3.

Bridge survey
3.1 Introduction
Bridges are the structures that are constructed with the purpose of
connecting two places separated by deep valleys, gorges, rivers or
stream. In countries like Nepal, where the land is undulated and there
are plenty of rivers, bridges are the most economic and convenient way
to join the two places. Bridge construction is an important aspect in the
development of transportation network. For the construction of
bridge, surveying is required for topographical mapping, while the
knowledge of longitudinal section of river and cross-section at both
upstream and downstream is essential. The river flow level in different
seasons should also be taken into consideration before designing a
bridge.

3.2 Objectives:
 To select the possible bridge site and bridge axis for bridge
construction.
 To collect preliminary data of the site i.e. water flow level, high flood
level etc.
 To study about the geological features of the ground.
 To carry out surveying for topographical mapping, longitudinal and
cross- sectioning at both the upstream and downstream side of the
river.
3.3 Brief description of the site:
The bridge survey is done outside the premises of camp. It takes
around 10-15 mins to reach the site from the camp. The bridge site had
slopes which are very stable. The river is fully dry and the elevation of
river bank is very high. The trees and shrubs has maintained the
greenery of the area. There are few cottages around the site. Very few
locals are seen around the site and the road to approach the site is in
bad condition.

Fig: Some glimpse of bridge site

3.4 Technical Specification (norms):
The main objective of the bridge site survey is to give the students the
preliminary knowledge on selection and planning of a possible bridge
site for future bridge. The purpose of the bridge site is not only to
prepare plan and layout of the bridge site but also, from the
engineering point of view, to collect the preliminary data about the site
such as bed level, normal water level, geological features of the ground
for planning and designing of the bridge.
 Carry out reconnaissance survey of the bridge site area. Establish
necessary triangulation stations to determine bridge axis length as
well as horizontal and vertical control of the area. Well conditions
traingles should be formed while selecting the triangulation stations.
 In triangulation, distance of base line must be measured in an
accuracy of 1:200.
 Observed two sets of horizontal circle reading by the theodolite to
measure the angle of two sets should be within a minute. Angular
misclosure for base triangle should be ±30”√N and other triangle
±1’√n.
 Compute the length of purposed bridge axis by triangulation survey
from two adjacent base triangles by using sine law and determine
the length of bridge axis by taking average length. Computed mean
length of bridge axis from two base triangles should be ≥1:2000
 Conduct fly levelling to transfer the RL from given BM to the nearest
triangulation station of the bridge axis and make circuit close for
checking error of closure.
 Carry reciprocal levelling to transfer level from one bank to other
bank of the river/stream within a precision of ±24√k mm. determine
the RL of the other triangulation stations by fly levelling from the
end point.
 Plot a topographic map indicating contour lines at suitable interval
(contour level = 1m). interpolate the index contour lines precisely
by arithmetic calculation method with the help of guide points and
then interpolate remaining contour lines either by graphical method
 or estimation method. Do not erase RL of guide points in the original
sheet even after plotting of contours.
 Draw longitudinal section along the river bed up to 150m up-stream
and 50m downstream assuming 0.00 at center of bridge axis. Draw
cross section at 25m interval from topographic map and one at the
bridge axis.
Scale for plotting:
a. Topographic map:1:500
b. L-section: horizontal scale= 1:50 or 1:100 and vertical scale=1:50 or
1:100
c. Cross- section: horizontal scale= 1:50or 1:100 and vertical scale
=1:50 or 1:100
 Carry out hydrological survey of river/stream. Collect hydraulic data
such as velocity of flow, high flood level, normal water level and low
water level. All these should be shown in map and cross section of
river.

3.5 Instrument used:

 Theodolite
 Ranging rods
 Auto level
 Staff
 Total station
 Prism
 Prism clamp
 Measuring tape
 Hammers
 Pegs
 Tripods
 Marker
3.6 Methodology:
The methodology of the surveying is based on the principle of
surveying, which includes:
o Working from Whole to the Parts
o Independent Check
o Accuracy Required

Reciprocal Detailing
Planning levelling of axis

Fly
reconnaissance Detailing of
levelling
up-stream
and down
Bridge axis sream
station fixation
fixation
well- Plotting
Angle/distance conditioned
measurement traingle
formation
 Reconnaissance:
Reconnaissance (reccee) means the exploration or scouting of an area.
In survey, it involves walking around the survey area and roughly
planning the number of stations and the position. Reccee is primarily
done to get an overall idea of the site. This helps to make the necessary
observations regarding the total area, type of land, topography,
vegetation, climate, geology and indivisibility conditions that help in
detailed planning. The bridge site was observed and the overview of
the placement of axis was made.

 Station Fixation:
The station placement was chosen such that it should be at well-
defined and stable banks and must form well- conditioned triangles
and not affect the ecological balance of the flora and fauna of the site
area. The site should be on a straight reach of the stream. The bridge
axis should be so located that it should be fairly perpendicular to the
flow direction and at the same time, the river width should be narrow
from the economical point of view. A site which blends with the
topography and landscape will be aesthetically pleasing. Keeping in
minds the above factors, the station placement was done.

 Angle and distance measurement:

For the topographic survey of the bridge site, triangulation was done.
First the bridge axis was set and horizontal control stations were fixed
on either side for detailing. Distances between stations on the same
sides of river i.e. base line were measured with tape precisely. Then the
interconnecting triangles were formed and horizontal angles were
measured with theodolite.
 Well-condition triangle formation/bridge axis fixation:
A triangle is stated to be well- conditioned triangle when all angle in it
is more than 30° or lesser than 120°. After horizontal angle
measurement for each case, they are adjusted to satisfy the
geometrical condition since the closing angular error is within the
permissible limit. While applying the correction, only unaffected angles
are taken into account and bridge axis is fixed. The bridge axis length or
span was calculated by solving the triangles using the sine rule.
Triangulation was performed for the determination of the approximate
span of the bridge axis.

 Fly levelling:
The main purpose of the fly leveling is to carry out the elevation of a
certain points with respect to the bench mark as mentioned. These fly
leveling is used to determine the nature and surface of the elevation as
compared to the BM. The R.L of benchmark TBM=1280 was given and
was transferred to the triangulation stations by fly levelling along the
turning points by taking the back sight reading to the bench mark
which should be within the given accuracy.
 Two-Peg test:
Two- peg test is one of the method of adjustment of the line of
collimation which is done to compensate the collimation error of the
levelling instrument. The line of collimation of the telescope should be
parallel to the axis of bubble tube.
Two peg test is one of the methods of adjustments of the level two peg
test method should be performed. Two staff were placed at A and B of
known length. First, the instrument was set up on the line near A and
both staff readings are taken then instrument was set up at the middle
on the line and again both staff reading on A and b were taken. Then
computation is done to check whether the adjustments within the
required accuracy or not.

Fig: Two- Peg Test

 Reciprocal Levelling:
It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation
between two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal
observations when it is not possible to set up the level between the
two points. For the transfer of RL across the bridge axis, the reciprocal
leveling was done.

Fig: Reciprocal levelling

True difference in elevation between A and B = H = Ha- (Hb-e)
 Detailing:
 Longitudinal section:
The longitudinal section of the river is required to give an idea about
the bed slope, nature of river bed, and variation of the elevation of the
different points along the length of the river. Keeping the instrument in
the control station on the river bank, the readings were taken at
different points along the center line of the river at an interval of
around 5m up to 50m upstream and 30m downstream of the river. The
elevations of the control points being known previously, the RLs of
different points at the center lines was measured using total station.
 Cross- section:
For the cross-section of the river, the readings were
taken. .Approximately, at every 5m chain age the readings were taken
for cross sectioning. The spot heights were taken where the change in
slope was noticed or remarkable points were noticed such as water
level low flood level, high flood level, river bank etc.
Total station was used for detailing of the entire bridge site. The
detailing was done with respect to the skeleton formed by
triangulation. The details are booked up to 50m upstream and 30 m
downstream. The details includes natural as well as artificial features
like trees, cottages, canals etc.
Further plotting is done on Auto cad
 4. Road Survey
4.1 Introduction:
Roads are especially prepared ways between different places for the
use of vehicles and peoples. The position of the center line of the
highway in the ground is called road alignment. Road alignment
includes horizontal and vertical alignment. In country like Nepal, where
there is less chance of airways and almost negligible chance of
waterway, roads form the major part of the transportation system. It is
an important aspect in the development of transportation network for
the topographical mapping while the knowledge of longitudinal section
as well as cross sections at certain intervals of the road are essential.
Also the density of traffics should be considered before designing the
road. The roadside survey was conducted at MARS premises. The safe,
efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large
extent by the care with which the geometric design has been worked
out. Geometric design includes the design elements of horizontal &
vertical alignment, sight distance, X-section components, lateral &
vertical clearances, control of access, etc.
The general guide-lines in selecting the alignment & locating route
are:
 Should handle the traffic most efficiently & serve inhabited
localities.
 Should have minimum Gradients & curvature, necessary for
terrain.
 Should involve least impact on the environment.
 Should be located along the edge of properties. In case of hill
road,
 Should attain change in elevation by adopting ruling gradient in
most of length.
 Should avoid unstable hill features & areas prone to land-slides.
 Should avoid steep terrain.
 Should avoid deep cuttings and costly tunnels.
3.1 Objectives:
 To choose the best possible route for the road such that there were
a minimum of number of intermediate points (I. P.) there by
decreasing the number of turns on the road.
 To design smooth horizontal curves at points where the road
changed its direction in order to make the road comfortable for the
passengers and the vehicles traveling on it.
 To take the sufficient data of the details including the spot height
around the road to prepare the topographical map of the area, cross
section of the road segment hence making it convenient to
determine the amount of cut and fill required for the construction of
the road.

3.2 Brief description of the area:

The road survey is done in premises of mars survey camp. The terrain is
the combination of gentle steep surface and flat built up ground.
There are so many undulations in the ground surface. Most of the area
is grassy and some of the area is used for farming. There are lot of
buildings near alignment.
3.3 Technical specifications (norms)
 Carry out reconnaissance survey and alignment selection of the road
corridor about 700m or more.
 Starting and end point of road, location of bridge site will be
provided at the site.
 Road alignment selection i.e. IP selection shall be carried out
considering the obligatory points, permissible gradient, bridge site,
balancing cutting and filling, shape of the valley and cross drainage ,
lateral slopes, geometry of horizontal and vertical curves etc.
 Alignment must not be selected beyond 12% gradient of the existing
ground surface.
 Radius of the horizontal curve should not less than 12m. while
assuming the radius of the horizontal curve, select the radius in the
multiple of 5 or 10.
 Point of commencement (T1) and point of tangency (t2) must not be
located within the bridge axis. Start and finish of curves must be
totally outside the bridge axis end points.
 Avoid subsequent reverse curve in road alignment.
 Deflection angle should not be greater than 90°.
 Two successive curves must not overlap.
 Measure bearing of the starting leg. To compute bearing of next leg,
record deflection angle.
 Setting out if horizontal curves is not necessary for less than 3
degree deflection angle.
 Theodolite team shall carry out the detailed survey of the road
alignment. Theodolite team will mark pegging at 15m interval along
the center line of the road and at curve points BC, MC, and EC for
longitudinal section as well as X- section set horizontal curve by
fixing BC, MC and EC. Theodolite team should fill up three field book
separately such as tachometry FB and detailed sketch.
 Carry out levelling survey for longitudinal section along the center
line at 15m interval at abrupt change point and at the curve point
BC, MC, and EC establish TBM at approximately 500m interval and
near cross drainage. Close the levelling survey and check RL at job
site immediately. Permissible error of closure for levelling must not
be greater than±24√k mm.
 Perform cross section survey either by levelling machine or by
levelling staff and tape along the alignment at 15m interval and at
abrupt change the topography as established by theodolite team.
During field survey draw neat and clean free hand dimensional
sketches of the cross section. Coverage width of the cross section
must not be less than 10m on either side from the purposed center
line of the road and at 5m regular interval as well as other silent
points from the center line.
 Prepare a road corridor plan in1:500 scale showing 5m formation
width 20m right of way from proposed center line location of
intersection point geometry of horizontal curve with chain age of
drainages center lines details and other details such as vegetation
forest cultivation barren land etc.
 Draw longitudinal section of road center line [horizontal scale =
vertical scale 1:100]. Draw the working profile i.e. formation level
assuming balancing of cut and fill between economical distance.

3.4 Instrument used:

 Theodolite
 Auto level
 Measuring tape
 Ranging rods
 Staff
 Pegs
 Hammer
 Tripods
 3.5Methodology:

Establish BC, MC, L-Sectioning

Planning
EC

Deflection
Reconnaissance angle Cross-sectioning
measurement

IP fixation Fly levelling plotting

Chain age of Bearing

IP measurement
of ip0

 Reconnaissance:
First of all, reconnaissance was done by walking through the purposed
road alignment, where the actual alignment of road has to be run.
After this pegging was done on the proper position for instrument
station for traversing ensuring that preceding and succeeding pegs
were visible and simultaneously pegs were marked.
 Horizontal Alignment:
Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal
plane. The interior angles were observed using 10" Theodolite at each
IP and then deflection angles were calculated. The distance between
two traverse stations was measured in the desired precision by tape.
Deflection angle = (360or 180) - observed angle. If +ve, the survey line
deflects right (clockwise) with the prolongation of preceding line and
deflects left if – ve (anti-clockwise). The radius was assumed according
to the deflection angle. Then the tangent length, BC, M.C EC, along
with their Chain age were found by using following formulae,
Tangent length (T L) = R * tan (Δ/2)
Length of curve (L.C) = (π*R*θ)/180
Apex distance = R * 1/ (Cos (Δ/2)-1)
Chain age of BC = Chain age of IP–T.L
Chain age of M.C= Chain age of B.C + L.C/2
Chain age of E.C=Chain age of M.C + L.C/2
The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the
tangent length from the apex and the points were marked distinctly.
The radius was chosen such that the tangent does not overlap. The
apex was fixed at the length of apex distance from IP along the line
bisecting the interior angles.
 Vertical alignment:
Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical
alignment. In the L-section of the Road alignment, vertical alignment
was fixed with maximum gradient of 12 %. According to Nepal Road
Standard, the minimum gradient of road is about 1% so as to facilitate
the flow of drainage to specified direction. However, the maximum of
12% was taken wherever not possible.
 Levelling:
The method of fly levelling was applied in transferring the level from
the given T.B.M. to all the I.Ps. The R.L of beginning, mid points & End
of the curve as well as to the point along the center line of the road
where the cross sections were taken, are taken by tachometry.
 Longitudinal Section:
For the longitudinal section of the road the staff reading was taken at
the interval of every 20m. Besides, these staff readings at beginning of
the curve, ending of the curve and apex were also taken. The RL of
each point were calculated. The profile was plotted at the horizontal
scale of 1:1000 and vertical scale of 1:100.
 Cross sectioning:
Horizontal Cross section was run at right angles to the longitudinal
profile at 20 m interval on both side up to 10m distances wherever
possible. For this, staffs reading of respective points were taken using
tape and staff. The cross section was plotted using following
scale=1:100 Vertical scale =1:100.
3.6Curves:
Curves are generally used on highways and railways where it is
necessary to change the direction of motion. A curve may be circular,
parabola or spiral and is always tangential to two straight directions.

 Simple Circular Curves:

A simple circular curve is the curve, which consists of a single arc of a
circle. It is tangential to both the straight lines. The elements of simple
circular curves are tangent length, external distance, length of curve,
length of long chord, mid ordinate. The notations used are back
tangent, forward tangent, point of intersection, point of curve, point of
tangency, external deflection angle, normal chord, sub chord etc. The
sharpness of the curve is either designated by its radius or by its degree
of curvature. Setting out of curves can be done by two methods
depending upon the instrument used.

 Methods for curve setting:

 Linear method:
In this method, only a chain or a tape is used. Linear methods are used
when a high degree of accuracy is not required and the curve is short.
The linear methods for setting out simple circular curves are:
A. By ordinate from long chord.
B. By successive bisection of arcs.
C. By offsets from tangent
D. By offsets from chord produced.

 Angular method:
In this method, an instrument like Theodolite is used with or without
chain or tape .Before a curve is set out, it is essential to locate the
tangents, point of intersection point of curve sand point of tangent.
The angular methods for setting out simple circular curves are:
a. The Rankine’s method
b. The two Theodolite method
c. The tachometric method
 Transition Curves:
Transition curve is a curve of varying radius introduced between a
straight line and a circular curve. While the vehicle moves on the
straight line of infinite radius to the curve of finite radius, the
passenger feels uncomfortable and even the vehicle may overturn. This
is due to the causes of the centrifugal force couple with the inertia of
the vehicle. To avoid these effects, a curve of changing radius must be
introduced between the straight and the circular curve, which is known
as the transition curve. The main functions of the transition curve are
as follows:
1. To accomplish gradually the transition curve from the tangent to
the circular curve, so that the curvature increased gradually from
zero to a specific value.
2. To provide a medium for the gradual introduction or change of
required super elevation.
 Vertical Curves:
A vertical curve is used to join two intersecting grade lines of railways,
highways or other routes to smooth out the chain age in vertical
motion. The vertical curve contributes to the safety, increase sight
distance, give comfort in driving and have a good appearance. A grade,
which is expressed as percentage or 1 vertical in N horizontal, is said to
be upgrade or +ve grade when elevation along it increases, while it is
termed as downgrade or -ve grade when the elevation decreases along
the direction of motion. The vertical curves may be of following types:
 Summit curve:
It is formed when an upgrade followed by a downgrade, an upgrade
followed by another upgrade, a down grade followed by another down
grade.
 Valley curve:
It is formed when a down grade followed by an upgrade, an upgrade
followed by another upgrade, a down grade followed by another down
grade. In vertical curve all distance along the curve are measured
horizontally and all offsets from the tangent to the curve are measured
vertically. The methods for setting out vertical curve are:
a. The tangent correction method
b. Elevation by chord gradient method
c. Co-ordinate method
The length of vertical method must be long enough to provide at least
minimum required sight distance throughout the vertical curve.

3.8 Conclusion:
Survey of the road alignment was done to make most economical,
comfortable, safe and durable. Extra care is taken to avoid any soil
erosion and any other ecological damage. Curves are set according to
Road Design Standards for comfort and other factors. While setting the
road alignment, it should be kept in mind that the minimum IP points
should be taken as far as possible and deflection angles should be
minimum as far as possible. The task was challengeable and tough due
to the high altitude along the route.
Description of work:
Total length: 240m
Plotting
 Profile: 1:500
 L- Section
 H-scale: 1:1000
 V-scale: 1:100
 Cross section:
 H-scale: 1:100
 V-scale: 1:100

References:
 Notes
 Survey Text Book
 Past reports

 Some glimpse of survey camp