North Pole di Properties of magnets @ ‘A magnet: ‘+ Has a magnetic field ‘around it (ee the next spread). ‘+ Has two opposite poles (N and S) which exert forces on other magnets. Like poles repel; unlike oles attract. ‘© will attract magnetic materials by inducing ‘magnetism in them. In some materials (e.g tee!) the magnetism is permanent. In others (e.g iron) itis temporary. ‘© Willexert litte or no force on a non-magnetic material. 198 9.1 Magnets Objectives: - to describe the forces between magnetic poles - to know what PetCo one on cares ECe LCP ener Magnetic poles Ifa small bar magnet is dipped into iron filings, the filings are attracted to itsends, as shown in the photograph on the opposite page. The magnetic force seems to come from two points, called the poles of the magnet. The Earth exerts forces on the poles of a magnet. Ifa bar magnet is suspended as on the left, it swings round until it lies roughly north-south. This effect is used to name the two poles of a magnet. These are called: © the north-seeking pole (or N pole for short) © the south-seeking pole (or S pole for short). If you bring the ends of two similar bar magnets together, there is a force between the poles as shown below: ‘magnetic poles Hi- = > «=f repulsion Induced magnetism Materials such as iron and steel are attracted to magnets because they themselves become magnetized when there is a magnet nearby. The magnet induces magnetism in them, as shown below. In each case, the induced pole nearest the magnet is the opposite of the pole at the end of the magnet. The attraction between unlike poles holds each piece of metal to the magnet. The steel and the iron behave differently when pulled right away from the magnet. The steel keeps some of its induced magnetism and becomes a permanent magnet. However, the iron loses virtually all of its induced magnetism. It was only a temporary magnet. ron loses steel permanently magnetism ‘magnetized poles induced in iron and stee!Making a magnet A piece of steel becomes permanently magnetized when placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is usually weak. It can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with one end of a magnet, as on the right. However, the most effective method of magnetizing it is to place it in a long coil of wire and pass a large, direct (one- The current has a magnetic effect which magnet y) current in the coil. es the steel. Magnetic and non-magnetic materials A magnetic material is one which which can be magnetized and is attracted to magnets. All strongly magnetic materials contain iron, nickel, or cobalt. For example steel is mainly iron. Strongly magnetic metals like this are called ferromagneties. They are described as hard or soft depending on how well they keep their magnetism when magnetized: Hard magnetic materials such as steel, and alloys called Aleomax and Magnadur, are difficult to magnetize but do not readily lose their magnetism. They are used for permanent magnets, Soft magnetic materials such as iron and Mumetal are relatively eas to magnetize, but their magnetism is only temporary. They are used in the cores of electromagnets and transformers because their magnetic effect can be ‘switched’ on or off or reversed easily. Non-magnetic materials include metals such as brass, copper, zine, tin, and aluminium, as well as non-metals. Where magnetism comes from* Inan atom, tiny electrical particles called electrons move around a central nucleus. Each electron has a magnetic effect as it spins and orbits the nucleus. In many types of atom, the magnetic effects of the electrons cancel, bat in some they do not, so each atom acts as a tiny magnet. In an unmagnetized material, the atomic magnets point in random directions. But as the material becomes magnetized, more and more of its atomi magnets line up with each other. Together, billions of tiny atomic magnets act as one big magnet. Ifa magnet is hammered, its aiomic magnets are thrown out of line: it becomes demagnetized. Heating it to a high temperature has the same effect. ‘1 What is meant by the N pole of a magnet? ‘2 Magnetic materials are sometimes described as hard or soft ‘a What is the difference between the two types? b Give one example of each type. 3. Name three ferromagnetic meals 4 Name three non-magnetic me‘als. 5 The diagram on the right shows three metal bars. When different end are brought together it is found that A and B attract, A and C attract, but A and D repel. Decide whether each of the bars isa permanent magnet or not. MAGNETS AND CURRENTS af wide sweep away from steel ihduced poles ‘A Magnetizing a piece of steel by stroking it with a magnet. mn «=< O non-ferrous Iron and alloys (mixtures) containing iron are called ferrous metals (ferrum is Latin for iron). Aluminium, copper, and the other ‘non-magnetic metals are non-ferrous, 4 Magnetic materials are attracted to magnets and can be made into magnets. ms es EE bar3 Related topics: atoms and electrons &:; the Earth's magnetism 9.2; electromagnets 9.4; tansformers 9.10-9.119.2 Magnetic fields See CeCe CLL Pe Leen Ca Oa ee Oe ee Cec) Inthe photograph below, iron filings have been sprinkled on paper over a bar magnet. The filings have become tiny magnets, pulled into position by forces from the poles of the magnet. Scientifically speaking, there fs a magnetic fleld around the magnet, and this exerts forces on magnetic materials in it. Magnetic field patterns Magnetic fields can be investigated using a small compass. The ‘needle’ isa tiny magnet which is free to turn on its spindle. When near a ‘magnet, the needle is turned by forces between its poles and the poles of the magnet. The needle comes to rest so that the turning effect is zero. platting compass The diagram on the left shows how a small compass can be used to plot the fied around a bar magnet. Starting with the compass near one end of the magnet, the needle position is marked using two dots. Then the compass is ‘moved so that the needle lines up with the previous dot... and so on. When hs the dots are joined up, the result is a magnetic field line. More lincs can be drawn by starting with the compass in different positions. e Inthe diagram above, a selection of field lines has been used to show Magnet essentials the magnetic field around a bar magnet: Amagnethas anorth-seeking -@ ‘The field lines run from the N pole to the S pole of the magnet. The (N) pole at one end and a field direction, shown by an arrowhead, is defined as the direction in south-seeking (S) pole at the which the force on a N pole would act. Itis the direction in which the other, When two magnets are Neend of a compass needle would point. EELUOME IIe © The magnetic field is strongest where the field lines are closest together: lke poles repel, unlike If wo magnets are placed near each other, their magnetic fields combine to produce a single field. Two examples are shown at the top of the next page. Atthe neutral point, the field from one magnet exactly cancels the field from the other, so the magnetic force on anything at this point is zero. poles attractneutral point The Earth’s magnetic field* The Earth has a magnetic field. No one is sure of its cause, although it is thought to come from electric currents generated in the Earth's core The field is rather like that around a large, but very weak, bar magnet. With no other magnets near it, a compass needle lines up with the Earths magnetic field. The N end of the needle points north. But an N pole is always attracted to an S pole. So it follows that the Earth’s magnetic $ pole must be in the north! It lies uncer a point in Canada called magnetic north. Magnetic north is over 1200 km away from the Earth's geographic North Pole. This is because the Earth's magnetic axis is not quite in line with its north-south axis of rotation. “4 Between magnets with unlike poles facing, the combined field is almost uniform (even) in strength However, between like poles, there is a neutral point where the combined field strength is zero. ‘Some electronic equipment is easily upset by magnetic fields from nearby generators, ‘motors, transformers, or the Earth, The equipment can be screened (shielded) by enclosing itn a layer of a soft ‘magnetic materia, such as. iron or nickel. This redirects, the field so that it does not pass through the equipment. ‘A. The Earth behaves as if it has a large but very weak bar —_& A compass is of no use in polar regions because the magnet inside it Earth’s magnetic field lines are vertical 11 In the diagrams on the right, the same compass is being Used in both cases. Copy diagram A. Label the V and S ends of the | ‘compass needle. ® b Copy diagram B. Mark in the poles of the magnet to show which is N and whichis S. Then draw an arrowhead on the field line to show its direction. north © Crome @ In diagram B, at which postion, X or Y, would you expect the magnetic field to be the stronger? Related topics: magnetic poles and the Earth's magnetic effect 9.19.3 Magnetic effect of a current Objectives: - to know that a current produces a magnetic field - to describe ROC CCU Runs eee CeCe eee] Magnetic field around a wire If an electric current is passed through a wire, as shown below left, a weak magnetic field is produced. The field has these features: Magnet essentials Like poles repel; unlike poles attract. Magnetic fiekd lines show the direction of the © the magnetic field lines are circles force on aN pole, ®: the field is strongest close to the wire © increasing the current increases the strength of the field. current (conventional) @® Arule for field direction The direction of the magnetic field produced Current essentials bya current is given by the right-hand grip rule shown above right. Ina circuit the current is a Imagine gripping the wire with your right hand so that your thumb flow of electrons: tiny particles points in the conventional current direction. Your fingers then point in Seni come fro ston. the same direction as the field lines. ‘The current arrows shown on a ; circuit diagrams un from +to Magnetic fields from coils —. This is the conventional Acurrent produces a stronger magnetic field if the wire it flows in is ‘current direction. Electrons, ‘wound into a coil. The diagrams below show the magnetic field patterns beeing negatively charged, ; produced by two current-carrying coils. One is just a single turn of wire. i eee ety ‘The other is a long coil with many turns. A long coil is called a solenoid. col (Single tur)9.4 Electromagnets Objectives: - to know the factors affecting the strength of the magnetic field around an electromagnet - to describe some uses of electromagnets Unlike an ordinary magnet, an electromagnet can be switched on and off. Ina simple electromagnet, a coil, consisting of several hundred |--— battery switch turns of insulated copper wire, is wound round a core, usually of iron or Mumetal. When a current flows in the coil, it produces a magnetic field, This magnetizes the core, creating a magnetic field about a thousand times stronger than the coil by itself. With an iron or Mametal core, the magnetism is only temporary, and is lost as soon as the current in the coil is switched off. Steel would not be suitable as a pe ‘le core because it would become permanently magnetized. AA simple electromagnet The strength of the magnetic field is increased by: ‘© increasing the current © increasing the number of turns in the coi Reversing the current reverses the directicn of the magnetic field. The following all make use of electromagrets. The magnetic relay A magnetic relay is a switch operated by ar electromagnet. With a relay, a small switch with thin wires can be used to turn on the current in a much. more powerful circuit — for example, one with a large electric motor in it: Magnetic essentials @e Ahard magnetic material (for example, steel) is one which, iron armature "formato ‘when magnetized, does not readily lose its magnetism. ‘electro~ ‘Asoft magnetic material (for Ne imsyniet \ example, iron) quickly loses ‘contacts C its magnetism when the magnetizing field is removed. input creuit ‘output crcut : relay t When the switch S in the input circuit is closed, a current flows in the electromagnet. This pulls the iron armature towards it, which closes the contacts C. As a result, a current flows in the motor. The relay above is of the ‘normally open’ type: when the input switch is or, the output circuit is also oFF. A ‘normally closed’ relay works the opposite way: when the input switch is oFF, the output circuit is ON. In practice, most relays are made so that they can be connected either way. AWith arelay, asmall switch gop a, Lat iy, can be used to turn on a pen) closed) powerful starter motor. si Normally open relay (symbol) Normally closed relay (symbol)? The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying coil has these features: © the field is similar to that from a bar magnet, and there are magnetic poles at the ends of the coil increasing the current increases the strength of the field increasing the number of turns on the coil increases the strength of the field. Arule for poles* To work out which way round the poles are, you can use another right-hand grip rule, as shown on the right. Imagine gripping the coil with your right hand so that your fingers point in the conventional current direction. Your thumb then points towards the N pole of the coil “Magnets are made ~ and demagnetized — using coils as shown below. In video recorders and hard drives, tiny coils are used to put magnetic patte-ns ona disc (see next spread). The patterns store pictures, sounds, and data. > CURRENTS Right-hand grip rule for poles Making a magnet Demagnetizing a magnet Above, a steel bar has been placed in a solenoid. When Above, a magnet is slowly being pulled out of a a current is passed through the solencid, the steel solenoid through which an alternating current is becomes magnetized and makes the magnetic field passing, Alternating current (e.c, flows backwards, much stronger than before, And when the current is, forwards, backwards, forwards... and so on. It produces switched off, the steel stays magnetized. Nearly all ‘@ magnetic field which changes direction very rapidly permanent magnets are made in this way. and throws the atoms in the magnet out of line. ‘1 The coil in diagram A is producing a magnetic field ‘a Draw a diagram to show the shape of the magnetic a field around the coil © Give two ways in which the strength of the field could be increased. How could the direction of the field be reversed? ‘2. Redraw diagram B to show which way the compass needles point when 2 current flows in the wire. (Assume that the black. end of each compass needle is éN pole, the conventional current direction is away from you, into the paper, and that wire (end view) ‘the only magnetic fied i that due to the current) Related topics: current ina circuit 8.4 alternating current 8.42; magnetic poles 9.1; magnetic fields 9:2; magnetic storage 9.49.5 Magnetic force on a current No ee CO ee ey a magnetic field - to know the rule for working out the direction of the force Inthe experiment shown below, a length of copper wire has been placed in Magnet essentials a magnetic field. Copper is non-magnetic, so it is feels no force from the ‘The Niand Sipoles of one ‘magnet. However, with a current passing through it, there is a force on the magnet exert forces on those _wire. The force arises because the current produces its own magnetic field of another: which acts on the poles of the magnet. In this case, the force on the wire is lke poles repel, unlike upwards (see box below left). It would be dewnwards if either the magnetic poles attract field or the current were reversed. Whichever way the experiment is done, ‘The magnetic field arounda __the wire moves across the field. It is not attracted to either pole. magnet can be represented The force is inereased if: by field lines, These show the the current is increased direction in which the force aia stonpertnssrakin sed ‘on an N pole would act. Id is increased, TH Bt or force Flee" © the length of wire in the upward force SC aren ‘A Fleming's left-hand rule Fleming's left-hand rule Inthe above experiment. the direction of the force can be predicted using Fleming's left-hand rule, as illustrated above right. If you hold the thumb and first two fingers of your left hand at right angles, and point the fingers as shown, the thumb gives the direction of the force. Field and force 1 Inapplying the rule, it is important to remember how the field and ure Eee re aR LP aee current directions are defined: By itself, the current in a © The field direction is from the N pole o” a magnet to the S pole. See © The current direction is from the positive (+) terminal of a battery round oti let Ui to the negative (-). This is called the conventional current direction. However, when the wie is between the poles of a Fleming's left- magnet, the combined fieldis | are at right angles. If they are at some other angle, there is still a force, as above. insituations like thi, | but its direction is more difficult to predict. If the current and field are the field lines tend to the samme di straighten, So, inthis case, the ‘wire gets pushed upwards. ‘and rule only applies if the current and field directions ion, there is no force, Ifa beam of charged particles (such as electrons) passes through a magnetic field, there is a force on it, jast as for a current in a wire: see spread 10.2. 206MAGNETS AND CURRENTS. The circuit breaker A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current ina circuit if this rises above a specified value. It has the same effect as a fase but, unlike a fuse, can be reset (turned on again) after it has tripped (turned oF). contacts reset button In the type shown on the right, the current flows in two contacts and alsoin an electromagnet. Ifthe curren: gets too high, the pull of the electromagnet von becomes strong enough to release the iron catch, so the contacts open and fail stop the current. Pressing the reset button closes the contacts again. Magnetic storage* Some recording studios use magnetic tape on reels or in cassettes for recording sounds. The tape consists of a long, thin plastic strip, coated with current electro- alayer of iron o: ilar material. Magnet iron oxide is between magnet sofi and hard. Once magnetized it keeps its magnetism, but is relatively easy to demagnetize, ready for another recording. The diagram below shows a simple system for recording sound on tape. The hard drive in a computer also stores data as a pattern of varying magnetism. In both examples, an electromagnet creates the varying magnetic field needed for recording. Later, a playback head can read the pattern to give a varying current. Lon (« varied by sound, A Circuit breaker electromagnet in recording head varng magnets Tape magnetized along tape A Recording on magnetic tape The incoming sound waves are used to vary the current in a tiny electromagnet in the recording heed. As the tape moves past the head, a track of vatying magnetism is created along the tape. ‘An electromagnet has a core. a What is the purpose of the core? b Why isiron a better materia for the core than steel? Write down two ways of increasing the strength of ‘the magnetic field from an electromagnet. 2 Inthe diagram on the opposite page, an electric motor is controlled by a switch connected to a relay. a What s the advantage ot using a relay rather than a switch in the motor circu: itself? 'b_ Why does the motor start when switch S is closed? 4. Computer hard drive The recarriing head is at the end of the arm. It contains a tiny electromagnet which is used to create tracks of varyirg magnetism on a spinning disc. The disc is made of aluminium or glass, and is coated with a layer ‘of magnetic material similar to that on a tape. 3 The diagram at the top of the page shows a circuit breaker. @ What is the purpose of the circuit breaker? © How do yor think the performance of the circuit breaker would be affected if the coll of the electromagnet had more turns? ‘4* Sounds can be recorded on tape. a Why's an electromagnet needed tor this? b Why must the coating on the tape be between soft and hard magnetically? Related topics: using circuit breakers 8.13; magnetic materials 9.; flelds from colls 9.3The moving-coil loudspeaker Most loudspeakers are of the moving-coil type shown on the right. The cylindrical magnet produces a strong radial (‘spoke-like’) magnetic field at right angles to the wire in the coil. The coil is free to move backwards and forwards and is attached to a stiff paper or plastic cone. The loudspeaker is connected to an amplifier which gives out alternating current. This flows backwards, forwards. backwards... and soon. causing cone a force on the coil which is also backwards, forwards, backwards.... Asa result, the cone vibrates and gives out sound waves. The sound you hear depends on how the amplifier makes the current alternate. Turning effect ona coil The coil below lies between the poles of a magnet. The current flows in opposite directions along the two sides of the coil. So, according to Fleming's left-hand rule, one side is pushed up and the other side is pushed down. In other words, there is a turning effect on the coil. With more turns on the coil, the turning effect is increased. 0 amplifier ‘4 Moving-coil loudspeaker The meter in the photograph uses the above principle. Its pointer is attached to a coil in the field of a magnet. The higher the current in the meter, the further the coil turns against the springs holding it, and the further the pointer moves along the scale 4 Moving-coil meter 41 There is a force on the wire in the diagram on the right. 2. Give two ways in which the force could be increased © Use Fleming's left-hand rule to work out the direction of the force. € Give two ways in which the direction of the force could be reversed CLecat in imene ine ree renr entrees es ‘through its col, 3 The diagram above shows a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field. What, difference would it make if a there were more tums of wire in the coil J cdwent b the direction of the current were reversed? Related topics: sound waves 6.3; current in a circuit 8.4; magnetic fields 9.2; field around a wire 9.3; force on particle beam 10.2 2079.6 Electric motors Objectives: - to know that if a current-carrying coil is in a magnetic field, the forces on it have a turning effect, and how this is used in an electric motor. Ifa coil is carrying a current in a magnetic field, as on the left, the forces on it produce a turning effect. Many electric motors use this principle. Turning effect on a coit Asimple d.c. motor ‘magnet When a current flows in this coil, there is an upward force on one side and 2 downward force on the other. The direction of each force is given by Fleming's ee left-hand rule, explained on ‘salt ring) the previous spread, The action of the e battery “Drushes oil commutator t The diagram above shows a simple electric motor. It runs on direct current (d.c.), the ‘one-way’ current that flows from a battery. The coil is made of insulated copper wire. Is free to rotate between the poles of the magnet. The commutator, or split-ring, is fixed to the coil and fl rotates with it. Its action is explained below and in the diagrams on the left. The brushes are two contacts which rb against the commutator and When the coil is nearly keep the coil connected to the battery. They are usually made of carbon. vertical, the forces cannot eee ar ae ern When the coil is horizontal, the forces are furthest apart and have their i maximum turning effect (leverage) on the ccil. With no change to the forces, the coil would eventually come to rest in the vertical position. However, as the coil overshoots the vertical, the commutator changes the direction of the ‘current in it. So the forces change direction and push the coil further round until it is again vertical... and so on. In this way, the coil keeps rotating ll clockwise, half a turn at a time. If either the battery or the poles of the bout when the coil magnet were the other way round, the coil would rotate anticlockwise. lovers pore pe veriiay the ‘The turning effect on the coil can be increased by: commutator changes the © increasing the current direction ofthe current init, ; : See ae using a stronger magnet earl © increasing the number of turns on the coil are * increasing the area of the coil. (A longer coil means higher forces because there is a greater length of wire in the magnetic field; a wider coil gives the forces more leverage.)Practical motors* ‘The simple motor on the opposite page produces a low turning effect and is jerky in action, especially at low speeds. Practical motors give « much better performance for these reasons: © Several coils are used, each set at a different angle and each with its own pair of commutator segments (pieces), as shown on the right. The result is a greater turning effect and smoother running. © The coils contain hundreds of turns of wire and are wound on a ccre called an armature, which contains iron. The armature becomes magnetized and increases the strength of the magnetic field © The pole pieces are curved to create a radial (spoke-like’) magnetic field. ‘This keeps the turning effect at a maximum for most of the coil’s rotation. In some motors, the field is provided by an electromagnet rather than a permanent magnet. One advantage is that the motor can be run from an alternating current (a.c.) supply. As the current flows backwards and forwards in the coil, the field from the electromagnet changes direction to match it, so the turning effect is always the same way and the motor rotates normally. The mains motors in drills and food mixers work like this. © Q which parts) of an electric mctor © connect the power supply to the split-ing and coil changes the current direction every half-turn? 2 On the right, there is an end view of the coil in a simple electric motor. ‘a. Redraw the diagram to show the position of the coil when the turning effect Cn itis i maximum ize. b Give three ways in which the maximum turning effect on the coil could be increased @ Use Fleming’ left-hand rule to work out which way the coil will turn. 3. Whats the advantage of using an electromagnet in an electric motor, rather than a permanent magnet? armature ‘A Practical motors have curved pole pieces, and several coils wound on an iron armature omens Many electric motors don't have brushes, For example, those used in electric and hybrid cars work in a cifferent way. An electronic unit feeds current to a set of fixed coils insuch away that a rotating ‘magnetic field is created. This pills on a set of magnets so ‘that they spin round, ‘4 In this electric drill, the motor is in the centre, Note the commutator segments at the right hand end, and the electromagnet. ‘© = current into paper ‘@= current out of paper Related topics: current 8.4; ac. and dr. 8.13; magnetic fields 9.2; electromagnets 9.4; Fleming's left-hand rule and. turing effect 9.59.7 Electromagnetic induction Seah eR Re CREM eR] tt eh eee ce ect om eee Cece Acurrent produces a magnetic field. However, the reverse is also possible: a magnetic field can be used to produce a current. Induced e.m.f. and current in a moving wire insulated induced ‘galvanometer creater induced current “centre zero) ‘current ‘When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, as shown above left, a Circuit essentials small e.m.f, (voltage) is generated in the wire. The effect is called eee oat electromagnetic induction, Scientifically speaking, an emf is oo the circuit must tes induced in the wire. If the wire forms part of a complete circuit, the complete, with no bresksin = sf makes a current flow. This can be detected by a meter called a it Also, there musta source : galvanometer, which is sensitive to very small currents. The one shown of e.m-f. (voltage) to provide . a ms _ a in the diagram is a centre-zero type. Its pointer moves to the left or right ‘the energy. A battery is one such souree. Others include _-oF the zero, depending on the current direction. wire moving through a The induced e.m.f. (and current) can be increased by: magnetic field, as explained moving the wire faster fon the right. © using a stronger magnet Em stands forelecromotve @ increasing the length of wire in the magnetic field — for example, by force. tis measured in vols. looping the wire through the field several times, as shown above right. The above results are summed up by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. In simplified form, this can be stated as follows: Magnet essentials The N and S poles of one magnet exert forces on those of another lke poles repel, unlike poles | In applying this law, remember that field lines are used to represent the attract strength of a magnetic field as well as its direction. The closer together ‘The magnetic field around | the lines, the stronger the field. ‘magnet can be represented Either of the following will reverse the direction of the induced e.m.f. by field lines. These show the | and current: direction in which the force © moving the wire in the opposite direction ‘on an N pole would act ‘© turning the magnet round so that the field direction is reversed. If the wire is not moving, or is moving parallel to the field lines, there is nc induced e.m.f. or current. 210MAGNETS AND CURR yy NTS Induced e.m.f. and current in a coil induced current in opposite direction Ifa bar magnet is pushed into a coil, as shown above left, an emf. is induced in the coil. In this case it is the magnetic field that is moving rather than the wire, but the result is the same: field lines are being cut. As the coil is part of a complete circuit, the induced e.m.f. makes a current flow. The induced e.m.f. (and current) can be increased by: © moving the magnet faster © using stronger magnet © increasing the number of turns on the coil (as this increases the length of wire cutting throagh the magnetic field). Experiments with the magnet and coil also give the following results. © If the magnet is pulled our of the coil, as shown above right, the direction of the induced e.n-f. (and current) is reversed. © If the S pole of the magnet, rather than the N pole, is pushed into the coil, this also reverses the current direction. © If the magnet is held still, no field lines are cut, so there is no induced em. or current. ‘A The pick-ups under the strings of this guitar are tiny coils with magnets inside them. The steel strings become The playback heads in video recorders and hard drives contain tiny coils. A tiny, varying e.m.f. is induced in the coil as the magnetized tape passes over it and field lines are cut by the coil. In this way, the magnetized. When they vibrate, magnetized patterns on a disc are changed into electrical signals which current s induced in the coils, can be used to recreate the original pictures, sounds, or data, For more boosted by an amplifier, and about magnetic recording, see spreads 9.3 and 9.4 used to produce sound ‘1 The wire on the right forms part of a circuit. When the wire is moved downwards, a current is induced init. What would be the effect of ‘a moving the wire upwards through the magnetic field bb holding the wire stil in the magnetic field € moving the wire parallel to the magnetic field lines? 2 In the experiment at the top othe page, what would be the effect of a moving the magnet faster b having more turns on the col” @ turing the magnet round, so that the S pole is pushed into the coil Related topics: current 8.4; exm.f. 8.5;magnetic elds 9.2; magnetic recording 9:3 and 9.4; direction of induced current (Lenz's aw) 98 zat9.8 More about induced currents - to know about the factors affecting the direction of an induced CCUM a niEeots yer ene Ce eC eC cere cry e Induced current direction: Lenz's law Magnetic essentials Like magnetic poles repel, unlike ones attract. Magnetic field lines run from the N pole oe coil atracts ‘of a magnet to the S pole magnet ‘magnet In diagrams, the conventional N i sty Be current direction is used. This ae \ runs from the + of the supply to the — (tk induce induced current (on current in opposite direction Ifa magnet is moved in or out of a coil, a current is induced in the coil. ‘The direction of this current can be predicted using Lenz’s law: A current-carrying coil 2 Produces a magnetic field. Atove, for example, the induced current turns the coil into a weak ‘The right-hand grip rule electromagnet whose N pole opposes the approaching N pole of the magnet. aaa Pe iat When the magnet is pulled out of the coil, the induced current alters 4 direction and the poles of the coil are reversed. This time, the coil attracts ‘thumb points at when your ae an ane the magnet as it is pulled away. So, once again, the change is opposed. as the current, Lenz's law is an example of the law of conservation of energy. Energy is, spent when a current flows round a circuit, so energy must be spent to induce the current in the first place. In the example above, you have to spend energy to move the magnet against the opposing force. Induced current direction: Fleming’s right-hand rule Horce Ifa straight wire (in a complete circuit) is moving at right angles to a magnetic field, the direction of the induced current can be found using Fleming’s right-hand rule, as shown below: z rent mont, hand ton Ifa current-carrying wire is in motion igyinger ‘a magnetic field as above, the ana direction of the force is gen by Fleming's left-hand rule. Fa conductor is moving thraugh a magnetic field, ar in a changing field, an e.m.f. (voltage) is induced init. ‘ond finger induced trent induce current ‘a Fleming's right-hand rule 212(On the opposite page, there is information about Fleming's right-hand and left-hand rules. The two rules apply to different situations: © when a current causes motion, the lefi-hand rule applies © when motion causes a current, the right-hand rule applies. Fleming’ right-hand rule follows from the left-hand rule and Lenz's law. The diagram on the right illustrates this. Here, the upward motion induces a current in the wire. The induced current is in the magnetic field, so there is a force on it whose direction is given by the lefi-hand rule. The force must be downwards to oppose the motion, so you can use this fact and the left-hand rule to work out which way the current must flow: However, the right-hard rule gives the same result - without you having to reason out all the steps! Eddy currents* Tmaghetic field st If the aluminium disc above is set spinning, it may be many seconds before frictional force finally brings it to rest. However, if it spinning between the poles of a magnet it stops almost immediately. This is because the disc is a good conductor and currents are induced in it as it moves through the magnetic field. These are called eddy currents. They produce a magnetic field which, by Lenz's law, opposes the motion of the disc, Eddy currents occur whe-ever pieces of metal are ina changing magnetic field — fur example, in the core of a Wansformer, Metal detectors rely on eddy currents. Typically, a pulse of current through a fat coil produces a changing magnetic field. This induces eddy currents in any metal object underneath. The eddy currents give off their own changing field which induces a second pulse in the coil. This is detected electronically © @ Look at the diagrams on the oaposite page, illustrating Fleming's right-hand rule. If the directions of the magnetic field and the motion were both reversed how would ths affect the direction of the induced current? © on the right, a magnet is being moved towards a coil ‘a As current is induced in the coil, what type of pole is formed at the left end Of the coil? Give a reason for your answer. Db" In which direction does the conventional) current flow in the meter, AB or BA? 3* Aluminium is non-magnetic. Yat a freely spinning aluminium disc quickly stops moving if a magnet is brought close to it. Explain why. MAGNETS AND CURR ‘motion force on induced current ‘opposes motion AA metal detector creates ‘eddy currents in metal objects and then detects the magnetic fields produced. =m (( output coi boo tins \, “oo tins Example Assuming that the transformer on the right has an efficiency \ | of 100%, calculate a the supply voltage b the current in the input coil. 7T a This is solved using the transformer equation: Y = Ne = ) v, Ny ‘ cS where V, is the supply voltage to be calculated. Substituting values: ELOISE ac. supply lamp: supply voltage — 2000 pater Rearranged, this gives: supply voltage = 200 V |b This is solved using the power equation: VI, = Vi, where VJ, is already knowa to be 40 W. Substituting values: 200 V x input current = 40 W Rearranged, this gives: input current = 0.2 A ‘1 How does a step-up transformer differ from a step-down transformer? 230V ac, mains bist current: 0.1 2 Explain each of the following {a transformer will not work on d.c bi’ the core of a transformer needs to be laminated Q ifa transformer increases voltage, it reduces current. 3 In the circuit on the right, a transformer connected to the 230 V a.c. mains is providing power for a low-voltage heater, Using the information in the diagrany, and assuming that the efficiency is 100%, calculate a the voltage across the heater TL © the power supplied by the mains he the power delivered to the heater @ the current in the heater. 4600 tus —— 200 tus Related topics: resistance 8.6; power calculations 8.21; eddy currents 9.8; dc. and a.c. 9; power transmission 9.42 219generation ‘4 Atypical mains supply system, Actual voltages may differ, depending on the country Power essentials ‘An appliance with a power ‘output of 1000 watts (W) delivers energy atthe rate of 1000 joules per second. In ciecuits power = voltage x curtent (watts) (volts) amperes) wm “ Transformer eset D Transformers are used to increase or decrease a.c. voltages. if a transformer is 100% efficient, its power ‘output and input are equal Soif it increases voltage, it reduces current in the same proportion so that ‘voltage current’ stays the same. 9.12 Power across the country CSC ee a URC ee ee COC Ir SA eC Re Oe eM eee er 33,000 transformer ttansformer substation (Gtep-up) transmission (step-down) ‘transformer substation transformer substation transformer substation (step-down) (step-down) ‘step-down distribution Power for the a.c. mains is generated in power stations, transmitted (sent) through long-distance cables, and then distributed to consumers. ‘Typically, a large power station might contain four generators, each producing a current of 20 000 amperes at a voltage of 33 000 volts. The current from each generator is fed to a huge step-up transformer which transfers power to overhead cables at a greatly increased voltage (275 000 V or 400 000 V in the UK). The reason for doing this is explained. on the next page. The cables feed power toa nationwide supply network called a grid. Using the grid, power stations in areas where the demand is low can be used to supply areas where the demand is high. Also power stations can be sited away from heavily populated areas. Power from the grid is distributed by a series of substations. These contain step-down transformers which reduce the voltage in stages to the level needed by consumers, Depending on the country, this might be between 110 V and 230 V for home consumers, although industry normally uses a higher voltage. Transmission issues Ac. or dc? Alternating current (a) is used for the uvains. Ona ange scale, it can be generated more efficiently than ‘one-way’ direct current (de.). However, the main advantage of a.c. is that voltages can be stepped up or down using transformers. Transformers will not work with d.c.Calculating power loss When current flows in a cable, the resistance causes a drop in voltage along the cable and a loss of power. power loss “power loss current? x resistance = 10?x2 |= 200 = voltage drop x current ALL But. voltaye drop * = current x resistance 50: power loss = = current x resistance \ x current pa arene = current? « resistance Insmbos: PR curtent= 1 (because 2000 W =7000'V x 1) : ‘4 These calculations show the TERRE = oer ress = 172 power losses in a cable when the wea same amount of power is sent at High or low voltage? Transmission cables are good conductors, but 2 Afferent voltages (for nificant 1 tance ~ especially when they are hundreds: esimpilicity.sormesunits/have:Been: . E S omitted) of kilometres long. This means that energy is wasted because of the heating effect of the current. The calculations above demonstrate why less power is lost from a cable if power is transmitted through it at high voltage. By using a transformer to increase the voltage, the current is, reduced, so thinner, lighter, and cheaper cables can be used. “= Overhead or underground?* There are two ways of running high- voltage transmission cables across country. They can be suspended overhead from tall towers called pylons, or they can be put undergrourd. In countries where power has to be transmitted very long distances, overhead cables are more common because they are cheaper: They are easier to insulate because, over most of their length, the air acts as an insulator. Also, costly digging operations are avoided. However, pylons and overhead cables spoil the environment. They are often not allowed in densely populated areas or in areas of outstanding natural beauty, So Pylons and overhead cables underground cables (called land lines) are used instead. are not usually permitted in areas lke this. 41 In a mains supply system, how are voltage changes 4 The second patagraph on the opposite page describes made? the output of the four generators in a typical, large 2 Explain each of the following, power station. Calculate the poner station’ total a Ac. rather than d.c. is used for transmitting mains power output in MW. (1 MW = 1 000 000 W) power. © The diagram at the top of this page compares power bb The voltage is stepped up before power from a losses from a cable at two different vottages. Calculate generator is fed to overhead transmission cables. the power lossif the same power is sent at 20 000 V. 35 che rt eoertpieed wheel ie aera Cane cE Chia ae paves ae aera ie cables might be used instead of overhead ones, despite resistance 5 £2 Calculate the power loss in the cable if the extra cost. the power is transmitted ata 200V b 200 000. Related topics: power stations 4.5-4.6; resistance 8.6-8.7; mains electricity 8.23; generators 9.9; transformers, 930-9.1 22a