Chapter 1

Communication Processes, Principles, and Ethics

Communication is a vital human endeavor. Without communication, people may not

be able to comprehend each other, and relationships may not be able to prosper without it
(Aquino, de Guzman, Quioyo, 2018).

Moreover, in the willingness of humanity to meet the demands of the modern times,
communicators are faced with new sets of standards. Standards which encompass the
application of new technologies, changes in tasks and organizational structures, more perplex
customer requirements and an increasing international dependency of economies of the world
(Villacorte, et al, 2018). All of these are anchored by the necessity of communication.

Target Learning Outcomes (based on CMO):

LO1 - Describe the nature, elements, and functions of verbal and non-verbal
communication in various and multicultural contexts.
LO10 - Adopt cultural and intercultural awareness and sensitivity in communication of
ideas.

_____________________________________________________
Lesson 1: Nature of Communication
Communication is an important human
Learning Outcomes:
activity. Without it, people may have trouble
At the end of the lesson, you are comprehending one another. Furthermore,
expected to: relationships among humans may not be realized in
1. Describe the nature and the absence of communication (Aquino, de
elements of communication Guzman, Quioyo, 2018). Also, it is a powerful
in various communicative activity that comes innately like breathing. In
situations; addition, it is said to be a process which involves the
2. Identify the functions of trade and exchange of thoughts, ideas, information,
verbal and nonverbal feelings and/or emotions with the use of vocal
communications; and, faculties, non-verbal gestures, behavior, and written
3. Describe the communication symbols (Villacorte et al, 2018).
process. Though considered natural, there is still a
need to understand how communication works so
that we can carefully deal with its processes,
elements, and forms.

Deepening your Understanding

The term communication is said to be coming from the Latin expression “communicare”
which aptly means “to share” or “to make common”. Communication is a systematic process
which generates meaning by using messages. It is certainly a process as it is an activity
performed, an exchange of ideas, or a set of behavior.
 “If we accept the concept of process, we view events and relationships as dynamic,
ongoing, ever changing, and continuous. When we label something as a process, it is not
static, at rest; It is moving. The ingredients within a process interact; each affects all the
others.” (Berlo, 1960).

Components in the Communication Process

1. Sender – The component
who initiates the
communication process
by coming up with a
message based on his
attitude, knowledge,
perception, skills, cultural
background and
meaningful experiences. Photo Credits: Pinterest
He is the one responsible for the success of the communication process.
2. Receiver –The one who receives the message. A receiver comprehends the meaning
of a particular message is largely depends on the various influences such as
accessibility of the message, the knowledge level on the topic, the trust between the
sender and the receiver or basically, their level of relationship. All of the receiver’s
possible interpretation of the message is based on his attitude, knowledge, perception,
skills, cultural background and meaningful experiences.
3. Message – considered as the heart of communication, and is the information
translated through symbols that may be in the form of a gesture, spoken word, or
written language. A message is composed of encoded symbols forming an idea that is
both understood by co-communicators.
4. Channel – the means as to how the message is conveyed. Most channels are either
oral or written, but currently visual channels are becoming more popularly used as
technology continuously invades the communicative activities. Common channels
include telephone, emails, and written formats like memos, letters, print ads. Adding to
the variety of channels of communication is the rise of social media that flourished as
a new form of channel.
5. Feedback –the reply (if written or printed); the response (if oral or face to face) or the
reaction (if gestures). This is the final link in the chain of the communication process.
After receiving the message, the receiver responds to the sender. A feedback may be
done in various forms such as a spoken word, a written comment, a long sigh, a
gesture, or a smile. In some instances, even a lack of response, to some sense, is
already a form of feedback (Bovee and Thrill, 1992). Without feedback, the sender may
not confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message correctly.

Communication Contexts
1. Intrapersonal Communication – It is the communication that occurs within one’s own
mind. It also includes activities such as one’s solving own problems or conflict,
planning, evaluating oneself and one’s relationships with others.
2. Interpersonal Communication – the process of using messages to generate
meaning between two or more persons in a situation.
 a. Dyadic Communication –is basically a communication between two persons, i.e.,
you talking with your parent, an interview with an employer, or a consultation with
a teacher.
b. Small-group Communication –is the process of generating meaning using
messages within a small group of communicators. Example: interactions with
family members, study groups, religious groups, etc.
3. Public Communication – this is the process where a single source utilizes messages
that then transmits these messages to a number of receivers at once. Public
communication or public speaking is recognized by its formality, structure, and
planning.
4. Mass Communication –it is a process of communicating messages in order to
generate meaning through a mediated system. From the source of the message, it
goes to its several unseen receivers. This type of communication is called “mass”
because the messages go to newspaper and magazine readers, TV viewers, radio
listeners and netizens.

Elements of Communication
Verbal Communication (Lexical Component) – type of communication that uses meaningful
words or language. When using verbal or lexical communication, one should try choosing
words carefully in advance to be able to make the right impression. The use of right words is
significant in enhancing the message or even making oneself understood.
1. Words are unique meaningful component of speech. Words may be used alone or
with others to form a sentence.
2. Parts of words denote a single letter, a prefix, or a suffix added to words.
Examples: -s in educators dis- in discomfort -ly in perfectly

3. Collocations are a pair or group of words that are habitually used together that
they sound correct together.
Examples:
keep a promise break a leg right now
catch a bus keep in touch close together
4. Idioms are combinations of words whose collective meaning is not predictable
from those of the individual words. Meanings created are usually understood by
native speakers of the language.
Examples:
think outside the box (imagine with intense creativity)
touch one’s heart (affect someone emotionally)
spilling the beans (revealing a secret)

5. Phrasal verbs are verbs followed by a preposition or an adverb.

Examples:
break up (end a relationship) hang over (to be imminent)
break down (decompose) hang on (wait a moment)
break into (open) hang out (spending time with someone)

6. Sentence frames are groups of words that provide a structure or a skeleton for
complete sentence.
Examples:
I move to nominate ____________ for the office of _________.
It can be suggested that ______________________________.
It is an honor to introduce to you ________________________.
Nonverbal Communication (Non-lexical Component)
Understanding the proper use of non-lexical codes is an advantage for you as a
communicator. Nonverbal communication refers to the sending of information or messages
aside from the use of language.
Nonverbal Codes –are basically codes of symbols which carries a meaning on its own and
is not in the form of spoken or written words The following are examples of nonverbal codes
(Pearson, J. et al, 2011) :

a. Kinesics –This pertains to the message transmitted by your bodily movements which
includes facial expressions, posture, and gestures. It comes from the Greek word
“kinesis” which means “to move”.
1. Emblems – these are nonverbal actions or movements that is used as a
replacement for words or phrases.
2. Illustrators –pertains to the bodily movements done accompanying a spoken
message in order to reinforce it.
b. Physical Attraction – is a significant nonverbal attribute, sometimes the media alters
realistic views of a physically attractive person. Physical attraction influences the
credibility and ability of a person to persuade its audience.
c. Proxemics – this refers to the study of distance and space as proposed by Edward T.
Hall (1966). This is a nonverbal means of communication using the distance from your
personal bubble to the person you are speaking with.
1. Intimate distance –this is generally used by people who are close to you,
this distance extends from you to
eighteen inches outward. Let us pause for a reflection
2. Personal distance – ranges from Now that we are in the new 18
inches to 4 feet, it is used for normal, people are advised to
conversation and other non- observe social distance (at least
intimate exchanges. one meter away from another
3. Social distance – this is used in person) whenever we
less personal or formal business communicate.
situations. It ranges from four to 12 Should people be less intimate feet
distance. when communicating to others
4. Public distance – this is because of social or physical
commonly done is public speaking distancing?
settings such as at churches or
lecture halls, etc. it exceeds twelve feet distance.
d. Chronemics –refers to the manner of organizing and using time and the messages
that are constructed due to the organization and use of it, this is also called as temporal
communication. This can be of two types: monochronic and polychronic. Monochronic
individuals complete a task one at a time as they view time seriously. Polychronic
individuals refers to those who work many tasks at one time.
e. Tactile Communication (Haptics) – is the use of touch in communication. Touch
holds a significant power in communication (Aguinis, Simonsen, and Pierce, 1998). It
is sometimes associated with pleasure, positivity, and reinforcement.
Suggested Reading
Handshaking is one the common body movements we use when communicating. But now that
we are in the new normal, people have been prohibited to shake hands with others in the fear of
transmitting the deadly coronavirus. What does this new normal suggests then? Should we start
forgetting handshake as a used-to nonverbal code? Or this is a substitute act for handshaking in
the new normal? Find out the information through this link:

[Link]

f. Vocal cues (Paralinguistics) – this does not refer to actual words but to sounds which
has a significant meaning on it. This is composed of volume, voice quality, rate, pitch,
inflection, nonword sounds, articulation, enunciation, pronunciation and silence. These
vocal cues are linked in our minds as we communicate with the speaker, therefore,
adding to the speaker’s personality, gender characteristics, physical characteristics,
and even credibility.
g. Objectics –This refers to the study of how humans use their clothing and other
significant artifacts to communicate nonverbal codes. This is also called object
language. Clothing communicates authority and an individual’s role in the society. In
terms of artifacts, this refers to the adornments or ornaments that we use and display
for communicative potentials such as phones, watches, shoes, hairstyles, jewelry,
automobiles, cosmetics, canes, etc.

Lesson 2: Principles of Communication

Recognizing the elements, types and contexts
Learning Outcomes:
of communication is necessary to familiarize the
At the end of the lesson, you are effective means of interacting with others through
expected to: communication.
1. Determine the different However, a communicator still must enliven
principles in several principles of communication so that he could
communication; and honestly say that he has mastered the grace of
2. Identify the barriers in communication in an utmost level. This lesson will
every communicative help you appreciate communication by understanding
situation. and applying the principles of effective
communication.
Also, this lesson will help you acknowledge some barriers which could make or break
your communicative activities.

Deepening your Understanding

 Communication is a two-way-process
which involves the giving and receiving of
information through multiple choices of
channels. Whether one is speaking informally
to a classmate, talking about a conference or
student teaching, writing a newsletter article
or formal report, there are several principles
to be considered when one is communicating.

The following are some basic

principles that may be considered:
Photo source: Constant [Link]

1. Knowing your audience is essential when communicating. Speakers, for instance,

should consider the needs and interests of his listeners. Like the songs from two
different periods, the music lovers of this generation may not appreciate the kind of
musicality old songs have and vice versa. Regardless of time or season, senders must
know to whom they are talking to.
2. Knowing your purpose is also crucial. Knowing your reason for communicating will
help you outline what you say.
3. Knowing your topic is precisely the key and heart of your discussion. Composers
choose a topic to be portrayed in the songs they make. As to speakers and writers, they
must have a rich and wide scope of knowledge so that what they share to their
audience. Today, the issue of expertise is already catered so that topics given in
communicative interplay are trustworthy and accurate.
4. Anticipating objections from the audience is quite a difficult task to handle.
Nevertheless, presenting ideas not necessarily give acceptance to the others. Hence,
one should be ready in answering challenging questions.
5. Achieving credibility with your audience could be done when a sender provides
authentic and firsthand information. Sharing personal and inspiring stories, like those of
love songs, will motivate listeners and therefore provide a lasting impression among
audience.
6. Presenting information in various ways is the best way of communicating. As a
speaker or writer, you must be creative enough to effectively get the hearts of your
audience. Anything that is unusual catches attention to the listeners. Rapping has been
an interesting example of creativity to the kind of music for those of you in the
Generation Z like.
7. Acknowledging communication barriers. One of the major communication barriers
is ourselves, basically, our own ideas and opinions. When we listen to a reading or to a
person speaking, most of the time, we filter the message of what is being said in a
screen of our opinion. Truly, communication is a complex process.
Barriers to Effective Communication
There are many reasons why interpersonal communication fails. In many occasions,
the message (what is said) may not be received exactly the way the sender intends. It is
important that a communicator asks for a feedback in order to check is the message is clearly
understood by the receiver. There are three key barriers to effective communication.
1. Physical barriers refer to the natural and environmental factors that serves as barriers
in communication.
 a. Noise Pertains to anything that interferes with our ability to focus in the communication
process. The environmental and natural condition also affects the communication
process as it can be in the form of traffic noise or other people’s conversation.
b. Temperature may sometimes make us unfocused in creating or responding to
messages. When temperature is too high or too low, we tend to not concentrate with
the message that we are sending or receiving. Improper lighting and ventilation may
impair communication.
c. Medium disturbance or technical problem might arise because of a distance, technical
know-how disrupting communication flow.
d. Workplace design may include seating arrangements and physical comfort that may
foster or impair communication. Similarly, the organizational structure can also serve
as a communication barrier.
e. Information overflow may happen when there is too much information and therefore
miss some important points or misinterpret the meaning of the entire message.
f. Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties may also affect
the quality of communication.
2. Psychological barriers of communication refer to the influences of our mental condition.
It is construed that we are highly influenced by our mental conditions when sending or
receiving information. Our mind is complex and unique and is not similar to how machines
work or in numbers. Communicators matter as much as the message. For example, if our
teacher does not trust us, we may only send selective information, which makes the
communication ineffective.

a. Lack of Attention occurs when our mind is distracted or preoccupied with other
things. For example, while we listen to a lecture, our mind travels back to the times
we were having a quarrel with our parents. If this is the case, we may lose focus.
b. Poor Retention of information happens when the capacity of our memory of the brain
to store information is a failure. The brain only stores the information it deems to be
useful in the future and does not store all sorts of information that it will come across.
For instance, if we learn something and we do not use the information, it will be lost.
Additionally, the brain also loses information that is old and not taken as useful with
time. Remembering or tracking it down from our memory lane, the information from
our brain is then processed in the formation of message. Here, the brain tries to recall
the required information, the fragments of information of which will be lost, if not given
proper storage.
c. Lack of trust makes us feel and think of negative meaning of the message as we
ignore the message. When we listen to a speaker we do not trust, every message is
useless.
d. Closed Mind and filtering sometimes lead us to choose only the information we want
to receive. This might be due to jealousy, competition, mistrust, or the view that the
message is unimportant and that we are better than the speakers. If this is the
situation, we may not listen anymore because we close our minds already.
3. Interpersonal barriers refer to the barriers to effective communication in relation to
people.

a. Gender issues May form barriers in communication in several ways. Varied

communication styles may result in barriers as men, women, and those in between
do not form and express themselves in similar manner.
 b. Competition in an environment may let the communicators be more concerned with
their own than communicating effectively with others. Power struggle becomes a
results of competition as certain individuals or group of individuals fail to
communicate effectively to each other in an organization. This can be due to the
atmosphere of distrust which makes it difficult for individuals to collaborate due to the
fear of “backstabbing”.
c. Culture. We are living in a multi-cultural world and cultural diversity makes it difficult
for communication to succeed because the mindset of people from different cultural
backgrounds are different. The language, signs, and symbols are also different which
makes communication unlikely to succeed when people communicate information
that they feel like they need to communicate rather than what they are expected to
communicate.

Lesson 3: Ethics of Communication

Learning Outcomes: When we say ethics, we refer to a set of values

or moral principles used in everyday living. Regarding
At the end of the lesson, you are the process of communication, we also use ethics---
expected to: those values or principles which are observed in
1. Comprehend the ethics human conduct with respect to the wrongness and
involved in communicating rightness of their actions and to the badness or
with another person and goodness of the motives of such actions. Therefore,
with a group of people; the principles governing communication, the right or
and, wrong, good, or bad dimensions of communication,
2. Assess self on being encompass the communication ethics.
ethical as a communicator.

Deepening your Understanding

Questions of right and wrong or questions about what is good or bad surfaces when
people communicate which each other. Ethical communication boosts our dignity and human
worth as we foster respect for self and others, personal integrity, responsibility, fairness, and
truthfulness. It is fundamental to decision making and responsible thinking and the
development of good relations within and across contexts, channels, cultures, and media. To
create balance between listening and speaking, there must be an iota of truthfulness. The
following ethical standards may guide us in communication:

1. Listen attentively when someone is speaking.

2. Speak without prejudice.

3. Speak from your own experiences, thoughts, feelings, needs, emotions, and
perspective.

4. Be understanding

5. Do not slander.
6. Be aware of your own personal boundaries. Do not share something that will you
uncomfortable.

7. Respect other people’s personal boundaries.

8. Do not make side comments when someone is speaking. Do not interrupt.

9. Be truthful, accurate, honest, and reasonable.

10. Promote tolerance of difference, freedom of expression, and diversity of perspective.

11. Respect and understand others before evaluating and responding to their messages.

12. Endorse equal access to communication resources and opportunities.

13. Promote communication atmosphere that is caring and understanding.

14. Do not degrade individuals through falsehood, intimidation, violence, intolerance, and
hatred.

15. When you are to make significant choices, encourage sharing of information, ideas,
opinions, and feelings while respecting privacy.

16. Be responsible for the consequences of our communication behaviors.