves.

2.2.3. Characteristics of Organization

The various definitions help to identify some common characteristic of

organisations.

1. Organizations are purposeful, complex human collectivities;

2. They are characterised by secondary (or impersonal) relationships;

3. They have specialised and limited goals;

4. They are characterised by sustained co-operative activity;

5. They are integrated within a larger social system;

6. They provide services and products to their environment;

7. They are dependent on exchanges with their environment;

In relation to public organisations, they draw their resources (taxes and

legitimacy) from the polity and are mediated by the institutions of the state.

2.3. MEANING OF BUREAUCRACY

A bureaucracy is "a body of non-elective government officials" and/or "an

administrative policy-creation group." Historically, bureaucracy referred to
government administration supervised through departments staffed with
nonelected officials. In modern parlance, bureaucracy refers to the administrative

10
system governing any large institution.

The term "bureaucracy" is French in origin, and combines the French word bureau
– desk or office – with the Greek word – rule or political power. It was coined
sometime in the mid-1700s through the French economist Jacques Claude Marie
Vincent de Gournay, and was a satirical pejorative from the outset.

The first recognized English-language use was in 1818. The 19th-century

definition referred to a system of governance in which offices were held through
unelected career officials, and in this sense "bureaucracy" was seen as a
separate form of government, often subservient to a monarchy. In the 1920s, the
definition was expanded through the German sociologist Max Weber to contain
any system of administration mannered through trained professionals according
to fixed rules. Weber saw the bureaucracy as a relatively positive development;

2.4.1. THEORIES OF BUREAUCRACY

The most systematic study so far of bureaucratic phenomena is traced back to

German sociologist Max Weber. Regarding the origin and nature of his concept
‘organisaiton’ (Verband) to Weber a person could be said to have ‘power’ (Macht)
if within a social relationship his own power is exercised for the structuring of
human groups, it becomes a special instance of power called ‘authority’
(Herrschaft). Thus, Weber distinguished between power and authority. Authority
is instrumental in the emergence of organization. The most important aspect of
the administration is that it determines who was to give commands to whom.
Thus, “every form of authority expresses itself and functions as administration.”

Weber was interested in a full-blown discussion on bureaucracy as a sociological

phenomenon. His thought needs to be placed in he more general context of his
theory of authority. Authority refers to a power relationship between the rulers
and the ruled. In any kind of established authority, there exist a number of beliefs
that legitimize the exercise of power in the eyes of the leaders and he led. The
other important element is the notion of the administrative apparatus. Authority
when exercised over a large number of people necessitates an administrative
staff which will execute demands and serve a s a bridge between the ruler and
the ruled. The beliefs about legitimation and the administrative apparatus
constitute the two important criteria for the Weberian construct or typology of
dominations, each corresponding to a particular type of domination.

(a) Charismatic Authority: Charisma literally means gift of grace, the power

11
exercised, by a leader – may be a prophet, a hero or a demagogue –
substantiating the claim by virtue of his magical powers of heroism or other
extraordinary gift or administrative apparatus is very loose and unstable. It
usually consists of the most faithful followers or disciples who play the role of
the intermediary between the leader and the followers.

(b) Traditional Authority: It derives its legitimacy from the acceptance of it since
hoary past. The persons exercising authority generally are called ‘Masters’ who
enjoy personal authority by virtue of their inherited status. Their commands carry
legitimacy because of the customs but they can also give orders based on their
personal decision. The persons who obey the orders here are called ‘Followers’.
This kind of patrimonial authority receives ready obedience because of a peculiar
faith in traditional status and personal loyalty to the dominant person. The
administrative apparatus in this kind of domination would consist of the personal
relations, servants and relatives.

(c) Legal Authority: It is based on the belief in the rightness of law. People obey
the laws because they believe that these are enacted by a proper objective
procedure. The typical administrative apparatus corresponding to this kind of
domination is bureaucracy. These rules delineate in a rational way the hierarchy,
the rights and duties of every position and the methods of promotion,
recruitment and other conditions of service.

Weber believed that all these three types of domination claim legitimacy as long
as the ‘ruled’ accept them. The authority cases to carry legitimacy when the
rulers do illegal things ignore the traditions and lose charisma respectively. Of
the three types of authority, Weber preferred the legal type of domination or
authority, Weber preferred the legal type of authority because of inherent
rationalities in it.

Weber never defined bureaucracy. He only described its characteristics. To him

bureaucracy is “an administrative body of appointed officials.” Hence, his
approach emphasizes the need for organizations to operate in a rational manner
rather than relying on the arbitrary whims of owners and managers. Following
are the characteristics of bureaucracy as enumerated by Max Weber:

1) Hierarchical arrangement of offices or positions (i.e., a pyramid like structure

with each lower office under the control of a higher one)

2) The staff members are engaged in the discharge of only the impersonal duties

12
of their offices they are personally free.

3) Division of labour, with specified spheres of competence legitimized as official

duties and powers

4) Written rules for carrying out assigned tasks, to be applied uniformly

5) Impersonality – officials are subject to an impersonal order and formally

established norms of conduct and act according to these rules in their contacts
with others, inside and outside the organization.

7) The functions of the offices are clearly specified.

8) Officials are selected on the basis professional qualifications, ideally

substantiated by a diploma gained through competitive examination.

9) They have a money salary, and usually pension rights. The salary is graded
according to position in the hierarchy. The official can always leave the post, and
under certain circumstances it may also be terminated.

10) The official’s post is his sole or major occupation.

11) There is a career structure, and promotion is possible either by seniority or

merit, and according to the judgement of superiors.

12) The official may appropriate neither the post nor the resources that go with it

13) He is subject to a unified control and disciplinary system.

The above features constituted Max Weber’s ideal, pure or most rational type of
bureaucracy. Four factors seem to have mainly influenced Weber in his wide-
ranging discussion on bureaucracy. They are:

1) The historical, technical and administrative reasons for the process of

bureaucratization particularly in western civilizations;

2) The impact of the rule of law upon the functioning of the bureaucratic
organization

3) The occupational position and typical personal orientation of bureaucratic

officials as an elite group; and

4) The most important attributes and consequences of bureaucracy in the

modern world, particularly of governmental bureaucracy.

13
In designing the legal-rational authority system, Weber formulated the following
structuring propositions:

1) Official tasks are organized on a continuous, regulated basis

2) These tasks are sub-divided into functionally distinct spheres, each furnished
with the requisite authority and sanctions.

3) Offices are arranged hierarchically

4) Official work is conducted according to the rulers which are either technical or
legal

5) The resources of the organization are quite distinct from those of the
members as private individuals.

6) The holder of an office cannot appropriate the office

7) Administration is based on written documents.

8) Legal authority system can take many forms, but are seen at their purest in a
bureaucratic administrative staff.

Bureaucracy provides a conceptualization of a form of social organisaiton with

certain characteristics. It can be examined from three different points of view:

a) Structural characteristics: This structural dimension has attracted the most

attention in the discussion on bureaucracy. The features like division of labour,
hierarchy and rules have been identified as important aspects of structure.

b) Behavioural characteristics: Rationally (the most rational means of achieving

imperative control over human beings), impersonality and neutrality (support to
the political regime it serves) are the important aspects of behaviour.

c) Instrumental characteristics: Bureaucracy has been looked at from the pint of

view of achievement of purpose. As Peter Blau suggests, it should be considered
as an “organization that maximizes efficiency in administration or an
institutionalized method of organized social conduct in the interests of
administrative efficiency.”

2.4.3. Criticism

Bureaucracy produces a number of unintended consequences or dysfunctions.

14
The criticism is:

(i) Rigidity: Critics claim that it is rigid, static and inflexible. Compliance with rules
may provide the cover to avoid responsibility for failures.

(ii) Impersonality: Bureaucracy emphasized mechanical way of doing things.

Rules and regulation are glorified in place of employee needs and emotions.

(iii) Ideal type: The ideal type is a mental construct that cannot be found in reality.
It is an abstraction that exaggerates certain features and de-emphasises certain
others with a view to conveying an image or an idea.

(iv) Displacement of objectives: As organizational procedures become more

formalized and individuals more specialized, means often become confused with
ends.

(v) Red tape: Bureaucratic procedures cause in-ordinate delays and frustration.
By encouraging conformity to rules and regulations, bureaucracies leave nothing
for original or innovative behaviour.

(vi) Bureaupathology: The bureaucratic structure has also been criticized for
encouraging what Victor Thompson called ‘bureaupathology’. He believes that
bureaucratic structures permit counter-productive personal insecurities to
flourish and that same managers try to protect their authority and position by
aloof, ritualistic behaviour. This is pathological because it can prevent the
organisation form meeting its goals.

R.K. Merton argues that demands on officials to conform to bureaucratic

regulations lead to ritualism, defensiveness, rigidity and difficulties in dealing
with the public. This stream culminates in M. Crozier’s The Bureaucratic
Phenomenon (1964) in which the author uses bureaucracy to mean “an
organization that cannot correct its behaviour by learning from its errors.”

2.4. The Human Relation Theory

The Human Relations theory has often been described as the Neo-classical
theory. It was built on the base of the classical theory. The basic assumption of
this theory is that psychological and social aspects of the worker as an individual
and his work group ought to be emphasized.

The Hawthorne experiments which were conducted between 1924 and 1932

15
proved that social or human relationships among the workers were more
important in determining productivity than were changes in working conditions.
The high morale of the 'test group' workers appeared to be responsible for the
productive increases. A worker's feelings about himself and his work group were
of the utmost importance. About the complaints of the worker's 'Ventilation
therapy' was seen as important.

The Human Relations theory focuses on what is called informal organisation and
the productivity of the workers increased where the sentiments of the informal
group were in harmony with the objectives of the formal organisation. Other
significant finding is the importance of communication system, particularly to
facilitate workers to motivate fellow worker.

2.5.1. Assumptions of the Human Relation Theory

1. Organization members are motivated by social and psychological needs and

by economic incentives.

2. These needs, including but not limited to recognition, belongingness, and

security, are more important in determining worker morale and productivity than
are the physical conditions of the work environment.

3. An individual’s perceptions, beliefs, motivations, cognition, responses to

frustration, values, and similar factors may affect behavior in the work setting.

4. People in all types of organizations tend to develop informal social

organizations that work along with the formal organization and can help or hinder
leadership.

5. Informal social groups within the workplace create and enforce their own
norms and codes of behavior. Team effort, conflict between groups, social
conformity, group loyalty, communication patterns, and emergent leadership are
important concepts for determining individual and group behavior.

6. Organization members have higher morale and work harder under supportive
leadership. Increased morale results in increased productivity.

7. Communication, power, influence, authority, motivation, and manipulation are

all important relationships within an organization, especially between superior
and subordinate. Effective communication channels should be developed
between the various levels in the hierarchy, emphasizing democratic rather than

16
authoritarian leadership.

The human relationists used field study methods extensively, as well as

laboratory experiments, to study the work environment. These social scientists
made important contributions to our understanding of employee behavior in the
workplace.

2.5.2. Criticism

(i) Peter F. Drucker criticized human relationists for their lack of awareness of
economic dimension.

(ii) Benedict and Fisher have argued that Mayo's failure as a social scientist
arises in large measure from his failure to define sharply the ethical
presuppositions of his scientific work

(iii) This theory has been criticized mainly on the ground of its (a) Philosophy (b)
Scientific validity (c) Short sightedness (d) Over-concern. With happiness (e) Anti-
Individualist (The discipline of the boss is simply replaced by the discipline of the
group forcing the individual to sacrifice his personal identify and dignity.)

2.5.3. Contribution:

1) It introduced the idea of the organisation as an open system.

2) It emphasized the importance of employee attitudes.

3) It revolutionized the management training.

4) Mayo critically examined the employee employer relations, stability of the

labour, supervision, etc., of the industrial workers.

Taken as a whole, the significance of Hawthorne Investigation was in discovering

the informal organisation which it is now realized exists in all organizations

2.5. THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

In Public administration', behaviouralism as a distinct line of study started in the

1930's along with the Human Relations Movement. The mechanistic orientation
of the traditionalists has been counterbalanced by the humanistic view of the
behavioural scientists. Berelson and Steiner have defined the behavioural

17
sciences thus:

"By the behavioural sciences we mean the disciplines of anthropology,

psychology and sociology - minus and plus: Minus such specialised sectors as
physiological psychology, archaeology, technical linguistics, and most of physical
anthropology; Plus social geography, some psychiatry, and the behavioural parts
of economics, political science, and law. In short, we are concerned here with the
scientific research that deals directly with human behaviour."

The behavioural scientists have been contributing to organizational dynamics

since the days of the Hawthorne studies. Carl Rogers, J.L. Moreno, Kurt Lewin,
and A.H. Maslow are some of the great names in this school. Rogers is well-
known for his clinical approach to counseling therapy, and Moreno for his studies
of interpersonal relations. Lewin pioneered the action research approach to
organizational development. Maslow's theory of motivation has exerted strong
influence on studies of organizational behaviour:

Salient Features: This approach has the following salient features:

1) Its literature is descriptive rather than prescriptive, with the studies on

motivation being an exception.

2) Increased attention is paid to the individual based on more realistic approach

concerning motivation, decision-making process and the nature of authority.

3) Stress is laid on informal relationship and communication patterns among

members of an organisation.

4) It is mainly concerned with quantification, and formal theory constructions.

5) Its emphasis is on empirical study based on methods such as field study,

laboratory experiments or use of other statistical methods.

6) It is inter-disciplinary in character and makes considerable use of propositions

drawn from other social sciences.

Contribution of Herbert Simon:

a) Simon has been basically concerned with the behaviour of organisation as

goal-oriented and adaptive entities.

b) He focuses on the cognitive aspects of organizational operation and

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emphasizes on problem solving and rational choice.

c) He introduced the concept of 'satisfying' behaviour in organisational situations.

Contribution of E. Wight Bakke: He identified the individual goals as security,

progress and justice in respect of internal harmony understanding, autonomy,
integration and respect. He was interested in the realities' of organisational life.
According to Bakke, the individual seeks to use the organisation as a means to
further his own goals, whereas the organisation tries to use the individual to
attain its own goals. The 'personalising process' by which the individual makes
use of the organisation, and the 'socialising process' by which organisation puts
the individual to its own use get mixed up in real life. This is what Bakke called
the 'fusion process'.

Contribution of Chris Argyris : He speaks of a basic incompatibility between the

needs of a mature personality and the requirements of a formal organisation
designed on the classical principles of rigid task.

2.6. General System Theory

General Systems theory is an attempt to join up the different approaches in

science (traditional, behavioural and management science) and thus, to provide a
broad macroscopic view of different types of systems.

A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner

that produces a unified whole.

Weber defines a system as "A set or arrangement of things so related or

connected as to form a unity or organic whole." A system is thus a unified whole
having a number of interdependent parts or sub- systems and it has identifiable
boundaries that distinguish it from its surrounding environment in which 'it is
embedded, and with which it interacts.

As a theory of administration and management, it is concerned with

interdependence of one unit with the others. It recognizes that an organization is
made up of interdependent factors including individuals, groups, attitudes,
motives, formal structures , interactions, goals, status and authority.

Hence, it concentrate on interrelated activities of different units, department and

ministry, (i.e. their relationship to each other). For instance, in a polytechnic, there
are different units like registry department, bursary department, schools and their

19
various departments, etc. which requires the interaction and interdependence of
one another.

The theory argued that without immediate interaction and interdependence of

different units that exist in an organization, production will be less.

Elements of organization system

An administrative organization system is composed of three distinct elements

namely, a) inputs, (b) throughput and (c) output

 The inputs largely take the form of both human and material resources. It
can also be inform of support for the organization and its policies and
programmes.

 The outputs takes the form of transformation of these inputs into

products and services using internal, social and technological processes.

 The process through which these inputs are transformed or converted into
outputs that is released as product and services is known as throughput or
conversion process

Assumptions

System theory of administration and management recognizes that:

a. No matter how efficient the production department might be, if the

marketing department doesn’t anticipate changes in customers’ tastes and
work with the product development department in creating products
customers want, the organization’s overall performance will suffer.

b. Decisions and actions taken in one unit of the organization will affect the
others and vice-versa. E.g. if the purchasing department doesn’t acquire
the right quantity and quality of inputs, the production department will not
work effectively.

c. Organizations are not self-contained. They rely on their environment for

essential inputs and as outlets to absorb their output. No organization can
survive for long if it ignores government regulations, supplier relations or
its external constituencies upon which it depends.

Relevance of Organizational System Theory

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The Systems approach is particularly relevant to the study of complex public
organisations that have elaborate structures and that are embedded in larger
social, political and economic environments. An organisation survives and grows
by drawing inputs from the' environment which are processed internally to
produce its output. C. West Churchman provides five basic considerations in
relation to the systems approach to management. These are:

1. The total objectives of the system and the measures of system performance.

2. The system's environment acting as constraints.

3. The system's resources that are put to use in performance.

4. The system's components and their goals and activities.

5. The management of the system (the regulation and decision-making aspect).

The systems view of organisation was prominent in the writings of M.P. Follet,
Chester Barnard. Herbert Simon's decision-making scheme follows the Systems
approach which was further elaborated by him and his associates later. Philip
Selznick has used the systems framework in his studies of governmental and
other complex organisations. The most representative writings in this field are:
Organisations by March and Simon, and Modern Organisation Theory by Haire.

3.0. DECISION MAKING THEORIES

This body of theories is concerned with how decision makers go about choosing
the alterative(s) for achieving defined goals. There are two polar theories of
decision making. This polarity is reflected in “the debate between writers who
analyze decision making by reference to rational models and writers who portray
decision making as an incremental process”. Somehow, the point of contrast
between the two theoretical poles is established by reference to rational theories
as the ideal which could only have been intended to be prescriptive, while
incremental theories are paraded as descriptive of how decisions makers act in
the real world. As polar views of the same phenomenon, rational and incremental
theories harbour other theoretical approaches to decision making which attempt
to overcome the unrealism of the ideal type rational model as well as the
‘incompleteness’ of incremental approaches. We shall examine the two polar
theories in some detail below. In addition, we shall highlight the contributions of
the middle way theories especially in overcoming the deficiencies of rational and
incremental theories of decision making.

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Nevertheless, a number of general theories of decision-making have been
advanced. The most important of these are the following: rational actor models;
incremental models; bureaucratic organization models and belief system models.

a. Rational Approach

Decision-making models that emphasize human rationality have generally been

constructed on the basis of economic theories that have themselves been
derived from utilitarianism. Such ideas provide the basis for public-choice
theories, developed by thinkers such as Downs (1957), and enthusiastically taken
up by the New Right. At the heart of such theories lies the notion of so-called
‘economic man’, a model of human nature that stresses the self-interested
pursuit of material satisfaction, calculated in terms of utility. In this light,
decisions can be seen to be reached using the following procedures:

1. The nature of the problem is identified.

2. An objective or goal is selected on the basis of an ordering of individual

preferences.

3. The available means of achieving this objective are evaluated in terms of their
effectiveness, reliability, costs and so on, and

4. A decision is made through the selection of the means most likely to secure
the desired end.

This type of process assumes that clear-cut objectives exist, and that human
beings are able to pursue them in a rational and consistent manner. For this to
utility must be homogeneous: it must be possible to compare the amount of

In summary rationality means accepting only that which you have reasons to
believe. It means using logic to wipe out any contradiction. It means when you
have accepted the judgment of another you use your mind to determine whether
you should. Is the person educated in that field? Is it knowledge that some is
capable of having? From what you know about the rest of his ideas, is he
someone you believe will be correct? Rationality is foremost a method of survival,
it is a virtue only to the extent that it encourages on survival.

b. Incremental theory

Incremental theory is sometimes refers to as the jointed Incrementalism

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(Lindblum,1963). This is so because the strategy usually adopted in making
decision is fragmented and centers that may not have access to accurate
information. The main argument of the incremental theory is that decision
making does not involve a comprehensive and rational choice among
alternatives but decision makers make small, marginal or incremental changes in
respond to immediate pressure. Khan and khan (1978).

Incremental is characterized by complexity and uncertainty with arises as a result

of changes and development which are inevitable. It is therefore not easy to plan
accurately for a rationally long time in advance. The incremental theory states
that, managers make a series of small responses that reduced the problem
gradually until it is eliminated or reduced to a tolerable level. The problem is dealt
with using a sequence or short run decision that reduces the problem until it is
eliminated or reduced to a tolerable level. Incremental theory gives managers the
advantage of making of adjustments.

An example of incremental decision making can be observed in a budget making

process, Aaron (1964) observed that programmed or projects in the budget get
small percentage increase or decrease depending on the estimated revenue of
the government. Secondly, in a situation where government fight anti-government
rebels, it has to do so by making a series of tactical decision and battles based
on different situation that unfolds gradually until the rebels are weakened
militarily, then it may finally negotiate with them and they lay down their arms and
then may proceed to give amnesty i.e. the Niger-delta militants, the book harams
and now presently the pro-Biafra’s.

c. Mix-Scanning theory

Mix-scanning, is a theory representing a compromised position between extreme

rationalism and Incrementalism. This theory seeks to explain or argue that
decision makers never limit themselves to only one approach to a problem. This
approach is essentially plural in form, though not as benefit or unity and
coherence as that of the Incrementalism. Mix-scanning involves two possible
more “scans” (but not too many) of the data evidence or situation. Problems
could also look at generally were attempts are made to isolate the outlined and
identifiable features for detailed examination, usually of a second level of
scanning. The basic feature of the mix-scanning strategy is the isolation for
detailed examination of the identifiable features of any problem. This scanning
efforts could take place at several of the decision making process.

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According to Spiers (1970) Mix-scanning has the merit of combining the
rationalist and the Incrementalism assumption, and in an extreme form could
maximize either one or another in accordance with what the situation demands.
And it is much more flexible to what actually take place in an actual decision
situation.

d. group Approach

Group theory developed within the context of the pluralist paradigm of politics.
Pluralism argues essentially that power in western industrialised societies is
widely distributed among different groups. According to this paradigm, no group
is without power to influence decision-making and equally no group is dominant.
It is a major premise of pluralism that any group can ensure that its political
preferences and wishes are adopted and reflected in governmental action with
sufficient determination and the deployment of appropriate resources.

Assumption of Group theory

What are the assumptions of group theory and how relevant are these
assumptions for the understanding of policy making? Group theory begins with
the proposition that interaction and struggle among groups is the central fact of
political life. According to this theory, individuals are important in politics only
when they act as part of, or on behalf of, group interests. A group is a collection
of individuals that may, on the basis of shared attitudes or interests, make claims
upon other groups in society. Groups assume political character when they make
claims through or upon institutions of government.

According to group theory, politics is the struggle among groups to reflect their
interests in public policy. Conflict often results from this interplay of group forces.
Consequently, “The task of the political system” according to Dye, is to manage
group conflict by;

1. Establishing the rules of the game in the group struggle,

2. Arranging compromises and balancing interests,

3. Enacting compromises in the form of public policy, and

4. Enforcing these compromises.

Public policy will reflect the equilibrium reached in the group struggle, that is, the

24
“balance which the contending factions or groups constantly strive to tip in their
favour.” Public policy will, however, reflect the interests of dominant groups
defined as those groups gaining in influence, those, in other words who have the
requisite resources such as size, money, information expertise etc.

Group theory and Policy process

How useful is group theory in unraveling the intricate process of policy making?
By insisting that public policy is a product of group struggle, group theory
introduces a dynamic element into the understanding of how policies are made.
In its pluralist context, group theory views public policy as the negotiated
settlement reached “between government agencies and pressure groups
organised into policy” communities. There are nonetheless, basic and
substantive defects in the analysis of the policy process offered by group theory.

Criticisms

1. The uni-causal explanation of politics and public policy from the

perspective of group struggle alone is an exaggerated claim which
overlooks the independent role of individual actors in the policy process.

2. it is an empirical question whether, indeed power is as widely distributed in

society as group theory claims and more important, whether the voice of
the least powerful ‘is ever audible as to make it significant in the decision
making process.

3. The market place paradigm on which group theory is anchored raises the
significant question about parity in the process of competition since we
are told that the sources of power available to groups may not be equal.
The advantage, which some groups enjoy on account of superior resource
endowment, might be a factor in the dominance of their interests in public
policy. This is more so as they are able to deploy their advantaged position
to secure their interests through for example, the manipulation of the rules
of competition.

Finally, the assumed neutrality of government in the clash of partisan groups in

the value allocation process is questionable if not doubtful, a point to which we
shall return shortly.

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 e. Institutional Model

The institutional models and approaches to management emerged owing largely

to the inadequacies and shortcomings of the technical and administrative
theories. Two of these theories will be discussed here: The System model; and
the contingency or situational model.

The System Approach:-Under this approach it is recognized that a whole is more

meaningful than the sum of its parts. Thus, one concentrates first on the whole
and then on how its parts relate to one another and to the goals of the system.
Each part is crucial, vital but dependent on others. Whenever a part is in trouble
the entire whole is in trouble and whenever a part is defective the entire whole is
defective. Owing largely o the analysis of Ludwig Von Baterlonffy in the early
1916, the system theory compares an organisation to a living organisation as a
system composed of sub-systems, the health of which affects the health of the
organisation, The early work on this approach was conducted by British
researchers from the Tavistock institute of human relations, who despite their
title, recognized that human on social factors lone were not the most important
consideration in achieving organisational effectiveness. They recognized that
organisations were part of a larger environment with which they imeymieruci and
in particular were affected by technical and economic factors just as much as
social ones.

The Contingency Approach: - This developed out of the findings of the systems
approach. According to this theory there is no one best way or technique. of
solving managerial problems but rather a-combination of various techniques
depending on the problem situation. The philosophy of this theory is simple i.e.
no two situations or persons are the same thus the better management approach
will therefore be the one that not only appreciate the dynamics but also
Incorporate them in its process.

Basically, contingency theory asserts that when managers make a decision, they
must take into account all aspects of the current situation and act on those
aspects that are key to the situation at hand. Basically, it's the approach that it
depends. For example, the continuing effort to identify the best leadership or
management style might now conclude that the best style depends on the
situation. If one is leading troops in the Persian Gulf, an autocratic style is

26
probably best (of course, many might argue here, too). If one is leading a hospital
or university, a more participative and facilitative leadership style is probably best.

f. ELITE THEORY

In political science and sociology, elite theory is a theory of the state that seeks
to describe and explain power relationships in contemporary society. The theory
posits that a small minority, consisting of members of the economic elite and
policy-planning networks, holds the most power—and this power is independent
of democratic elections. Through positions in corporations or on corporate
boards, and influence over policy-planning networks through financial support of
foundations or positions with think tanks or policy-discussion groups, members
of the "elite" exert significant power over corporate and government decisions.
An example of this belief is in the Forbes magazine article (published in
December 2009) entitled The World's Most Powerful People, in which Forbes
purported to list the 67 most powerful people in the world (assigning one "slot"
for each 100,000,000 of human population). The basic characteristics of this
theory are that power is concentrated, the elites are unified, the non-elites are
diverse and powerless, elites' interests are unified due to common backgrounds
and positions and the defining characteristic of power is institutional position.

Even when entire groups are ostensibly completely excluded from the state's
traditional networks of power historically, on the basis of arbitrary criteria such
as nobility, race, gender, or religion, elite theory recognizes that "counter-elites"
frequently develop within such excluded groups. Negotiations between such
disenfranchised groups and the state can be analyzed as negotiations between
elites and counter-elites. A major problem, in turn, is the ability of elites to opt
counter-elites.

Elite theory developed as an alternative paradigm to pluralism. Elite theory

rejects the pluralist view concerning the distribution of power in society. In the
alternative, elite theory points to the concentration of political power in the hands
of a minority group which, according to Mosca, forms all political functions,
monopolizes power and enjoys the advantages that power brings. From the
perspective of elite theory, public policy may be viewed as the values and
preferences of governing elite. Elite theory opposes pluralism, a tradition that
assumes that all individuals, or at least the multitude of social groups, have equal
power and balance each other out in contributing to democratic political
outcomes representing the emergent, aggregate will of society. Elite theory

27
argues either that democracy is a utopian folly, as it is traditionally viewed in the
conservative Italian tradition, or that democracy is not realizable within
capitalism, as is the view of the more Marxist-compatible contemporary elite
theory permutation.

Assumptions of Elite Theory

The assumptions of elite theory are captured by Thomas Dye and Harmon
Zeigler as follows:

1. Society is divided into the few who have power and the many who do not. Only
a small number of persons allocate values for society; the masses do not decide
public policy.

2. The few who govern are not typical of the masses who are governed. Elites are
drawn disproportionately from the upper socioeconomic strata of society.

3. The movement of non-elites to elite positions must be slow and continuous to

maintain stability and avoid revolution. Only non-elites who have accepted the
basic elite consensus can be admitted to governing circles.

4. Elites share a consensus on the basic values of the social system and the
preservation of the system.

5. Public policy does not reflect demands of the masses but rather the prevailing
values of the elite. Changes in public policy will be incremental rather than
revolutionary.

6. Active elites are subject to relatively little direct influence from apathetic
masses. Elite influence masses more than masses influence elites.

In its classical formulation, elite power could be acquired through military

conquest, revolutionary overthrow, command of economic resources etc. In the
modern state, however, elite status is associated with the development of large
scale organisations and the resultant creation of different kinds of elites such as
political, military and economic elites whose sources of power include access to
formal political office, wealth, technical expertise, knowledge etc. What is
significant for our purpose here is that it is these elites who make policy; that
when they do they tend to reflect their values and preferences and that it is only a
matter of coincidence if the policy decisions of the elite reflect the interests of
the masses, as they sometimes do.

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Put this way, elite theory assumes a conspiratorial character and is to that extent
a provocative theory of public policy. It is conspiratorial because of the
underlying premise about elite consensus on fundamental norms of the social
system which limits the choice of policy alternatives to only those which fall
within the shared consensus. The theory is provocative because of the implied
characterisation of the masses as passive, apathetic and ill-informed and the
consequential relegation of their role in policy making.

There are two other issues that should be raised concerning the relevance of
elite theory for policy analysis. Even if we concede the leadership role of elites in
policy formulation, strategic placement in elite position as a source of power is
hardly a scientific conclusion. In addition, we know little or nothing about the
specific form which the participation of the masses in the policy process takes.

g. Game theory

Game theory is one of the decision making theories that a manager should be
conversant with. In a simple term Game theory is called so because just like a
game it involves two or more contestants in a competition situation such as two
competing business firms providing the same product at a given time in a given
situation. It is the study of people or groups who find it imperative to make
interdependent decision or choices; each person or groups making a choice
based, in part, or what he expects the other person or group to do. Each decision
maker adopts what he expects the other one to do. For example in the business
field where there are only two business people each player or business person is
confronted with a situation whose outcomes depends not only upon his
strategies but also upon the strategies of his business opponents i.e. the Coca-
Cola company and the Pepsi cola company (coke vs. Pepsi, sprite vs. 7up, Fanta
vs. Mirinda, Schwebs vs. mountain dew) secondly the Dangote cement vs.
Ashaka cement, the Dangote sugar v BUA sugar, thirdly the telecommunications
service providers like the MTN, Etislat, Glo, Airtel. Fourthly the Milk Company like
the Peak, Cow bell, Three crowns, etc, and also the Maggi cube, Royco cube, star
cube etc.

The risk however is that any of the two businesses engaged in this type of
competing business each one faces the possibility of making losses with a
situation where the total cost will be greater than his total revenue. This means
that they go into such business uncertain of success. In other to reduce
uncertainly and potential loss, both of the opponents will cooperate with each

29
other and share the profit so that none of them make loses, under such
arrangements each business person will go into this type of business aware that
he will not loss and that he will actually get some profit which is win-win situation.
Off course this assumes other factors being constants.

Game theory can therefore be defined as a technique, strategy or plan that

enable competing business enterprises to make decision with a view of doing
joint business cooperatively aimed at guaranteeing they do not register loss.

h. Satisfying theory

It is important to note that the spelling of the term satisfying as per this model is,
according to management theory, is deliberate and correct. It should therefore
not be confused with English word satisfying. The satisfying theory which falls
under the non-rational category states that the ability of managers to be perfectly
rational in making decision is limited. They therefore apply bounded rationality;
Which Gary John defines as a decision strategy that relies on limited information
and reflects time constraints and sometimes with uncertain environmental
factors. The satisfying theory states that since managers do not know all the
available alternatives and since they also do not have all the information about
them, the decision they make are based on the limited knowledge and limited
information, an alternative that appears relatively satisfactory. It is for this
reasons that they are set to seek alternatives that look satisfactory, rather than
seeking the optimal one, the existence of which they may not be aware.

Satisfying can occur for various reasons, time pressure, desired to sit through the
problem quickly and switch onto other matters; a disliked for detailed analysis
that demands more refined techniques. The managers by necessity is a
compromiser when different factors of the organisation seek diverse solutions,
the manager must find a course of action that all groups will accept. Thus people
retract from position or perceived maximal gain to those that are satisfactory
given the odds as they interpret them. Managers are put in the position of
members of parliament who must please the constituency if they are to continue
to be elected. The rector or the provost or the vice chancellor is under the
conflicting pressure of the alumni-student, faculty, local community and the
school environment. Coupled with being a competent decision maker, a manager
must be a skilled bargainer- decision making in an organisation is both a social
and a rational process.

30
Decision making is an inevitable activity of the operation of any organisation. In
Government, Bureaucracy the administrator’s activity consist of series of
decision this is so because in the performance of his duties the administrator is
confronted with the problem of how best to decide what to do. Spiers (1975)

To recap, Systems, Group and Elite theories are orthodox theories which have
dominated thinking concerning the way authorities make policy decisions.
Central to the analysis which these theories offer is the role assigned to
government in policy making. All three theories gave a pivotal role to government
in the value allocation process. In systems theory, for example, government is
located inthe black box where inputs are-converted into outputs. Group theory, on
the other hand, assigns to government the role of an umpire in the struggle
among societal groups to reflect their interests in public policy. Elite theory
favours government with the crucial role of carrying into effect, through its
officials and agencies, the values and preferences which the dominant few want
reflected in public policy. The underlying assumption about government in these
theories is that government is an impartial mediator of conflict in society and,
impliedly, a preserver of the social order.

It is a moot question whether government is a neutral actor in’ policy making it

suffices to say, however, that government is not necessarily a disinterested party
in the conflict of interests of partisan groups in society. Indeed, government
sometimes pursues its own preferences which may conflict with the interests of
other groups in the society. The radical objection to orthodox theories of the
policy process lies essentially in the uncritical acceptance of the role of
government as a neutral arbiter of political values.

4.0. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Organization are made up of people, the success or failure of any organization

depends mainly on the workers, it is therefore the duty of the manager to get the
workers do what they are expected to do in order to help the organization achieve
its aims, the cists way of doing this is to make it possible for the workers to
satisfy their own needs at least to a reasonable extent while they are working
toward achieving the organizational objectives. This brings us to the concept of
motivation.

Motivation is the set of forces that initiate behavior and determine its form,
direction, intensity and duration Ranon (1997), motivation basically means an

31
individual’s needs, desires and concepts that cause him or her to act in a
particular manner.

So also motivation is the act of directing an individual’s behavior towards a

particular behavior through the manipulation of incentives, individuals are
influenced by certain needs or desires. Once such are identified, its provision of
other Wise can affect their behavior in a predictable way.

MOTIVATIONTHEORIES

4.1. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

This theory which was propounded by Abraham Maslow is popularly referred to

as the hierarchy of needs theory is based on the belief that people are motivated
by five needs that are hierarchical in nature.

The satisfaction of one need leads to the satisfaction of higher order needs it is
also needs, that have not been satisfied that can influence the behavior of people.
At lowest level is the physiological, needs which include things like food, sex,
shelter, water, air etc. in the organization these needs are satisfied by good
salaries and good working conditions.

The next stage is the security needs this include freedom from physical fear and
pain. The organization can take care of these needs through job security,
insurance schemes, good retirement benefits and a safe working environment.

The third stage is Social and belongingness needs. This relate to peoples desires
for social belongingness, friendship, love and affection. This need can be
provided for in the work place by encouraging social interaction among the
workers and giving the workers a sense of belonging in the workplace through
the human relations approach to management.

The Esteem Needs come next, this is the need to be respected by other workers
and also have self-esteem, the organization can better take care of this need by
adopting an equitable a and appropriate reward system, good job titles and giving
employees challenging job responsibilities.

The final stage is the need for self-Actualization. At this level, the worker needs
to feel fulfilled and this comes from the feeling that one has realigned his full
potentials, the organization can help the worker in realizing this need by involving
him in decision making and creating a clear career.

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 4.1.1. Criticism

While Maslows theory has been accepted by many administrators and managers
as being helpful, some others have. criticized it for certain short comings, first
the arrangement of the needs in a hierarchy has been criticized for its rigidity. It
is argued that some of the needs may occur simultaneously while individual
preferences dictates which of the needs that are considered important, for
instance while some people are motivated by money (physiological needs)
others are not motivated by it. The theory also fails to consider the influence of
culture, religion, education and background was not taken into account.

Despite these ‘short-coming Maslows needs theory, is relevant to managers who

are desirous of motivating their workers ‘to higher productivity.

4.2. McGREGOR’S THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (THEORIES X’AND Y’)

McGregor‘s 'X' and ‗ Y ‘theories are based on diametrically opposed assumptions

of human nature. The latter theory holds that man is positive with potentiality to
development. This has implications for management.

McGregor observes that if employees are lazy, indifferent, unwilling to take

responsibility, stubborn, noncreative and no cooperative, the cause lies with
management's methods of control. Theories ‗’X’ and ‗’Y‘ should not be taken as
neat categories of human relationships. They are only analytical tools through
which behaviour can be analyzed, predicted, and corrected. After McGregor,
several scholars have gone beyond 'Theory Y' in analyzing the human nature and
its implications to organisation. This, though does not reduce the importance of
McGregor‘s contributions.

4.2.1. THEORY X [Traditional view]

This theory is based on. the following assumptions

1) That man is indolent, inherently lazy and dislikes

2) Because of the above, he must be coerced, controlled, directed, and

threatened with punishment for him to perform.

3) That he has to be motivated by economic incentives to improve his

performance and output.

4) That man has little ambition but only needs security above ail.

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This theory is similar to the theory of scientific management with its emphasis
on controls and extrinsic rewards.

4.2.2. THEORY Y (The modern view)

This Is based on the following assumptions about man it commended by

McGregor as being more suitable to modern mange mart.

1. That an average man enjoys work like play or rest

2. That an average man will exercise. Self-direction and self-control toward

objective to which he is committed.

3. That commitment to objectives is a function of work and expects reward.

And

4. That human capacity for imagination, ingenuity, and creativity is widely

distribute among individual.

Based on these two theories or views about man, practicing managers today
have the opportunity to select the one that seems must appropriate to their
situations, depending upon which assumptions apply or bleeding the two
theories which may provide the best prescription for effective management.

4.3. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Two factor theory is also regarded as motivation-hygiene theory and dual-factor

theory proposed by Frederick Herzberg in 1959 (Robbins and Coulter, 2012). The
main notion of the theory is that there is an association between intrinsic factors
and job satisfaction while linkage is between extrinsic factors and job
dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1966; Robbins and Coulter, 2012). Traditionally, it was
viewed that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the two ends of one node, but
Herzberg altered this by proposing that “satisfaction” and “dissatisfaction” are
the two different ends of two distinctive nodes (Ibid). This means that it is not
necessarily right that a person who is not satisfied is always dissatisfied and vice
versa. To support this argument, he proposed 'hygiene factors' as one set that
takes employees from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction while 'motivators" are
another aspect that takes employees from no satisfaction to satisfaction
(Robbins and Coulter, 2012). In other words, Herzberg argued that an elimination

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of dissatisfying attributes related to job would not always make job further
satisfying and vice versa. Thus, to motivate employees, there should be
motivators (such as, achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement and growth) because hygiene factors (supervision, company policy,
relationship with supervisor, salary, working conditions, relationship with peers
and subordinates, status and security) would only help in removing
dissatisfaction while motivators would alter the behavioural aspect of employees
to be more committed and satisfied, that would eventually improve the
organizational productivity.

One of the most relevant examples of two factor theory is evident in the fact of
Siemens where hygiene factors as well as motivators are used to retain
employees (Tuttle, 2003). The motivators are specifically used to ensure
employees remain committed and engaged to their assigned tasks while given
substantial space to demonstrate their own creativity (Ibid). The involvement of
emplyoees in the task improves their capabilities and enhance the level of
satisfaction that further improves the organisational efficiency (Tuttle, 2003).
The flexible work environment and improved working conditions brought positive
results for Siemens through introduction of hygiene and motivating factors in the
job description and specification (Ibid). Thus, it could be said that this theory is
still relevant in the 21st century of management of employees at workplace.
However, this theory also has its lacking and one of the major criticisms this
theory has received is that is rather simplistic in its procedures and methodology
(Robbins and Coulter, 2012). Yet, this is the most important theory that is
incorporated practically in the organizations at present by using it in designing
job. It helps in job enrichment to ensure the workers have the set of both hygiene
and motivators when working in the organizational setting.

5.0. LEADERSHIP THEORIES

5.1. Defining Leadership

The term leadership has many meanings depending on the person defining it.
Some see it as referring to outstanding personalities while to other it has no
overtones of greatness; people are leaders because the organization defines
their job in that way. According to Appleby (1961) leadership simply refers to "the
ability of management to induce subordinate to work toward organizational goals

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with confidence and zeal". Drucker (1962) argues that when we talk of leadership,
we are talking of making common men into uncommon men. To him leadership
"is the lifting of a man's vision to higher sights, the raising of man's performance
to a higher standard, the building of a man's personality beyond its normal
limitations". Generally, therefore leadership occurs whenever one person
influences another to work toward some predetermined goal, willingly and
enthusiastically. It is also important to note that leadership plays a major role in
the motivation of employees and in the direction of the firm.

5.1.2. Leadership Skills and Styles

Research by Robert Kats classified three leadership skills which are essential to
effective leadership. These skills include technical, human/social and conceptual
skills.

a) Technical skill - This refers to the abilities required from a leader that relates
to the knowledge of the job i.e. ability to use tools, procedures and techniques in
a specialized area. This skill is more important at a lower level to enable
supervisors and operating staff to correct deviations from the production
process.

b) Human/Social skill - This is the leader's ability to work with and understand
and motivate people as individuals or group. This skill is required at all levels of
management in an organization.

c) Conceptual skill - Although this skill is required at all levels of management,

but it is more required at the top management. It refers to mental ability to co-
ordinate and integrates all of an organization's activities especially long-term
plans and decisions affecting the organization.

5.1.3. Personal qualities of a leader:

1) Honesty and Integrity - He must be honest in dealing with his subordinates and
customers.

2) Persuasiveness - This is the ability to persuade which involves a sense of

understanding of the point of view, the interest, and the conditions of those to be
persuaded. It is a process in which a source affects change in targets attitudes
by changing their beliefs relevant to that attitude (Organ and Hamner, 1982:149).

3) Fairness - A leader should be fair in dealing with people. E.g. first come, first

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serve, no nepotism etc.

4) Inquisitiveness - A leader should be inquisitive and new things and ideas

should always interest him.

5) Spirit of competition - He must always welcome competition and should make

effective use of his personal and business resources to succeed and survive in a
volatile and competitive environment.

5.2. Leadership Style

Leadership style is the pattern of behaviour that the person exhibits over time in
leadership situations. That is, situations in which he/she most influence other
people. There are different leadership styles as discussed below. This is divided
into three?

i. Autocratic (authoritarian): This style requires complete obedience on the

part of the subordinates and the leader restricts the subordinate’s ability to
contribute their ideas to decision-making. He leads by using reward and
punishment system to influence his subordinates.

ii. Democratic (permissive): This type of leader engages the employees in

deciding how the work is to be done and how the problems are to be
surmounted/tackled. This is the participative kind of leader. The
employees here can contribute their own ideas in the process of decision-
making.

iii. Laissez Fair/free rain leader (do-nothing): A laissez faire leader takes
little interest in how his employees do their work but leaves them to carry
on with their jobs however they see fit. This type of leader exercises little
control over their actions and may appear uninterested in their activities.

5.3. Theories of Leadership

There are three major approaches to the study of leadership namely:

a. Trait Theory

This theory has its origin from the 'great man' theory of leadership, which
contended that leaders are born not made. The theory holds that leaders are born
with certain personality traits. Those who follow this theory believe that by
studying the personalities and backgrounds of great leaders, they can be able to

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develop a combination of traits that made these people outstanding leaders. So,
they attempt to identify the traits of character and personality that make a leader.
These traits they assure distinction between leaders and non-leaders.

The following traits characterize a leader:

a. Intelligent - Various set of studies have discovered that leaders tend to be

more intelligent than their subordinates although they may not be more
intelligent when compare with members of another group.

b. Self-confidence - This is the ability of the leader to appear self-confident.

c. Initiation - A person who does not initiate vision or ideas cannot be called a
leader.

In other studies, it was discovered that leaders tend to be brighter, better

adjusted psychologically, display better judgment etc. than non-leaders.

b. Behavioural Theory

This theory focuses on what leaders do on the job rather than on what traits or
characteristics they possess. The central argument among behavioural theorists
is that since behaviour can be changed, leaders can be 'made' or trained rather
than "born'.

c. Situational Theory

There is no one best way to leadership. Situational theory is gaining ground and
is more accepted today than the theories discussed above. According to Dale
(1978), this theory is saying that, "leadership is specific to the particular situation
under investigation". Thus, the choice of a leader will depend on the problem
facing the group and the character of the group itself.

6.0. COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION.

Communication simply has to do with the process of exchanging information. It

is the process of transmitting idea’s, felling, images, perceptions, emotions,
opinion and attitude from one person to another. Communication is an
indispensable management tool. The process is a rational one in which one party
is the sender-and another the receiver at a point in time.

Communication must involve two or more person.the only way we can say

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communication has occurred is when information and understanding have
passed between the sender and intended receiver if the idea received is the same
as intended, the communication has taken place.

It has been discovered over the year that communication breakdown in

organization could hinder organizational efficiency and the attainment of it goals.
It has been argued that when managers in an organization are friendly, and have
a good working report, communication engage in mutual distrust, resentment,
gossiping, or when communication be.

Types of Communication

There are three major channel system of communication in an organization

these are:

i. Down ward communication

ii. Upward communication

iii. Lateral communication

1. down ward communication: This refers to the directions, orders, policies or

delegated instructions which originate from the leader of an organization and
filters down the hierarchy to the lowest employee, the top ranking officials
originate directions which travels down the hierarchy, major channels use in this
type of communication include annual report posts, and bulletin boards, the
chain of command information racks etc.

2.. Upward communication these are message that emanated from the lower
hierarchy to the top management, it takes request, complains suggestions
feedback and probable solution to noted organization problems this type of
communications are detailed and specific

Upward communication is advantage to organization in the sense that it promote

good human relations, it is through this form of communication that
management can monitors the feeling of employees and take appropriate steps
to correct what would otherwise lead to costly labour management dispute.

3. Lateral communication: This is sometimes refers to us horizontal

communication, it is the communication between workers at the same level of
hierarchy having the same authority and status or individuals at different levels

39
but who are not in a superior subordinate relationship. This type of
communication is very, important if work process is to be facilitated.

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