COURSE

GUIDE

EDU 426
SPECIAL EDUCATION

Course Team: Dr. Adebiyi Benedictus Adekunle ( Course

Developer) - Federal College of Education
(Special), Oyo
Dr. Adebiyi Benedictu Adekunle (Course Writer)
Federal College of Education
Oyo
Prof C A Bakare (Content Editor) -
University of Ibadan
Dr Timothy James (Programme Leader)-
NOUN
Dr B I Ajufo (Course Coordinator)-NOUN
Dr. John O. Oparaduru (Course Reviewer)
Dr. John O. Oparaduru (Course Reprocessor) –
NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

EDU426 COURSE GUIDE

© 2022 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway
Jabi, Abuja

Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed 2012, 2022

ISBN: 978-978-058-374-3

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EDU426 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS

Introduction ……………………………………………………… iv
The Course ………………………………………………………. iv
What you will learn in this course ………………………………. iv
Course Aim ……………………………………………………… v
Aims …………………………………………………………….. v
Course Objectives ………………………………………………. v
Assignment File …………………………………………………. vii
Assessment ………………………………………………………. vii
How To Get the Most From This Course ………………………... vii
Summary………………………………………………………..... viii

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EDU426 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Special Needs Education. This 2 credit units’ course is an

introductory course on Special needs education. This course will be
available to all students offering education.
The course is made of which were grouped into six modules.
• Basic concept in Special Education
• Education of the Intellectually Retarded
• Education of the Hearing Impaired and Communication Disorders
• Education of the Physically and Health Impaired and Learning
Disabled
• Gifted and Talented Development
• Education of the Visually impaired

THE COURSE

This course is a compulsory course. This course is mainly on the

education of Special Needs individuals. The course shed lights on what
special education is all about. It draws out the nitty gritty of Special
Education, including meaning, causes, historical perspective and
development, characteristics and Education approaches different areas of
exceptionalities.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The main aim of special needs education is to introduce its audience to

basic concepts in special education with the view of developing the
intellectual, moral and physical growth of an individual child.

COURSE AIM

This course is designed as an introductory course to Special Needs

Education. It is to expose learners/audience to special needs children who
may experience learning problems and learning difficulties as a result of
disabilities or other forms of special educational needs.

The courses emphasis will be on meaning, historical perspective, causes,

characteristics, identification and educational approaches to different
categories of children with Special Needs. The course shed light on
different categories of special needs education. Such as Education of the
intellectually Retarded, Learners with communication disorders,
physically and health Impaired, Gifted and Talent Development,
Education of the visually Impaired, learning disabled etc.
The major goal of this course is to prepare future teachers and educators
for delivery and evaluation of Education and Special Education

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EDU426 COURSE GUIDE

Programme. The course will enhance better performances of both

teachers and learners.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

Students will be able to:

• Explain what Special Education is all about
• Identify the relationship between General Education and Special
Education
• Identify the relevance of research studies in the field of Special
Education
• Identify the importance of information communication
Technology to Special Needs Education
• Identify different categories of Children with Intellectual Retarded
and methods of educating them
• Identify causes and characteristics of Learners with hearing
Impairment and Strategies of educating them.
• Distinguish between Neurological Impairment and muscular
conditions
• Identify the characteristics of gifted and talented children
• Design an appropriate curriculum for the gifted and talented
children
• Identify children with visual impairment in the classroom
• Identify the relevance of Rehabilitation to Special Needs
Education

COURSE MATERIALS

Major components of the course are

1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Assignment File

STUDY UNITS

Course Aims
Course Guide
Course Objectives
Course Materials

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EDU426 COURSE GUIDE

Module 1 Basic Concepts in Special Education

Unit 1 Overview of Special Education

Unit 2 Research in Special Needs Education
Unit 3 Information and Communication Technology in the
Education of Learners With Special Needs

Module 2 Education for the Intellectually Retarded

Unit 1 Definition, Categories and Causes of Intellectual

Retardation
Unit 2 Characteristics, Identification and Educational
Method Of Teaching Intellectually Retarded Children

Module 3 Education of The Hearing Impaired And

Communication Disorders

Unit 1 Definition, Causes and Classification of Hearing

Impairment
Unit 2 Identification and Educational Placement of Hearing
Children
Unit 3 Learners with Communication Disorders

Module 4 Education of The Physically and Health

Impaired and Learning Disabled

Unit 1 Definition, Types and Causes of Physically and Health

Impaired
Unit 2 Meaning, Causes, Identification and Educational
Intervention for Children with Learning Disabilities

Module 5 Gifted and Talent Development

Unit 1 Definition, Characteristics and Administration of

Gifted And Talented Children
Unit 2 Curriculum Modification for Gifted and Talented
Students

Module 6 Education for The Visually Impaired

Unit 1 Definitions, History, Causes and Prevalence

Unit 2 Characteristics And Educational Approaches of
Visual Impairment
Unit 3 Rehabilitation of The Visually Impaired

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EDU426 COURSE GUIDE

ASSIGNMENT FILE

In this file, you will find all the details of the work you must submit to
your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments will
count towards the final mark you obtain for this course.

ASSESSMENT

There are two aspects of the assessment of the course. First are the Self-
Assessment Exercises (SAEs) and other written examination. Your
assignment must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in
accordance with the stipulated deadlines. The work you submit to your
tutor for assessment will account for 30% of your total course mark.

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written
examination of two hours duration. This examination will account for
70% of your total course mark. The examination will consist of questions,
which reflect the types of exercises and tutor marked problems your have
previously encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed.

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

In distance learning, the study units replace the lectures in the

conventional systems. This is one of the great advantages of distance
learning; your can read and work through specially designed study
materials at your pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of
it as reading the lectured instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way
that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell you
when to read your set books or other material, and when to undertake
computing practical work. Just as a lecturer might give you, in class,
exercises, your study units also provide exercises for your to do at
appropriate points. Each of the study units follows a common format. The
first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit as how a
particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole.
Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives itemize what you
should be able to do by the time your have completed the unit. You should
use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the unit,
you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If
you make a habit of doing this you will significantly improve your
chances of passing the course. Exercise is interspersed within the units
and answers are given. Working through this exercise will help you to
achieve the objectives of the unit and help you to prepare for the
assignments and examinations.

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EDU426 COURSE GUIDE

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course.

1. Read this course guide thoroughly
2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the ‘course content’, for more
details.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything
you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they get behind with their course work. If your get into difficulties
with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it’s too late.
4. Turn to unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
5. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow.
6. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have
achieved them. If your feel unsure about any of the objectives,
review the study materials or consult your tutor.
7. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objective,
you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through
the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on
schedule.
8. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking,
do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to
your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular
attention to your tutor’s comments.
9. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for final examination. Check that you have achieved the
unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course
objectives listed on this course Guide.

SUMMARY

Special Education is intended to provide you with sound and adequate

knowledge about learners with special needs. Special Education is
designed to help the exceptional children (both gifted and disabled
individuals) in making the maximum use of their capabilities in order to
contribute their quota to the socioeconomic development of their country.
In order to achieve this, you have been exposed to: Basic concepts in
Special Education. You have also been introduced to different categories
of special needs children. Upon completion of this course, you will be
equipped with adequate knowledge and skills for better service delivery.
It expedient that you should try to apply the knowledge and skills you
have acquired in this course to enhance and facilitate better job
performance in your chosen career.

viii
 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS

Module 1 Basic Concepts in Special

Education ……………………………………….. 1

Unit 1 Overview of Special Education ………………….. 1

Unit 2 Research in Special Needs Education …………… 11
Unit 3 Information and Communication Technology
in the Education of Learners with
Special Needs …………………………………….. 20
Unit 4 Current Issues in Special Education ……………… 31

Module 2 Education for the Intellectually

Retarded …………………………………………. 42

Unit 1 Definition, Categories and Causes of

Intellectual Retardation …………………………… 42
Unit 2 Characteristics, Identification and
Educational Method of Teaching Intellectually
Retarded Children ………………………………… 49

Module 3 Education of the Hearing Impaired and

Communication Disorders ……………………… 56

Unit 1 Definition, Causes and Classification of

Hearing Impairment ……………………………… 56
Unit 2 Identification and Educational
Placement of Hearing Children ………………….. 63
Unit 3 Learners with Communication Disorders ………... 69

Module 4 Education of The Physically and Health

Impaired and Learning Disabled ……………… 76

Unit 1 Definition, Types and Causes of Physically

and Health Impaired ……………………………… 76
Unit 2 Meaning, Causes, Identification and Educational
Intervention for Children with Learning
Disabilities ……………………………………….. 82
Module 5 Gifted and Talent Development ………………. 90
Unit 1 Definition, Characteristics and
Administration of Gifted and Talented Children… 90
Unit 2 Curriculum Modification for Gifted and
Talented Students ………………………………… 101

Module 6 Education for The Visually Impaired …………. 109

Unit 1 Definitions, History, Causes and Prevalence …….. 109

Unit 2 Characteristics And Educational Approaches of
Visual Impairment ………………………………... 118
Unit 3 Rehabilitation of The Visually Impaired …………. 124
EDU 426 MODULE 1

MODULE 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN SPECIAL

EDUCATION

Unit 1 Overview of Special Education

Unit 2 The Place of Research in Special Needs Education
Unit 3 Information and Communication Technology in the
Education of Learners with Special Needs.
Unit 4 Current Issues in Special Education

UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Main Content
1.3.1 Definitions
1.3.2 Historical Perspective and Development
1.3.3 General Education and Special Education
1.3.4 Relationships between Special Education and General
Education
1.3.4 Terminologies in Special Education
1.3.5 Individualized Education Programme
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the
content

1.1 Introduction

Persons with special needs are found in all societies of the world. Within
and outside our different institutions of learning we find learners with
special needs that require unique responses to their education. These
categories of children cannot benefit from the conventional classroom
because they require special education and related services if they are to
realize their maximum potential. These special need children may have
learning or attention difficulties, intellectual retardation, behavioural
problems, physical and health related problems, disordered
communication, hearing impaired and visually impaired.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define special education in your own word
• recount a brief history of special education.
• identify the relationship between general education and special
education.
• distinguish area of differences and relationships between general
education and special education.
• itemize and explain terminologies in special education.

1.3 Main Content

1.3.1 Definitions

• Special education is that type of education that is specially

designed to meet the uncommon needs of exceptional students.
• It is the education of learners with special needs in a way that
addresses the learners’ individual differences and needs.
• Special education is the education specially designed to suit the
special needs children who may experience learning problems and
learning difficulties as a result of disabilities or handicaps or other
forms of special educational needs (Obani 2004).
• Therefore, special education is designed to help the exceptional
children (both the gifted and the disabled individuals) in making
the maximum use of their capabilities in order to contribute their
quota to the socio-economic development of their country.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

Cheerful School Children with Special needs sitting at a desk in a

classroom

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

Read other definitions of Special Education here

1.3.2 Historical Perspectives and Development

Special education has passed through different phases. These phases or

stages could be categorized as: The Pre-Christian era, the Christian era
and the post Christian Era.

The Pre-Christian Era: This was before the advent of Christianity. This
period could be referred to as the “Dark Ages”. During this period
children with Special needs were maltreated, dehumanized and
ostracized. It was largely the epoch of ignorance and superstition. It was
the period when some of the handicapped were used as royal clowns,
jesters or gladiator fighters to entertain the nobles among them. Further,
some persons with disabilities were locked up in asylums believing they
were demon possessed.

In the pre-Christian era, the city/state of Sparta did not have any
programme for persons with disabilities, they were either eliminated or
were exposed to harsh and unfriendly weather to die at the top of mount
Taygetu instalmentally.

Further, in Ancient Rome, Balbus Balaesus the Stutterer, was caged and
displayed along the Appian way to amuse travellers who thought his
speech was funny.

In the pre-Christian era in Nigeria, special need children were not catered
for. No special education provision was made for them.

The Christian Era: It was the period that emphasis was laid on love and
charity. Christianity laid more emphasis on love for fellow human beings.
The content of love for one’s fellowman was evidenced by the words in
“as much as ye had done it unto one of the least of these brethren ye have
done it unto me”. During this period the inhuman treatment towards
persons with disabilities began to fade.

Post Christian Era: The formal education of special needs children

began to see the light of the day primarily from the early 1800s. Most of
the originators of special education were European physicians.
The early years of special education witnessed the remarkable
contributions of the likes of Jean Itard, Edward Seguin, Valentine Howe,
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, Samuel Grialey Howe and a host of others.
In Nigeria, the formal Education of special need children dated back to
1950s when the first special school was established in Gindiri in the
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EDU 426 MODULE 1

present Plateau State by Sudan Interior Mission. However, our people

had ways of taking care of persons with special needs among them before
the advent of Western education. The missionaries played vital roles in
the establishment of special schools in Nigeria. For example, Pacelli
School for the blind was established in 1962 in Lagos by Archbishop
Taylor of the Catholic Church. The Wesley School was established by the
Methodist Church in Surulere Lagos in 1958 and a host of other special
schools began to spring up across the nation.

Read the details by clicking here

Let me ask you this, do you think that as we are talking about special
education, will it not be wise to talk about general education? Here we
go!

1.3.3 General Education and Special Education

The aim of education is to develop the intellectual, moral and physical

growth of an individual child. While special education aims at dealing
with children with special learning problems/difficulties and needs.
Obani (2004) states that Special Education looks beyond the ordinary
methods and provision of the conventional school system in order to
tackle the problems affecting the handicapped child’s ability to learn
effectively. Special education is “Child Centred and not Subject
Centred”.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

These pictures will throw in more light on what the content is all
about.

General education teacher standing in front of the class teaching.

Special education form of learning.

Though, the relationship between general education and special

education became a matter of concern to policy makers and researchers
in the 80s. but through 1990s reform proposal gave birth to inclusive
school movement where special need learners will be educated in the class
with their non disabled counterparts.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

1.3.2 Relationships between General Education and Special

Education

You can now see from the pictures above that both forms of learning
centered on the development of the child in order to maximize his/her
potentials. The relationship between general education and special
education became a matter of concern to policy makers and researchers
in the 80s. but through 1990s reform proposal gave birth to inclusive
school movement where special need learners will be educated in the class
with their non disabled counterparts. Their relationship cannot be
overemphasized hence, General Education is the education for all and
quite inclusive to the development of man to the fullest. So also, Special
Education is also designed to bring up children with special needs to
develop their full potentials. This is to say that, since there is ability in
every disability, Special Education feels the gap. Click on this link for
further readings on this. https://www.teachervision.com/teaching-
strategies/collaboration-between-general-and-special-education-teachers

1.3.5 Terminologies in Special Education

Special education has its own terms registers/jargons. Some of these

registers are used interchangeably.

Disability: Disability and Handicap are sometimes used interchangeably.

A person is disabled if a person loses a part of his body and this does not
prevent him from carrying out the functions expected of the lost part.
Handicap: A person is handicap if he/she loses part of his body and this
has prevented him from carrying out the functions expected of his/her lost
part.

Inclusive Education: It is a system of education designed to restructure

General Education schools and classrooms to accommodate all students
including learners with special needs.

1.3.6 Individualised Education Programme

Children have individual differences as a result of this, the rate at which

individuals learn vary. This is also applicable to children with special
needs. Individualized instruction is a kind of educational programme that
is specifically designed to meet the individual child’s specific needs,
problems, challenges and special educational needs.

Individual Educational programme must include current educational

performance, instructional goals, special education and related services,
age of the learners’ criteria and procedure for determining that the
instructional objectives are being met. It is pertinent to note that for

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

educational programme to be appropriate for each learner with disability,

it must be individualized. Therefore, the tools that offer appropriate
education to learners with disabilities are:
- The Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) – for infants.
- The Individualized Education Programme (IEP) – Pre-schoolers
through high school learners.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1
Attempt the following questions in not more than 5 minutes.
1. Education designed to meet with the needs of exceptional children is
called
A. General Education
B. Inclusive Education
C. Special Education
D. Gifted Education

2. ________ historical era was laid on peace and love

A. Pre-Christian
B. Post-Christian
C. Christian
D. Dark Age

3. The formal education of special needs children began to see the light
of the day primarily from the early
A. 1700
B. 1800
C. 1900
D. 2000

4. The Pre-Christian Era in the Historical Perspectives and Development

is also known as__________
1.4 Summary
A. Special Age
B. Pre-Civilized Age
In this unit, we have learnt about basic concepts in Special Education. We
alsoC.discussed
Dark Agethe definitions of Special Education. Further, we learnt
aboutD. the
Stone Age
Historical perspective and development of Special Education.
We shed light on the differences and relationship between General and
Special Education. Certain concepts in Special Education were also
discussed. Such concepts as Disability, Handicap, Inclusive Education
and Individualized Education Programme.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

1.5 Reference/Further Reading /Web Resources

Obani, T.C. (2004). Handicap, Disability and Special Education. What

Parents and Teachers want to know? Ibadan: Book Builders.

Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the content

Online Books are available. Click on this link:

https://laverne.libguides.com/c.php?g=34798&p=221662

Find the attached link for the video on special needs education.

Oparaduru, J. O. (2022). Video on Special Education

https://youtu.be/GqW5_A2NP14

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqW5_A2NP14

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

within the content

Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Special Education
2. Christian
3. 1800

10
EDU 426 MODULE 1

UNIT 2 RESEARCH IN SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Main Content
2.3.1 Definitions
2.3.2 Special Education and Special Needs Education
2.3.3 Relevance of Research in Special Needs Education
2.3.4 Barriers to Research Activities in Special Education
2.3.5 Strengthening Research in Special Education
2.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise(s) within the
content

2.1 Introduction

There is no doubt that research projects have contributed a lot to the

development and progress made in special need education. There are still
a lot to be done in the field of research in Nigeria; in order for special
needs education to keep abreast with counterparts in developing nations
of the world.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define research in your own words.

• Identify the types of researches
• Identify the relevance of research studies in the field of Special
Education

2.3 Main Content

2.3.1 Meaning & Definition

The word Research is made up of two syllables ‘RE’ and ‘search’.

Literally, ‘RE’ means to repeat while ‘search’ means to look for
something. Various scholars may define research in various ways for
example Aborisade (1997) defines research as a systematic thinking

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

strategy which involves a planned and formalized collection, analysis and

interpretation of data for problem solving.
Fawole, Egbokhare, Itiola, Odejide and Olayinka (2006) agree that there
can be many definitions of research. I have highlighted only three from
their list of definitions.
1. Research is an endeavour to study or obtain knowledge through the
use of systematic approach with the intent of clarification.
2. Research is a curiosity-driven activity that has the purpose of
discovery and advancement of knowledge (Basic Research).
3. Research is a systematic investigation including research
development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or to
contribute to generalisable knowledge. From the above definition
one can deduce therefore, that research is systematic, it is designed
to obtain knowledge and the results of a research are verifiable.

There are types and mode of research. The types of research are basic and
applied. Basic, pure or academic research gives the people the opportunity
of gaining new knowledge and developing new theories in a discipline
while applied research is directed at an existing problem. It finds solution
to practical problems in education. Research modes can be in form of
collaboration, contract sponsored and consultancy. Collaborative research
studies are carried out by two or more individuals or organizations. Find
here further readings on Educational Research here

Contracted Research
An industry or organisation can request an individual to carry out research
project for them. It is a joint effort.

Sponsored Research
Grants can be given to individuals or an individual can apply for grant to
carry out a research study. Sponsored research studies are either basic or
strategic but the outcomes are commercially oriented.

Consultancy
Tapping the skills and expertise of a specialist on a particular project.

2.3.2 Special Education and Special Needs Education

Special education and special needs education are used interchangeably.

There are some individuals who can learn very fast, there are those who
are slow learners. There are others who have difficulties in learning. There
are others who have special learning needs that occur as a result of
sensory, intellectual psychological or sociocultural deficiency. There are
others that are precocious and prodigious. All the aforementioned need
special education in order to function maximally.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

What is Special Education?

Special Education means specially designed instruction that meets the
unusual needs of exceptional students. Special materials, teaching or
equipment and/or facilities may be required (Hallahan and Kauffman,
2003).

Obani (2004) sees Special Education as the education that is concerned

with children who have been adversely affected to a greater extent, by one
or more of these factors. Special Education deals with children with
special learning problems, difficulties and needs. It applies special
methods and uses special equipment that takes the special problem of the
children into consideration.

From the above, one can deduce that Special Education is designed to
meet the needs of persons with special need. Special needs education
merely entails simple modifications, adaptations, adjustments innovations
and management of the curriculum, methods and materials in addition to
the other resources and practices of regular schools to fit and meet the
special learning needs of those who present different forms of disabilities
and learning difficulties (Obani, 2006).

2.3.3 Relevance of Research in Special Needs Education

Research is meant to better and improve the learning and educational

standard such as in teaching, classroom administration, psychological
assessment, child growth and development.

Adebiyi (1998) identifies the relevance of research in special education in

the following ways. These are to:

(a) Assess the effectiveness of a programme in Special Education.

(b) Find possible effect of taking certain decision.
(c) Find solution to practical problems that have been discovered in
Special Education.
(d) Evaluate the authenticity of certain concepts in Special Education.

Unarguably, research studies have contributed in no small measure to

improvement and progress made in special needs education over the
years. Over the years, in the education for the intellectually retarded for
example, it was through research that it was realized that physiological
method, play therapy etc. were adopted as effective methods of teaching
the intellectually retarded.

It was also through curiosity and passionate investigation that Valentine

Hauy discovered in 1771 that the blind could read and write by making

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

use of their fingers. Not only this, it is through research efforts that dog
was discovered useful in guiding the blind if well trained.

Through systematic investigations, it has been found out that the blind
can study mathematics and sciences up to the university level, their
disability not withstanding. It is obvious that the blind can manipulate
computer and access the internet conveniently.

In the same vein, research has revealed to us that there are classes and
degree of giftedness and how they can be taught. Even in our days,
through research, it has been found out that inclusive education is
beneficial to children with special needs.

It is also through various research studies that nomenclature have been

changed in Special Education. Also, through careful and extensive
investigations novel facts are discovered about nature and manifestations
in disability, leading to shift in the existing perspectives on issues in
special education. This is exemplified in the changes made to the
nomenclatures such as handicapped to disability, intellectually and not
mentally ‘retarded’ etc.

Related to the above, Kolo (1997) believes that research improves

performance and efficient practices in Special Education certain problems
are solved in the education for the visually handicapped persons through
research. For example, technological innovations for meeting
psychological, mobility, orientation and educational needs of the visually
handicapped person. Further readings can be seen here

2.3.4 Barriers to Research Activities in Special Education

There are a lot of challenges to research activities in Special Education

and those challenges are highlighted below:

Culture and Tradition

In Africa, there are a number of cultural taboos and traditions that are
inimical to the success of research in Special Education. Traditions
believe “as it was in the beginning, so it is and so shall it be”. Culture and
tradition make things to be static and stagnant. In some cases, it does not
give room for flexibility.

Attitudinal Issues
There is no doubt that one’s attitude determines one’s altitude. The
lackadaisical or non-challant attitude towards research activities in
Special Education is also a factor. Further, in their race to catch up with
the developed countries overnight many developing countries fail to
understand.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

• The nature of the research enterprise

• The long gestation periods of many research activities: the
products we see on shelves in markets have taken years to get to
the public.
• The expensive nature of research
• The speculative nature of research
• The need for continual and uninterrupted research engagement as
strategy for sustainable development.
• The imperative of seeing research as a veritable strategy for
sustainable development (Egbokhare, Olayinka, Taiwo, Alonge
and Obono, 2006).

It is not a National Interest. Many developing nations of the world have

focus and give priorities to research and as a result; researchers are
encouraged and motivated. But this is not so in some countries of Africa
including Nigeria.

Personnel Constraints
Many young researchers do not show interest in research studies. Possibly
because of the cost implication of the research work. Also, because the
cost of publishing in some scholarly international journals which is
exorbitant and unaffordable.

Ethical Issues
There are ethics peculiar to various fields. Research is of no exception.
Many people are in the field of research but never bother to obey the rules
of the game. Data are manipulated and figures are falsified; results of
researchers are not reproducible simply because, the rules of research
studies have been violated.

Inadequate Funding
Researchers and research works are not well funded. Research studies in
the field of special education are capital intensive. Equipment will be
needed; tests will be adapted where necessary when it is not available.
Some of the research studies in Special Education take years before they
can be completed.

Inadequate Data
This is a challenge to research studies in Special Education. There is no
particular place that we have as a databank. For instance, the statistical
number of persons with disabilities is not available in the country. There
should be the urgent need for census of persons with disabilities in
Nigeria.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

2.3.5 Strengthening Research in Special Education

In order to put research in Special Education in the bridal place, it

deserves those certain factors must be considered:

Research Factors
The researcher must have self-conviction. He/she must know what, how
and why he/she is doing what. He must have a focus. He must be skillful
on how to carry out research projects.

Government Factor
There should be proper funding on the part of government, various
foundations, philanthropists, organizations, individuals and non-
government organizations.

Societal Factors
There should be public enlightenment on research. Some of the parents of
persons with disabilities in some cases hide their disabled child at home
and will not tell the truth whenever they are to fill any questionnaire.
Through seminars, workshops and conferences society can be delivered
from the demon of culture and tradition in respect of barriers to research
studies.

Documentation Factors
There should be proper and adequate documentation of research works.
Workshops should be organized on how to keep document and various
records.

Note: You can see this write up to broaden your scope on the Special
Education during the era of Covid-19 Pandemic by Oparaduru (2021)
Click here

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

Self-Assessment Exercise 1
Attempt the following questions in not more than 5 minutes.

1. Education designed to meet the special needs of learners is called

A. Inclusive Education.
B. General Education
C. Special Education
D. Primary Education
2. The systematic thinking strategy which involves a planned and formalized
collection, analysis and interpretation of data for problem solving is termed
___________
3. All these are constraints of scientific research except
A. Personal constraints B. Ethical issues C. Inadequate funding D. Adequate
documentation
4. Do you subscribe that research has contributed in developing special
education?
A. Yes B. Undecided C. No

2.4 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about various scholarly definitions of

research. We also learnt about types and mode of research studies. We
discussed the relevance of research work to special needs education.
Further, we itemized various challenges and constraints to research
activities in special education.

We have learnt about various definitions of research. Research could be

defined as a systematic thinking strategy which involves a planned and
formalized collection, analysis and interpretation of Data for problem
solving.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

2.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Aborisade, F. (1997). Research Methods: A Student Handbook. Lagos:

Multifirm Limited.

Adebiyi, B.A. (1998). Research and Education of the Visually

Handicapped in a Declining Economy: An Overview of Nigerian
Perspective. Journal of Special Education 8(1).

Fawole, I., Egbokhare, F.O., Itiola, O.A., Odejide, A.I. and Olayinka, A.I.
(2006). Definition, Spectrum and Types of Research. In A.I.
Olayinka, V.O. Taiwo, A. Raji Oyelade and I.P. Farai (eds).
Methodology of Basic and Applied Research (2nd Edition). Ibadan:
The Postgraduate School.

Hallaham and Kauffman (2003). Exceptional Learners. Introduction to

Special Education. New York: Ally and Bacon.

Kolo, I.A. (1997). Synopsis of Current Research Trends in Special

Education and Guidelines of Proposal Writing. A Workshop Paper
presented at Federal College of Education (Special) Oyo. 16th
July, 1997.

Obani, T.C. (2004). Handicap, Disability and Special Education. What

Parents and Teachers want to know. Ibadan: Book Builders.

Obani, T.C. (2006). Special Education and Special Educational Needs. In

T.C. Obani (Eds) Teaching Pupils with Special Educational Needs
in the Regular UBE Classroom. Ibadan: Book Builders.

Oparaduru, J.O. (2021). Special Education in the Age of Covid-19

Pandemic. In: Pedagogy: Teaching and Learning in
Contemporary Nigeria. Houston Texas: Africa Press. Pages 309-
329. (Publishers: National Open University of Nigeria.)

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

2.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Special Education
2. Research
3. Adequate documentation
4. Undecided

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

UNIT 3 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY IN THE EDUCATION OF
LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Main Content
3.3.1 Definitions
3.3.2 The Internet
3.3.3 The Uses of ICT in Education
3.3.4 Categories of Children with Special Needs
3.4 Summary
3.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
3.6 Self-Assessment Exercises within the content.

3.1 Introduction

Technological revolution has transformed many aspects of our life,

including how we communicate, how we spend our free time and
especially how we work. As the life and work place demands have
changed as a result of this technological revolution, so have conceptions
of the successful adults and the relevant educational experiences they
should encounter while attending school (Siddiqui, 2004).

Due to advancement in technology, teaching and learning process have

taken a new dimension now. The situation has changed from old order of
textbook consultation by teachers for onward delivery in the classroom.
Through technology, both teachers and students alike can now interact
with the internet to update their knowledge on any issue in different
disciplines.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define Information Communication Technology

• Identify the relevance of Information Communication Technology
to Special Needs Education.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

3.3 Main Contents

3.1 Definition

Information technology is a term that encompasses the notion of the

application of technology to information handling which include:
generation, organization, storage, retrieval and dissemination of
information (Maduagwu and Ajobiewe, 2006). Information
Communication Technology (ICT) involves telephones, cables,
television, satellite communication, computers internet and G.S.M. The
use of information communication technology cuts across all disciplines
and for all segments of the society (either the young or the old, male or
female).

Information Technology (IT) was defined by the Information and

Technology Association of American (ITTA) as “the study, design,
development, implementation, support or management of computer-
based information systems, particularly software applications and
computer hardware”. It deals with the use of electronic computers and
computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit and
retrieved information securely.

UNESCO (2002) defined ICT as the range of technologies that are applied
in the process of collecting, storing, editing, retrieving and transfer of
information in various forms. The definition implies that in an effective
teaching and learning, relevant information will go a long way in the
achievement of stated goals and objectives. One dominant aspect of
Information Communication Technology (ICT) which has revolutionized
the world is the INTERNET

3.2 The Internet

The internet is a world wide “network or wireless” that allows people to

communicate and interact with one another regardless of physical
proximity. The internet was initially created to help foster communication
among government sponsored researches. In the last few decades, it grew
steadily to include educational institutions, government agencies,
commercial organisations and international organisations. It is
undergoing a phenomenal growth with connections increasing faster than
any other network ever created. The internet has made it possible for the
world to become a global village connecting people from different
geographical locations (Ogundele, 2008).

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

3.3 The uses of ICT in Education

ICT is a generic term referring to technologies which are used for

collection, storing, editing and passing an information in various forms
(SER, 1997). Effective educational research cannot take place without
passing of relevant information through the teacher to the learners and
vice versa. A personal computer is the best-known example of the use of
ICT in Education, but the term multimedia is also being frequently used.
Multimedia can be interpreted as a combination of data carriers, for
example video CD-ROM, Floppy disc and internet and software in which
the possibility for an interactive approach is offered (Smeets, 1996).

ICT can be used in education in the following ways as highlighted by

SER, 1997; and Pilot, 1998):

1. ICT as an object. This refers to learning about ICT. Mostly

organized in a specific course. What is being learnt depends on the
type of education and level of the students. Education prepares
students for the use of ICT in education, future occupation and
social life.
2. ICT as an Assisting Tool: ICT is used as a tool for example while
making assignment, collecting data and documentation,
communicating and conducting research. Typically, ICT is used
independently from the subject matter.
3. ICT as a Reference to ICT Medium for Teaching and
Learning: This is as a tool for teaching and learning itself, the
medium through which teacher can teach and learners can learn. It
appears in many different forms, such as drill and practice
exercises in simulations and educational networks.
4. ICT as a Tool for Organization and Management in Schools:
The main thrust of the use of ICT in this paper focuses on the
Special Needs Education. This is the education that is specially
designed to meet the needs of persons with one form of
handicapping condition or another and the gifted and talented
individuals. Obaje (2007) sees special education as an area within
the frame work of general education that provides teachers with
the training for special needs children who cannot benefit from
regular classroom setting. Special needs education is also seen as
“the education that is given in the regular classroom teachers
sometimes with the collaboration of specially trained teacher to all
children regardless of their physical, sensory and psychological
differences.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

3.4 Categories of Children with Special Needs

Categories of children with special needs include the following:

- Children with learning disabilities
- Children with intellectual retardation
- Children with behaviour disorders
- Children with hearing impairment
- Children with visual impairment
- Children with physical impairment
- Children with communication disorders. Modern communication
and children with Special Needs.

Modern communication technology has introduced a lot of devices like

computers satellites, film slides, fax, video-disc, cellular etc. which have
been noted to facilitate the teaching-learning processes of children with
special needs. Computers are tools for teachers and students.

They can be used for creation of individualized and collaborative

instruction and can manage and generate instructional research and
administrative data. Computers are now used by everybody irrespective
of individual disposition. Children with special needs can use computer
to have access to various subject areas (Stephen black Hurst and
Magliocca, 1988).

The Gifted and the Creatively Talented

The computer is a learning, productivity and simulation tool which the
gifted and talented can use for explanatory work to control their learning
environment and performance. Learning programme is on creative
activity they can do simulation games and science experiment. The “slides
tape show” reported by Frith and Reynolds (1993) provided creative
activities for them to select a topic for show, write the scripts, develop
graphics, make the slides, develop audio music at the beginning and at the
end of the presentation and finally integrate the slide with the audio
component to ensure the presentation of the show. For the group also, the
computer has been used to facilitate independent study.

Children with Specific Learning Difficulties

Some children with learning disabilities have specific learning difficulties
in reading writing, spelling or listening while others may have difficulty
in calculation, reasoning or some form of perceptual problems. Usually
some deviant behaviours like impulsivity, hyperactivity, distractivity, etc.
are exhibited. The only common educational characteristics is that they
show a discrepancy between their potential to learn and their actual
performance of attainment.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

Computer for children with learning difficulties is reinforcement and can

provide recreational and vocational opportunities. With this group,
computer has been used in designing programmes to avoid learning
problems. Tape recorded materials have been used to address specific
deficit. Caption films have been utilized in teaching this category of
special needs children. Computer has also been used to teach complex
skills through computer assisted instruction and simulation (Carnine,
1989). This assertion of Carnine can also be buttressed by the opinion of
Vander Molen, Van Lult, Van der Molen, Klugkist, Jongmans (2010) by
their expositions on the relevance of ICT in teaching children with
learning disabilities. More of their expositions can be seen here

Children with Behaviour Disorders

There are children with behaviour disorders. They have problems of
attention span, retention deficits and lack of motivation. For these
categories of children, computer can meet their needs in terms of:

- Reduction of distraction and irrelevant stimuli

- Prompts and cues
- Instruction in small manageable steps
- Specification and repetition of task directions.
- Practice for over-learning
- Immediate and frequent reinforcement
- Feedback in a non threatening manner.

These children have also been taught how to operate the micro computers
from picture prompts (Frank, 1988) thus facilitating instruction. Improved
communication skills have been noted through taped-words treatment.

Children with Hearing Impairment

For children with hearing impairment, a wider world of communication
has been opened to them through the use of telecommunication devices
which allow them to receive messages through videotaped presentations.
The speech synthesizer that permits children with hearing impairment to
see in prints what others are communicating to them. messages are
displayed on the screen for them to see and read. Deaf net is another
computer-based telecommunication network that leads to expand the deaf
potential for social interaction with them and the hearing persons of the
world. This system is like an electronic post office with the private mail
boxes into which messages are saved until collected by the owner.

Children with Visual Impairment

Hallahan and Kauffman (1988) noted that in recent years a minor
explosion in communication has resulted in electronic devices for use in
the teaching-learning process of children with visual impairment. For
example, the optacon converts print materials to a tactile image. It can be

24
EDU 426 MODULE 1

adapted to read a computer screen, an electronic calculator or a typewriter.

The Kurswell reading machine converts prints into speech when material
is placed face down on a scanner, the individual hears the material being
“read” by an electronic voice, at a level as fast as human speech. The
speech plus calculator or talking calculator displays information visually
and speaks. It performs basic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division as well as computer square roots and
percentages. Computer has also been used to increase the level of
interaction between children with visual impairment and the sighted
world (Oshon, 1983). Computer with low vision and devices assist
mobility of this category of special needs people. Computer with synthetic
speech (Duxbury word processor) help in pronouncing texts for them. The
computer can tell children with visual impairment about other information
displayed on the screen. These children can also use the electronic
communication system (network) vis-à-vis braille, to send information to
one another in braille. Closed Circuit Television. Computer helps to
display typed information in large letters. These children can also use the
computer to change the background of the text in different contrasting
colours.

Children with Physical Impairment

Many of such children do have birth in injuries, illness or accidents that
affect their range of motion, physical strength co-ordination,
communication and interaction with instructional materials (MC Cormic
and Haring, 1986). The physical problem of these children interferes with
their ability to participate fully in classroom instructional programmes
(Step Black Hurst and Maglloca, 1986). Computer can break these
barriers imposed by physical impairment. For example, children with
cerebral palsy can use keyboard (with holes) to access the curriculum.
Mainstreamed special needs children with paralysis, amputees’, etc. may
use a rubber tipped. Stick to operate a keyboard. Those who are unable to
use a mouth stick or headwind may operate switches with different parts
of their bodies over which they have control. Computer has been used to
improve communication skills in children with cerebral palsy (Gall Loke,
Jones, Isantis Vogel and White, 1989).

Children with Communication Disorders

These are children who experience difficulties in their communication
skills, which exert significant impact on their daily lives. Some of these
speech and language disorders include: stuttering, delayed speech,
articulation disorders, voice disorder and aphasia. Head pointer attached
to a computer can be useful to them. Speech synthesizer provides children
with communication disorder access to social and economic integration.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

Children with Intellectual Retardation

Children with intellectual retardation are a group of special needs children
with very low intelligence that is below the average and they tend to have
maladaptive behaviour. There are three groups of children with
intellectual retardation (the educable, the trainable and the totally
dependent). The use of computer for any of these groups vary according
to their needs. Generally, computers are used to enhance the education of
the intellectually retarded children in the following ways:
- Reduction of distraction and irrelevant stimuli
- Specification and repetition of task directions, presentation of
prompts and cues
- Presentation of small segment and meaningful instruction (task
analysis)

All summary of all the uses of computer with appropriate programming

has been suggested to include the following:
- Provides a multisensory approach to learning
- Used to teach a wide range of subjects
- Gives a variety of reinforcement
- Provides continuous encouragement.
- Facilitates active participation in the learning process.
- Used with diverse students’ populations.
- Provides direct individualized interactive instruction.
- Allows a student to learn at his own rate.
- Remembers student responses
- Provides instant feedback
- Provides remediation, development or enrichment, depending on
the need of the learners.
- Provides repetition; drill and practice in a meaningful manner.
- Provides diagnostic and prescriptive information to the teacher
used as an ideal management and retrieval system for students’
records assessment scores, students’ objectives and IEPs;
- Frees the teacher from hours of repetitions paper and pencil
activities (Handford and Bloanc, 1981; 54).

26
EDU 426 MODULE 1

Self-Assessment Exercise 1
Attempt the following questions in not more than 5 minutes.
1. __________involves telephones, cables, television, satellite
communication, computers internet and G.S.M.

A. Information community Technocrats

B. Information Communication Technology
C. Information Communication Technoloogy
D. Information comunicationTechnology

2. Children with ______ have problems of attention span, retention

deficits and lack of motivation.
A. Visual impairment
B. Behaviour disorder
C. Mental retardation
D. Attitudinal challenge
3. There are __________groups of children with intellectual retardation
A. one
B. two
C. three
D. four

3.4 Summary

In this unit, we learnt about information technology as the study, design,

development, implementation, support or management of computer-
based information systems, particularly software application and
computer hardware. We also learnt about the uses of ICT in Education
and Special Needs Education

3.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Carmine, D. (1989). Teaching Complex Content to Learning Disabled

Student. The Role of Technology. Exceptional Children 55, 524 –
533.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

Frank, A.R. (1988) Operating Micro Computers

from Picture Prompts. Teaching Exceptional Children
12(2), 52 – 54.

Frith, G.H. and Reynolds, F. (1993). Slide Tape Shows: A creative

Activity for Gifted Students. Teaching Exceptional Children 22,
54 – 55.

Gall, D; Icke, N. Jones, J. Isantis, L. Vogel, K. and White, L. (1989).

School University: IBM Partnership Children Develop Common
Skills. Teaching Exceptional Children 22(1), 54 – 55.

Hallahan, D.P. and Kauffman, J.M. (1988). Exceptional Children.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall.

Hanaford, A. and Shane, E. (1985). Micro Computers Powerful Learning

Tools with Proper Programming. Teaching Exceptional Children.
14(2) 54 – 57.

Maduagwu, D.K. and Ajobiewe, T. (2006). Information and

Communication Technology (ICTs) in Libraries: An Employment
Avenue for People with Special Needs in B.A. Adebiyi (Ed.)
Employment of Persons with Disabilities. Ibadan: Radiance
Publication.

McCormic and McCormic, (1986). Technological Application for

Children with Special Needs in Mc. Cormic and Haring (Eds).
Exceptional Children and Youth. Columbus: Charks E. Merril

Ogundele, A.A. (2008). Enhancing the Teaching of Biology to Hearing

Impaired Students through the use of Information Communication
Technology in The Exceptional Child, 10(1) 179 – 186.

Olson, M.E. (1983). A Study of the Explanatory Behaviour of Legally

Blind and Sighted Pre-scholars. Exceptional Children 48, 321 –
363.

Pilot, A. (1998). De Student also Junior Meduweker. Utreecht.IVLOS,

University of Utrecht.

SER (1997). KTEN Arbeid Advices Informative – encommunication

Technologies Enabled. Den Haagi SER social Economics Chc –
Read.

Siddiqui, M.H. (2004). Technology in Teacher Education. APH

Publishing Corporation, Darya Ganj. New Delhi.

28
EDU 426 MODULE 1

Smeets, E.F.L. (1996). Multimedia OP School

NigemegenWetenschappen, UbbegenTondem Felix

Stephens, T.M. and Black, A.E. and Magliocca (1988). Using Micro
Computers with Mainstreamed Students in Stephens Blackhurst
and Magliocca (Eds.) Teaching Mainstreamed Students. Oxford:
Peramon

UNESCO (2002). Information and Communication in Education.A

curriculum for schools and programmes for Teacher’s
development. Paris: UNESCO.

Uyanwa, C.N. (2008). Facilitating Instruction of Special Needs Education

through Communication Technology. In The Exceptional
Child.The Journal of the National Council for Exceptional
Children 10(1).

Van der Molen, M.J., Van Lult, J.E.H., Van der Molen, M.W., Klugkist,
I., Jongmans, M.J.: Effectiveness of a computerized working
memory training in adolescents with mild to borderline intellectual
disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 54(5), 433–
447 (2010)

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

3.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Information Communication Technology

2. Behaviour Disorder
3. Three

30
EDU 426 MODULE 1

UNIT 4 CURRENT ISSUES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

Unit Structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Learning Outcomes
4.3 Main Content
4.3.1 Special Education and Reform Issues
4.3.2 The Nomenclature Issue
4.3.3 Disability Classification
4.3.4 Classroom Environment
4.3.5 Special Education Teachers
4.3.6 Funding Issues
4.4 Summary
4.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
4.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content

4.1 Introduction

The adage "there are two sides to every story" applies to special
education. In the early years of special education, there was one clearly
defined goal - an appropriate education for students with disabilities.
Parents, professionals, and students with disabilities rallied together to
attain this right. Having secured this goal, the allies splintered into
numerous advocacy groups, each fighting for different issues in special
education. Issues such as school reform, full inclusion, standards
assessment, and disability classification can be viewed not only from at
least two perspectives, but from many variations or degrees of each.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Differentiate between Special Education and the Regular form of

Education
• List the different categories Persons with Special Needs State the
different type of programmes available to persons with Special
Needs.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

4.3 Main Content

4.3.1 Special Education and Reform Issues

School reform has been a burning issue since the early 1980s, but special
education was not often included in discussions of reform until about the
turn of the twentieth century. In the early years of the twenty-first century,
the following are the issues involved:

Full inclusion
In full inclusion, all students - regardless of disability, health needs,
academic ability, service needs, and, often, preference of parent or student
- are educated full-time in a general education class in their
neighbourhood school (the school they would attend had they no
disability). In this model, the child receives special education support
services in the general education classroom. Full inclusion requires either
a team-teaching approach or consultation of the regular classroom teacher
with a special educator. In team teaching, a classroom will have both a
general education teacher and a special education teacher equally sharing
the responsibility to teach the whole class. In consultation, a special
education teacher works with many general education teachers, meeting
with them and answering questions as needed or on a regular schedule.

Proponents of full inclusion believe that pulling a child out of the

classroom to provide special education services or placing the child in a
self-contained classroom or special school is inherently unfair and inferior
and, therefore, not just. They also argue that both the students with
disabilities and their peers benefit from full inclusion, an argument that
often places greater emphasis on social interaction than academic
achievement.

Full continuum of placements

Proponents of a full continuum of alternative placements, noted that since
1975 the law has mandated a continuum of placements including
placement: (1) full-time in a general education classroom; (2) part time in
a special education resource room; (3) fulltime in a special education self-
contained classroom;(4) in a separate special education school; (5) at a
residential facility; and (6) in the hospital. They agree that full-time
placement in general education is appropriate for some students, but not
for every student with disabilities. Proponents also argued that in
accordance with the education policy, each student should be assessed
and placed individually. Many students with disabilities commonly need
a more structured and clearly defined environment, either academically
or behaviourally, than a general education classroom can provide. Also,
students with severe emotional or behavioural disabilities can infringe on
32
EDU 426 MODULE 1

other students' education in a general education classroom by either

monopolizing a teacher's attention or by placing peers and teachers in
physical danger. While believing that students should be educated in the
least restrictive environment with nondisabled peers to the maximum
extent appropriate, proponents of the continuum also believes that it is
immoral and illegal to place every student in the exact same placement
regardless of individual needs.

4.3.2 The Nomenclature Issue

Controversies surrounding labels and categories of disabilities are a major

concern to parents and professionals. One issue is whether students should
be labelled at all. Proponents of labels such as learning disabled, deaf, or
autistic are of the opinion that these labels provide a common ground for
professionals, researchers, and parents to discuss practices and share
knowledge about particular disabilities. Labels help teachers and
administrators prepare for and provide a student with an appropriate
education. Schools can better manage their budgets if they can explain
what they normally do with the funds already provided for them and why
they still need more funds.

Opponents of labels argue that labels permanently stigmatize the student.

They believe that teachers and administrators lower their expectations of
a labelled student, creating a vicious cycle in which the student is given
fewer and fewer challenges and falls further behind what is expected of
the child. An extension of the labelling issue is categorical versus non
categorical labelling. Categorical labelling specifies a disability based on
categories in the national policy of education. Non categorical labelling
tags a student as disabled or developmentally delayed without specifying
the precise disability. Non-descriptive labels can provide educators and
parents additional time to observe and evaluate the child before making a
decision on disability type. Though this can help avoid mislabelling, the
benefits of categorical labelling are lost.

4.3.3 Disability Classifications

Some disabilities can be measured and defined objectively, and thus are
easily identifiable. If a child is classified as blind, there is usually
agreement about what blindness means and whether the child qualifies for
special education or other services. However, many disabilities are not
easy to identify and label. Judgemental categories such as learning
disability, intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance, autism, and
giftedness require professional judgement and subjective analysis. Severe
and multiple disabilities, though often easier to identify, also create
controversies because judgement is required to distinguish the level of
disability (mild, moderate, or severe).

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

Learning disability: The majority of students categorically labelled

have learning disabilities (LD). This is ironic because LD is one of the
most difficult disabilities to define. Some individuals believe that LD is
simply a social construct for those students who have not had adequate
instruction. Another concern is that the policy’s definition of LD
describes what LD is not, rather than what it is, leaving localities with the
task of finding an appropriate definition for it. Most people define LD
using a discrepancy between the student's actual achievement and the
student's presumed ability or IQ. The problem is that not all localities use
the same discrepancy standard or the same tests to measure achievement
and ability and discrepancy scores have inherent limitations.

Intellectual Disabilities: Intellectual Disabilities (ID) is identified by

below average intellectual ability and poor adaptive behaviour that is
pervasive in all areas of life. Intellectual ability and adaptive behaviour
can both be ambiguous, as different tests yield different intelligence
quotients and assessment of adaptive behaviour requires subjective
judgment. A disproportionately large number of children from minority
populations and low socioeconomic status are identified as having
intellectual disabilities, giving rise to the argument that identification of
intellectual disabilities is biased (too many African-American and Latino
students and too many poor students are identified, but too few children
of Asian descent are identified).

Emotional disturbance: Emotional disturbance refers to severe and

protracted difficulties in relationships with other people. Controversies
abound regarding who should be included in the category of emotional
disturbance (ED). The policy of education excludes from ED students
who are socially maladjusted but not emotionally disturbed, but it does
not define social maladjustment. Confounding the problem is another
clause describing ED as "an inability to build or maintain satisfactory
relationships with peers and teachers," which can be interpreted to mean
social maladjustment. Thus, the language of the law seems self-
contradictory. Another issue in ED is disagreement on the actual number
of students with this disorder. Many estimates based on prevalence studies
range from 6 to 25 percent of the student population, but less that 1
percent of the school population has been identified as having ED for
special education purposes.

Autism: Autism is a pervasive developmental disability affecting

approximately one in 500 children. Its onset is noted before the age of
three years. Professionals find it hard to agree on a definition. One of the
main controversies in definition involves the closely related syndromes of
Asperger's and Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD). There is great
confusion and disagreement as to whether these are separate disabilities

34
EDU 426 MODULE 1

or different levels of severity of autism. Causes as well as the best

treatments are also disputed for each.

Attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) have always been controversial. One reason for this is
that the characteristics of ADD/ADHD, including careless mistakes on
school work, forgetting daily activities, fidgeting with hands or feet, or
talking excessively, can describe an average child. What makes a
diagnosis of ADD/ADHD difficult is determining whether these
characteristics are beyond normal for the student's age and have become
a disability. In fact, some professionals argue that ADD/ADHD does not
exist and that the label is used haphazardly on students who simply exhibit
inappropriate behavior and a lack of discipline. Furthermore, IDEA does
not acknowledge ADD/ADHD as a separate category but includes it
under "other health impaired" (OHI). There is also a growing concern that
too many children are being medicated for ADD/ADHD.

Gifted and Talented: Gifted and talented are the opposite of disabilities,
but some, if not all, of the same issues discussed previously apply (e.g.,
stigma of identification, judgment in assessment). Opponents of special
programs for gifted and talented students argue that separating them from
their non gifted classmates is elitist and that all students should be
exposed to a superior, highly challenging education. A disproportionately
high number of Caucasian and Asian students are identified as gifted,
while a disproportionately low number of African American and Hispanic
students are found eligible for gifted programs. Proponents of special
education for gifted students believe that these students need a special
curriculum. Gifted students who are asked to work below their ability
level or tutor their less gifted peers become bored and lose motivation.
Identifying gifted students is also difficult because there is not one
universally accepted definition, nor is gifted a category acknowledged
under the law. The decision to provide gifted education and to determine
what qualifies a student as gifted is often a local responsibility.

3.3.7 Severe and multiple disabilities

Compared to other conditions, there is less uncertainty in the

identification of students with severe and multiple disabilities (SMD).
Increased numbers of children identified as having SMD, however, is a
fairly new trend in special education. Advances in medicine and
technology are helping more children than ever before survive serious
medical emergencies and severe injuries. This increase has spurred
changes in special education and has placed new demands on personnel
and the physical environment. These children often need assistive and
medical technology in the classroom, as well as personnel knowledgeable

35
EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

about this equipment. Some of these students need continuous support

from a classroom assistant, especially when included in general
education.

4.3.4 Classroom Environment

Three trends in special education have especially significant influence on

the classroom environment, they are:(1) early intervention and
prevention, (2) technology, and (3) transition plans.
1. Early intervention and prevention. Early intervention and
prevention of disabilities are not new ideas, but they have
experienced increasing emphasis. Schools are realizing that early
intervention and prevention not only benefit children in the long
run but save money as well by reducing the later need for costly
services. Two significant issues are the appropriate role for the
family of the child and whether the intervention should be child
centered or teacher-directed. In addition, obstacles to early
intervention and prevention are still being addressed.
2. Technology. Technology permeates our society with increasing
intensity and reaches into classrooms. It helps students overcome
limitations previously placed on them by a disability. Computer
programs allow keyboarding and navigation of the Internet by eye
movements. Cochlear implants allow deaf students to hear, and
new prosthetics (artificial body parts) provide greater mobility and
participation in education and society.
3. Transition. This is transition from one school setting to another or
from school to work. Firstly, there must be transition-planning
conferences for children exiting early intervention programs, the
second is a statement of needed services for the transition from
high school to higher education or work in the Individualized
Education Plan (IEP) for students age fourteen or older. Other
forms of transition planning, such as from middle school to high
school or from a self-contained or restrictive environment to a less
restrictive environment, are also becoming common.

4.3.5 Special Education Teachers

There is a critical teacher shortage in special education in all areas of

licensure. Reasons include a shortage of people going through teacher
training programs in special education and entering the field, and
alarmingly high exit rates for special education teachers. For example,
statistics from 1993 - 1994 shows that the total demand for special
education teachers was 335,000, yet there were only 18,250 special
education degree graduates, covering a mere 5.4 percent of the demand.
Because of this gross need, alternative licensure programs have evolved:
army personnel are being trained for a second career in teaching and

36
EDU 426 MODULE 1

drastically intensified and accelerated summer programs are replacing

four-year licensure programs. While these programs can help place more
teachers in the classroom, some professionals question the quality of both
the teacher education programs and the newly licensed teachers. Also,
some districts fill special education positions with teachers having either
no prior education experience or with only general education experience
and provide provisional or conditional licensure to these newly hired
teachers. Due to these difficulties, teacher retention has also become a
critical issue.

Debate also exists over categorical or non-categorical licensure.

Proponents of categorical licensure argue that each disability category is
substantially different from others and that teachers should be highly
specialized in that area. Proponents of non-categorical licensure argue
that teachers should be prepared to teach all children and should have the
expertise to address differing abilities and disabilities.

A closely related issue is a trend in higher education to merge the special

education teacher program into the general education program, doing
away with special education altogether. The arguments for and against
this teacher education structure are similar to those for categorical versus
non-categorical licensure.

4.3.6 Funding Issues

Funding issues and controversies facing all areas of education, including

special education. Because special education requires services above
those specified in the general education curriculum, additional funding is
critical. In1975, the federal government acknowledged the need for
additional funding of programmes of persons with Special needs and
promised to supplement it by 40 percent of the excess costs incurred in
implementing the act's mandates. Unfortunately, the federal government
has never come close to fulfilling this promise. Over the years, however,
there has been a greater effort to provide these funds to the states.

Other issues persist at the local level. One common controversy stem from
a belief that because the law requires special education services, these
programs are funded first, utilizing the money that would otherwise be
spent on general education. Another disputed issue is program
consolidation - the blending of categorical programs such as special
education, English as a second language, or other separately funded
programs. Proponents believe that by pooling resources, all children can
benefit and can be educated more effectively. Opponents of program
consolidation believe it will diminish both the rights of children in these
programs as well as the quality of special services provided.

37
EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

Other issues persist at the local level. One common controversy stem from
a belief that because the law requires special education services, these
programs are funded first, utilizing the money that would otherwise be
spent on general education. Another disputed issue is program
consolidation - the blending of categorical programs such as special
education, English as a second language, or other separately funded
programs. Proponents believe that by pooling resources, all children can
benefit and can be educated more effectively. Opponents of program
consolidation believe it will diminish both the rights of children in these
programs as well as the quality of special services provided.

NOTE: Other information on current issues in special education can be

referred in the works of McKenna (2021). Click here

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Attempt the following questions in not more than 5 minutes.

1. School reform has been a burning issue since the early ___________

A. 1970s
B. 1980s
C. 1990s
D. 2000s
2. Three trends in special education have significant influence on the
following except________
A. early intervention and prevention,
B. technology,
C. transition plans, and
D. ICT

3. __________is a pervasive developmental disability affecting

approximately one in 500 children.
A. Autism
B. Learning Disability
C. Intellectual Disability
D. Emotional Disability

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

4.4 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about various issues and reforms that have
taken place in Special Education. Reforms such as full Inclusion, full
continuum placement, nomenclature issues and finding issues.

4.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Bateman, Barbara D., and Linden, Mary A. (1998). Better IEPs: How to
Develop Legally Correct and Educationally Useful Programs, 3rd
edition. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Crockett, Jean B., and Kauffman, James M. (1999). The Least Restrictive
Environment: Its Origins and Interpretations in Special
Education. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gersten, Russell; Schiller, Ellen P.; and Vaughn, Sharon, (2000).

Contemporary Special Education Research: Syntheses of the
Knowledge Base on Critical Instructional Issues.

Goodlad and Thomas C. Lovitt. Columbus, OH: Merrill/Macmillan.

Hallahan, Daniel P., and Kauffman, James M. (2000). Exceptional

Learners: Introduction to Special Education, 8th edition. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.

Hallahan, Daniel P.; Kauffman, James M.; and Lloyd, John W. (1999).
Introduction to Learning Disabilities, 2nd edition. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.

Kauffman, James M. (1999). "Commentary: Today's Special Education

and Its Messages for Tomorrow." The Journal of Special
Education 32:244 - 254.

Kauffman, James M., and Hallahan, Daniel P. (1993). "Toward a

Comprehensive Delivery System for Special Education." In
Integrating General and Special Education, (ed) John I.

Lloyd, John W.; Kameenui, Edward J.; and Chard, David, (1997). Issues
in Educating Students with Disabilities. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

39
EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

Mckenna, W. (2021). Implementing New Technology in the Elementary

Classroom.
https://blog.edmentum.com/mckennawiermanedmentumcom

National Policy of Education (1981), Federal Government of Nigeria

Ysseldyke, James E.; Algozzine, Bob; and Thurlow, Martha L. (2000).

Critical Issues in Special Education, 3rd edition. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

4.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. 1980s
2. ICT
3. Autism

41
EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

MODULE 2 EDUCATION FOR THE

INTELLECTUALLY RETARDED

Unit 1 Definition, Categories and Causes of Intellectual

Retardation
Unit 2 Characteristics, Identification and Educational
Method Of Teaching Intellectually Retarded Children

UNIT 1 DEFINITION, CATEGORIES AND CAUSES OF

INTELLECTUAL RETARDATION

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Main Content
1.3.1 Definitions
1.3.2 History of Intellectual Retardation
1.3.3 Classification of Intellectual Retardation.
1.3.4 Causes of Intellectual Retardation
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content

1.1 Introduction

Persons with intellectual Retardation or Cognitive disabilities are found

in any society of the world. Individuals with intellectual retardation and
those who teach or take care of them must learn all the essential skills
needed or required to improve the living standard of the retarded.

It is paramount to know that the group of persons with disabilities belong

to different families, they also have friends and siblings. Different
societies of the world find it difficult to understand them, hence, they are
called different names. In Great Britain for instance, they are referred to
as Mentally Retarded or intellectually retarded while in the Nigerian
Society, persons with intellectual retarded have names or labels other than
the ones given by their parents. For instance, the Yoruba called them
“Dindirin” while the Ibo call them “Onye Iberibe” and the Hausa refer
to them as “Dolo” or “Wawa”.

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you will be able to:

• discuss the definitions of intellectual retardation.

• explain the degree of severity and outcome of intellectual
retardation.
• identify different categories of children with intellectual
retardation
• mention the possible causes of intellectual retardation.

1.3 Main Content

1.3.1 Definitions

There are various definitions of mental or intellectual retardation. Mental

retardation is a generalized disorder characterized by subaverage
cognitive functioning and deficit in two or more adaptive behaviour with
onset before the age of 18. (AAMR 2002).

In a related definition The American Association of Mental Deficiency

defines Mental Retardation thus “A significantly sub-Average general
intellectual functioning that originates during the developmental period
and is associated with impairment in adaptive behaviour (Grossman
1973). However, many professionals prefer the 2002 AAMR definition
because it is more encompassing and detailed. The 2002 AAMR
definition opines that one must be cautious in the use of I.Q scores,
stresses concepts of adaptive behaviour and systems of supports. The
definition of AAMR has three (3) major components.

• Intellectual functioning
• Adaptive behaviour
• Systems of support.

Intellectual Functioning: It means that the individual has been evaluated

with instrument or test that has capacity to measure traits of intelligence
in it entirely but the individual with intellectual retardation has
significantly sub average intellectual functioning.

Adaptive Behaviour: This is simply the ability to cope with one’s

environment. It is a behaviour everyone uses to function in daily life.
Persons with mental retardation and others with one disability may have

43
EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

difficulties in this area because they do not have the skills needed in
specific situation.

System of Support: This deals with social intelligence. The ability to

interpret social behaviour of other people and to interact with them.
Persons with intellectual disabilities require support in every area,
especially the profoundly and severely mentally retarded.

1.3.2 History of Intellectual Retardation

Persons with Intellectual Retardation have been neglected in most

societies of the world. The history of the intellectually retarded dated back
before the birth of Christ. Data (2006) avers the Greeks in 1552 B.C. and
the Romans in 449 B.C. were among the first to recognize people
officially as mentally retarded. Attitude of people towards the mentally
retarded in the early societies were harsh and in-human. the beginning of
19th century brought dramatic turning point in life of the mentally
retarded. The first attempt to educate an individual with mental
retardation was recorded. In 1798, three hunters discovered a 12 years old
boy in the woods of Aveyron in France. The boy was later Christianed
Victor, the wild boy of Aveyron, Victor was a profound mentally
retarded, unsocialised and had no language. Victor was also thought to be
uneducated and unteachable. As providence would have it. He was
brought to Jean Hard an experienced physician. Jean Itard tried to educate
Victor but he was unsuccessful though there were little improvement.
Later Edward Seguin continued with the work of his master Jean Itard.
Edward later established the Pennsylvania training school. Samuel
Gridley Howe founded residential school in United State i.e., the
Massachusetts School for the idiot and feeble-minded youth

1.3.3 Classification of Intellectual Retardation

In classifying intellectually retardation children’s certain factors such as

the degree of retardation, clinical symptoms, educational purpose and
historical beliefs, and causes are taken into consideration. Intellectually
retarded children are classified in different perspectives. These are
traditional, degree educational and clinical.

TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION EDUCATIONAL

CLASSFICIATION ACCORDING TO CLASSIFICATION
DEGREE
Moron, I.Q 50-85 Mild Educable Mentally
Retarded
Imbecile I.Q 25-50 Moderate Trainable Mentally
Retarded

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EDU 426 MODULE 1

Idiot – I.Q. 0-25 Severe/Profound Totally dependent

Mentally Retarded.

The following are the clinical classification of intellectually retarded.

Cretinism
Down syndrome
Hydrocephaly
Microcephaly
Cridu chat

1.3.4 Causes of Intellectual Retardation

Today, researchers in the field of special education have revealed that

intellectual retardation is caused by many factors. Many of the causes are
known but others remain mysteries that cannot be explained. The causes
of intellectual retardation can be categorized according to the time at
which the cause occurs. These are as follow:
• pre-natal (before birth)
• Perinatal (during birth)
• Post natal (after birth)

The prenatal causes can also be grouped into:

Chromosomal Disorders: These are genetic causes of intellectual
retardation. There are some genetic syndromes that can cause intellectual
retardation such as Down syndrome, William syndrome, fragile X
syndrome and Prader Willi Syndrome.

Errors of Metabolism (inborn): The child will not be able to metabolise

basic substances in the body as a result of inherited deference’s in
enzymes such as aminoacidic vitamins. Carbohydrate etc. Also,
Phenylketonuria is a hereditary factor that results in inability of a person
to metabolise phenylalanine which builds up certain toxic in the body that
can result in brain damage.

Developmental disorders of Brain formation. These are: (i)

Hydrocephalus (ii) Microcephalus.

Hydrocephalus: is a condition characterized by the enlargement of head

because of too much pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid. Microcephalus:
This is a condition causing development of a small, conical shaped head.
Environmental Factor: Myriads of environmental factors can affect a
woman during pregnancy and the foetus she is carrying.
Such factors are:
• Maternal malnutrition
• Drinking alcohol during pregnancy
• Exposure of pregnancy to excessive radiation

45
EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

• Maternal rubella.

Peri-Natal Cause (During Birth)

The following are peri-natal cause
The use of forceps
Insufficient oxygen

Post Natal Causes

The post natal causes of intellectual retardation can be categorized into
two (2).
Biological post natal causes
Psycho social post natal causes
Biological post natal causes include infections, diseases, malnutrition
while psychosocial post natal cause include poor environmental
circumstances.
(Unassimilated environment).

Self-Assessment Exercises SAEs

Attempt the following exercises in not more than five (5) minutes.
1. All these are the clinical classification of intellectually retarded.
A. Cretinism
B. Down syndrome
C. Hydrocephaly
D. Autism

2. The following are causes of intellectual retardation can be

categorized according to the time at which the cause occurs in the
following ways except
A. pre-natal
B. Perinatal
C. periscopes
D. Post natal
3. __________is a condition characterized by the enlargement of
head because of too much pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid.
A. Hydrocephalus
B. Microcephalus
C. Cretinism
D. Down syndrome

46
EDU 426 MODULE 1

1.4 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about who the mentally or intellectually

retarded are. We considered various definitions especially the one given
by the American Association of Mental Retardation (2002). We also
discussed the classification and causes of Intellectually Retarded
Children.

1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

American Association on Mental Retardation (2002). Mental

Retardation: Definition, Classification and Systems of Support
(10th Ed.) Washington, D.C.: AAMR.
Obani, T.C. (2004). Handicap, Disability and Special Education. What
Parents and Teachers want to know? Ibadan: Book Builders.

47
 EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

1.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Autism
2. Periscopes
3. Hydrocephalus

48
EDU 426 MODULE 1

UNIT 2 CHARACTERISTICS, IDENTIFICATION

AND EDUCATIONAL METHOD OF
TEACHING INTELLECTUALLY
RETARDED CHILDREN
Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Main Content
2.3.1 Characteristics of Intellectual Retardation
2.3.1.1 Intellectual Characteristics
2.3.1.2 Academic Characteristics
2.3.1.3 Social Characteristics
2.3.4 Identification of Children with Intellectual Retardation
2.3.5 Methods of Educating Children with Intellectual
Retardation.
2.6 Summary
2.7 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
2.8 Self-Assessment Exercises within the content
2.9. Possible Answers to SAEs

2.1 Introduction

People have different behaviour and character. Intellectually retarded

persons are likely to experience deficits in attention, memory, language
development, self regulation, social and emotional development. We note
that persons with intellectual retardation are candidates for a variety of
social problems. For instance, they find it very difficult to keep friends
because they cannot start up a conversation.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you will be able to:

• educate people on how to prevent the condition.

• identify the different characteristics of an intellectually retarded
children
• list various methods of training and education of the intellectually
retarded children.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

2.3 Main Content

2.3.1 Characteristics of Intellectually Retarded Children

Intellectually retarded children exhibit certain

Behavioural Characteristic. These have been grouped into intellectual,
and social.

2.3.1.1 Intellectual Characteristics

Intellectual characteristics exhibited by learners with intellectual

retardation are:
Impaired cognition: the memory and learning capabilities are deficit.
They find it difficult to grasp abstraction.
Find it different to perform simple tasks
Find it difficult to store, retrieve and transfer ideas
Insensitive to environmental cues
Inability to use abstraction in solution of problems
Inability to generalize their experiences to other situations
They cannot learn any of the school subject such as reading, arithmetic,
handwriting frequently without repetition.

2.3.1.2 Academic Characteristics

- Individual with intellectual retardation learns very little on their

own from objects, events and situations.
- They fail consistently and are made to remain in a class for a long
period of time without appreciable improvement.
- They lack confidence in themselves
- Find it difficult to learn school subjects such as Arithmetic, writing
and reading.

2.3.1.3 Social Characteristics

Find it difficult to participate in group activities because of interpersonal

relationships that exist in group activities.
They are followers rather than leaders.
They have low frustration to tolerance as a result of repeated features.
This affects their social interactions.
They exhibit poor language skills. Inability to understand directions and
find it difficult to express themselves.

50
 EDU 426 MODULE 1

Self-Assessment Exercises 1
Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.
1. Learners who might find it difficult to learn school subjects such
as Arithmetic, writing and reading is likely to be classified under
________retardation.
2. Learners who manifest low frustration to tolerance as a result of
repeated features are classified under __________ retardation
3. Learners who find it difficult to store, retrieve and transfer ideas
Insensitive to environmental cues may be grouped under
________retardation

2.4 Identification of Children with Intellectual Retardation

It is better to identify children with intellectual retardation early in life
especially during the pre-school years because they are not developing
speech language of motor skills at the same rate as their classmate without
disabilities. The defining of children with intellectual retardation will
assist the classroom teachers in identifying them before appropriate
referral is made. The following characteristics may fall under three
headings.
a. Problems with cognition
b. Problems with adaptation behaviour
c. Need for support to sustain.
On the other hand, Smitha (2020) asserted that intellectual disability (ID)
once called mental retardation, is characterized by below-average
intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day
living. Click here to read more on this.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2
Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.
4. Exposure to pre-school enables to solve the related issues with speech development.
A. Yes
B. No
C. sometimes
D. Undecided
5. When learners with retardation are identified, there is need to ___________ them to
professionals.
A. Refer
B. Reffer
C. Referal
D. Referral
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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

2.5 Methods of Educating Children with Intellectual

Retardation Various methods can be used in educating children with

intellectual retardation. These methods are highlighted below:
Physiological Method: It lays emphasis on the development of imperfect
sense organs supplements by academic and occupational training. This
method was developed in the mid-nineteenth century by Edward Seguin.
He used series of exercises to provide proficiency in audition, vision,
touch and taste.

Permissiveness Method: This was developed by Maria Montessori. The

use of toys is permitted to teach the intellectually retarded. She advocated
individual method and that the principle of permissiveness should be
encouraged.
Project Method: This method utilizes many manual activities and
correlates academic subject matter with workshop crafts and home
economics. This method was propounded by John Duncan
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECs): You use pictures to
depict all activities.
Baby Sign: Through this method the teacher pronounces a word and
he/she demonstrates it for the leaners e.g., sleep.
Playaway Method: Through dancing. You encourage them to learn in a
relax atmosphere.
Systematic Instruction: It involves instructional prompts, consequences
for performance and transfer of stimulus control.

Water-Down Approach
This method emphasizes learning from simple to complex. The teaching
should be water down so that individuals with intellectual retardation
would learn.
Distinctive Methodology
Distinctive methodology was propounded by Alfred Stranss in 1940s. it
is prototype of individual instruction or individualized programme. This
method will assist the intellectually retarded children to learn.
Adima Approach
Adima worked with the mentally retarded children in Nigeria. He drew
His source from philosophy of Nigeria Education. He was of the opinion
that the intellectually retarded should have separate curriculum from the
normal or traditional curriculum. This is what ADIMA approach stands

52
EDU 426 MODULE 1

for:
A– Adaptation: The traditional curriculum should be adapted to the
needs of mentally retarded children.
D– Demonstration: The actual teaching of mentally retarded should
rely heavily on demonstration.
I– Instruction: The demonstration should be based upon instructional
materials related to the content of the curriculum.

Further, “Token Principle” is essential in special education. Reward

instances of generalization from one skill to another.

Present facts and concepts in sequence that is from simple to complex.

Intellectually retarded learners should be given training skills in verbal
expression, cognitive skills, self-help skills, social skills and vocational
skills.

Mental Age: Mental age of the child should be given serious

consideration. Further, in teaching children with intellectual retardation
certain things should be noted:
(a) Learning materials should be concretized, meaningful and
relevant
(b) The use of repetition is essential
(c) Reinforcement of learning through using a variety of sense
modalities – visual, vocal auditory and touch.

Self-Assessment Exercises
Attempt the following 3 in not more than five (5) minutes.
questions
6. _______ lays emphasis on the development of imperfect sense organs
supplements by academic and occupational training.
A. Physiological Method
B. Project Method
C. Social Method
D. Permissive Method
7_____________method emphasizes learning from simple to complex.

2.6 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about the mentally retarded children. We also
highlighted different characteristics being exhibited by children with
intellectual retardation. These characteristics are intellectual, academic

53
EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

and social. We also learnt about methods of identifying them and the
mode of educating them.

2.7 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

American Association on Mental Retardation (2002). Mental

Retardation: Definition, Classification and Systems of Support
(10th Ed.) Washington, D.C.: AAMR.

Grossman, H. (1973). Manual on Terminology Classification in Mental

Retardation. Washington, D.C.: AAMD.

Smitha, B. (2020). Intellectual Disability.

https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/child-intellectual-
disability

54
EDU 426 MODULE 1

2.8 Possible Answers to SAEs 1

1. Academic
2. Social
3. Intellectual

Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Yes
2. Refer

Possible Answers to SAEs

3. Physiological Method
4. Water-Down Approach

55
EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

MODULE 3 EDUCATION OF THE HEARING

IMPAIRED AND COMMUNICATION
DISORDERS

Unit 1 Definition, Causes and Classification of Hearing

Impairment
Unit 2 Identification and Educational Placement of Hearing
Children
Unit 3 Learners with Communication Disorders

UNIT 1 DEFINITION, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Main Content
1.3.1 Definition of Hearing Impairment?
1.3.2 Causes of Hearing Impairment
1.3.3 Classification of Hearing Impairment.
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Readings / Web Resources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content

1.1 Introduction

The ability to hear and turn sounds into meaning is an assumption of life
to many living souls. It is an ability we often take for granted. The organ
of hearing is one of marvellous gifts of God. The ear is very important
because it is one fundamental way we learn about the thoughts, ideas and
feelings of others by listening to them. Hearing impairment are full or
partial decrease in the ability to detect or identify sounds. The term has
been variously defined by several authorities, researchers and scholars of
reputes in the field of medicine, audiology and education.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of these units, you will be able to:

• give your own definition of deafness

• list and explain the major causes of hearing loss
• mention signs and symptoms of hearing impairment.

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EDU 426 MODULE 3

1.3 Main Content

1.3.1 Definition of Hearing Impairment

Scholars have defined hearing impairment in various ways. We are going

to examine these definitions.
Abang (1992) described hearing impairment as disability ranging from
mild to profound condition and classified it into the following groups:
(a) those with slight hearing loss;
(b) those with mild hearing loss;
(c) those with moderate hearing loss;
(d) those with severe hearing loss;
(e) those with profound hearing loss.

In a similar vein, World Health Organization WHO (2005) defined

hearing impairment as complete or partial loss of ability to hear from one
or both ears.
The term hearing impairment is a generic term that is made up of two
distinct classes based entirely on the severity of the impairment.
These two classes or group, are the hard of hearing and deafness.

Therefore, hearing impairment is a hearing loss, whether permanent or

fluctuating that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Hard of Hearing: These are individuals in whom sense of hearing

through defective is functional with or without a hearing aid. They are
also referred to as individuals with partial hearing loss (Mba, 1995).

Deafness: Children who cannot hear sounds at all or above certain

intensity are grouped as being deaf. A deaf person can be described as
one whose hearing is disabled to an extent that his understanding of
speech through ear alone with or without the use of a hearing aid.

1.3.2 Causes of Hearing Impairment

Like other disabilities, causes of hearing impairment may fall under three
stages of life such as pre-natal- (before birth), peri natal (during birth),
and post-natal (after birth).

The peri-natal stage is from the time of conception to delivery. This stage
is a very crucial stage in the life of the foetus most especially the first
three months (trimester). Anything that affects the mother at this stage is

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likely to have direct impact on the foetus. Some of the conditions that
could lead to hearing impairment at this stage are as follows:
Heredity
Rhesus incompatibility factor
Unprescribed drugs taken by the mother during pregnancy
Lack of proper antenatal care
Malnutrition

Heredity: This is a situation where traits of hearing impairment or

deafness is transmitted from parents or grandparents to the children.
There are many hereditary diseases and syndromes that can lead to
hearing impairment such as otosclerosis. When it runs in the family from
generation, the hearing loss or impairment usually follows as a pattern
called autosomal dominant. When both parents do not have a hearing loss
but carry a gene that causes its, this is called autosomal recessive and the
implication is that at least one child out of four will have hearing
impairment.

RH Factor: This is also known as blood in compatibility. It is a situation

whereby RH-positive mixes with RH negative. In other words, if a
mother with Rh negative conceives of a foetus with RH positive, the
mother develops antibodies against the foetus causing anoxia in the blood
stream. This result in breakdown of the foetal blood stream leading to
such birth defects as deafness, intellectual retardation or cerebral palsy.

Maternal Diseases: There is no doubt that certain diseases could attack

expectant mother which may place the foetus at risk by being born with
profound deafness. Some of these include, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus
influenza, syphilis and whooping cough.

Unprescribed Drugs Taken by the mother during Pregnancy: Drug

abuse or drug misuse during pregnancy can act as catalyst to successful
delivery of the new born baby. Examples of such drugs that are dangerous
during pregnancy are: Chloroquine, Quinine, tetracycline etc. Insensitive
to Anti-natal Care by the Expectant Mother: During pregnancy an
expectant mother is expected to register in a certified clinic and attend
ante-natal clinic where adequate facilities and care are available. Some
women exhibit lackadaisical attitude towards this.
This nonchalant attitude may expose themselves and the unborn
baby/child to unwanted risk that could be prevented if adequate care and
counselling had been given to them.

Malnutrition: During pregnancy the foetus in the womb depends solely

on the mother therefore it is expedient for the pregnant mother to feed on
balanced diet. A malnourished mother is likely to give birth to a
malnourished child who will be at the risk of impairment.

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Peri-Natal Causes
This is the period from the outset of labour till the arrival of the baby.
This stage is very delicate and some of the things that could lead to
hearing impairment at this stage are:
Prolong labour.
Anoxia insufficient of supply of oxygen.
Misuse of forceps.
Post Natal Causes (After birth)

The post natal causes of Hearing impairment are:

Infection/Diseases: There are certain infections on diseases that
can attack the child after birth. Such diseases such as chicken pox,
measles can affect the child if they are prolonged and untreated.
Age Related Hearing Loss: Also known as presbycusis is the
natural decline in hearing that many people experience as they get
older. This is partly due to loss of ear cells in the cochlea.

Acoustic trauma: Injury caused by loud noise can damage hair cells
thereby resulting in hearing loss.

Drugs: Certain drugs, such as some powerful antibiotics, antimalarial

drugs can cause permanent hearing loss.

Head Injury: Direct head injury, particularly trauma severe enough to

cause unconsciousness, can cause inner ear loss.

1.3.3 Classification and Educational Placement of Children

with Hearing Impairment

Various attempts have been made to classify deafness. Mykleburst in

Alade (2005) classified deafness according to the following major factors.
Deafness can be classified according to degree of deafness.
(1) The Deaf: These are those in whom the sense of hearing is non
functional for the ordinary purpose of life. This group has total
loss of hearing.
(2) The Hard of Hearing: These are those in whom sense of hearing
though defective is functional with or without hearing aids.

This group has partial hearing loss.

Age of Onset of Deafness
The basis of classification are as follows:
(1) Acquired Deafness: This is also known as adventitious deafness.
It refers to deafness that occurred later in life, when language and
speech skills have been fully developed. The individual is born
with normal hearing, but later becomes non-functional through
illness or accident.

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(2) Congenital Deafness: The congenitally deaf are those who are
born deaf. The individual has never heard any meaningful sound
nor acquired speech and language speech at all.
(3) Pre-lingual Deafness: This is a deafness present at birth or
occurring early in life at an age prior to speech development and
language acquisition.
(4) Sensori-neural Deafness: This includes hearing loss that results
from accident diseases affecting the normal functioning of the
Inner ear.

Conductive Deafness: Conductive hearing loss is described as a loss

resulting from defects of the conductive pathways of the ear i.e. the
external and the middle ear with normal inner ear.

Central Deafness: This includes all hearing loss. Which results from
lack of normal functioning of the auditory pathways leading from the
inner ear to the interpretive areas of the brain.

Jerger (1980) and Okuoyibo (2006) audio logically classified hearing

impairment according to level of hearing loss in decibets (dB) using
audiometer thus:
• Normal hearing - 0dB - 20dB
• Mild/moderate loss - 21dB - 60dB
• Severe loss - 61dB - 80dB
• Profound loss - 81dB - 100dB.
A child with profound hearing loss automatically falls into the group
earlier referred to as the deaf.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.
1. Deafness can be classified according to degree of _________
2. ________is also known as adventitious deafness.
3. __________hearing loss is described as a loss resulting from defects
of the conductive pathways of the ear
4. __________results from lack of normal functioning of the auditory
pathways leading from the inner ear to the interpretive areas of the
brain.

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1.4 Summary

In this unit, we learnt about what hearing impairment is all about, we also
discussed various types and causes of hearing impairment. Light was also
shed on classification of persons with hearing impairment.

1.5 References/ Further Readings/Web Resources

Abang, T.B. (1992). Handbook of Special Education for Special Educator

in Developing Countries. Jos: Andex Press.

Alade, E.B. (2005). Hearing Impairment in Onwuchekwa, J.A.

Comprehensive Textbook of Special Education. Agbo Areo
Publications.

Jerger, J. (1980). Research Priorities in Auditory Science: The

Audiologists’ View Ann otol/Rhino

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1.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Deafness
2. Acquired Deafness
3. Conductive Deafness
4. Central Deafness

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UNIT 2 IDENTIFICATION AND EDUCATIONAL

PLACEMENT OF HEARING-IMPAIRED
CHILDREN

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Main Content
2.3.1 Identification and Assessment of Persons with Hearing
Impairment
2.3.2 Educational Placement
2.3.3 Classroom Applications for the Hearing Impaired
2.4 Summary
2.5 References/Further Readings Web Resources
2.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

2.1 Introduction

Hearing is one of the “distance senses” that provides us information from

outside our bodies. When Hearing is limited, our ability to communicate
with others will be limited. We have many hearing-impaired learners in
our schools. In order to teach the deaf child, the teachers should posses
certain qualities and skills in the education of learners with hearing
impairment.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• identify and manage a hearing-impaired child in a classroom

setting.
• list the major types of assistive technology designed for persons
with hearing impairments;
• itemize classroom applications for the hearing impaired.

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2.3 Main Content

2.3.1 Identification and Assessment of Persons with Hearing

Impairment

Early identification of deafness is very crucial in working with the hearing

impaired. Informal identification centres mostly around observation by
teachers, parents and others around the child. The following signs have
been suggested to be noted among children (Webster, 1986).
• The child complains of earache, fullness of visible discharge;
• The child may be educationally weak;
• The child shows signs of speech problem;
• The child may always ask for repetition of statement.

Hearing identifies a child with any or some of these traits. It is advisable

to refer such to an audiologist for audio logical assessment.

2.3.2 Educational Placement

The ideal placement for the child with hearing impairment is the regular
school where they will be educated alongside with their counterparts.
This is a form of integration. Today we talk of inclusion which is the
highest form of integration. Though we have the closed type of schooling
system called segregation. In segregation, the hearing impaired are
educated in separate schools specially prepared for the deaf alone.
Apart from the above, we have methods of educating the Hearing
Impaired:
1. Oral Approach: This involves the teaching and using of speech
exclusively for persons with Hearing Impairment.
2. Bilingual – Bicultural Approach: This method involves the
teaching of American Sign Language (ASL) as their first language
and written English as their second language.
3. Total Communication: This method combines oral speech and
manual communication. This method allows the child to
communicate through whatever mode is easiest and most effective.
4. Manual Approach: This method consists of the use of finger
spelling and signs in communicating with the hearing impaired.

This method does not allow the use of speech.

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2.3.3 Classroom Applications for the Hearing Impaired

• Seat learners with Hearing impairment where they can see

everyone who may be speaking.
• Provide ample lighting particularly on instructional visual aids.
• Be sensitive to classroom noise and seek to reduce it.
• Employ the use of maps, globes charts to demonstrate Basic
concepts.
• Use familiar concepts and concrete objects as much as possible.
• When speaking, do not be too fast so that the learner can gain from
you through lip reading.
• Keep your hand from your face when speaking.
• Use sign or fingerspelling or promote speech reading when giving
instruction
• Do not back the student when addressing them. Also, avoid writing
on the chalkboard while talking.

Added to the above, learners with hearing impairment may benefit a lot
from the following:
- Assistive Technological Devices - Computer Assisted Instruction
(CAI) - Speech digitizers and synthesizers.
- Talk communication devices for the deaf.
- Amplification devices (hearing aids)
- The internet

Self-Assessment Exercises SAEs 1

Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.
1. The ideal placement for the child with hearing impairment is the
___________where they will be educated alongside with their
counterparts.
2. ____________method consists of the use of finger spelling and signs in
communicating with the hearing impaired.
3. Th use of ____________promote speech reading when giving instruction.

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2.4 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about who the hearing-impaired children are?
We also shed light on the strategies and methods of identifying them and
we have also discussed how they can benefit educationally in a classroom
setting.

2.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Abang, T.B. (1992). Handbook of Special Education for Special Educator

in Developing Countries. Jos: Andex Press.

Alade, E.B. (2005). Hearing Impairment in Onwuchekwa, J.A.

Comprehensive Textbook of Special Education. Agbo Areo
Publications.

Davis, H. & Silverman, R. (1970). Hearing and Deafness. New York:

HoH Rinehart and Winston.

Ijadunola, G.T.A. (1991); Prevention and Care of Deafness. Ibadan:

N.P.C. Educational

Jerger, J. (1980). Research Priorities in Auditory Science: The

Audiologists’ View Ann otol/Rhino

Mba, P.O. (1995); Fundamental of Special Education and Vocational

Rehabilitation. Ibadan: Codat Publications.

Moores, D.F. (1982); Deafness and Child Development. Berkley:

University of California Press, 97

Okuoyibo, J.M. (2006). The Hearing-Impaired Children in Regular

School. In Obani, T.C. (Ed.) Teaching Pupils with Special
Educational Needs in the Regular UBE Classroom. Ibadan: Book
Builders.

Okuoyibo, J.M., Oyewumi, A.M & Adediran, D.A. (2007). Hearing

Impairment in Okuoyibo, J.M. (Ed.) An Introduction to the Education of
Children with Special Needs.

Owolawi, W.O. (1998). The Effect of Noise induced Hearing Loss on

Airport workers in Lagos State. Ph.D Thesis University of Ibadan.

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Ronald, L.S. & Michael, A.N. (2007). Introduction to Audiologic

Rehabilitation. U.S.A.: Pearson.

Schneider, E. (2002); Early Education for Hearing Impaired in School.

Journal of Human Ecology 22:2:90.

WHO (2005); Deafness and Hearing Impairment:

[email protected]

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26 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Regular School
2. Manual Approach
3. Sign or fingerspelling

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UNIT 3 LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION

DISORDERS

Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Main Content
3.3.1 Definition of Communication Disorders
3.3.2 Classification of Speech Disorders
3.3.2.1 Articulation disorders
3. 3.2.2 Voice disorders
3.3.2.3 Language disorders
3.3.2.4 Disorder of fluency
3.3.3 Educational Approaches to Speech Disorders
3.4 Summary
3.5 References/Further Readings /Web Resources
3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content

3.1 Introduction

Communication is as old as man. Language is the foundation for all

learning. We use language to express our thoughts, needs, observation
and interact with friends and family. For most people learning to
communicate effectively it comes naturally while some have challenges
in communication. There is no doubt that our society places high value
on oral communication.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• describe “speech impairment” and “language impairments”.
• mention characteristics of language impairment.
• identify the possible causes of language impairment

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3.3 Main Contents

3.3.1 Definitions

Communication disorder is an impairment in the ability to use speech or

language to communicate. It is pertinent to understand the concept of
communication before one can have a clear understanding, at least two
people are involved in communication process: a sender and a receiver.
There must also be a message, the sender has a thought or idea which is
interpreted into a code the receiver can understand. Therefore,
communication occurs only when the receiver can correctly decode the
message of the sender: if the receiver can not decode correctly the
message from the sender, it then means that communication is
unsuccessful.

Communication requires the receiver to use the eyes, the ears or even the
tactile (touch) sense (as do those who use Braille) to convey the message
to the Brain where it is understood. Therefore, communication is the
process of exchanging knowledge, ideas, opinions and feelings through
the use of verbal or non verbal (e.g. a gesture) language (Smith, 2007).

Speech disorders are abnormal speech that is unintelligible, unpleasant or

interferes with communication. A person may have speech impairment if
he/she has problems or difficulties with the following area.
Articulations, fluency and voice.

Speech Disorders
These are impairments in the production and use of oral language. Speech
disorder can have effect on how a person interacts with others in different
settings. Speech disorders includes disabilities in making speech sounds,
producing speech with normal flow and producing voice.

3.3.2 Classification of Speech Disorder

Speech disorders can be classified according to several criteria. But the

major classification of speech disorders could be in the following order. -
Articulation disorders
- Voice disorders
- Language disorders
- Disorder of fluency

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3.3.2.1 Articulation Disorders

This is abnormal production of speech sounds. It exists when the process

of producing speech sound is flared and as a result of this, the speech
should will be incorrect. Articulation problems may result in the
omissions additions substitutions or distortions of certain speech sounds.
Therefore, a child may say “dood” girl instead of “good” girl. Articulation
problem has been found to constitute the largest proportion of speech
disorder. The words that are mispronounced may be initial, middle, or
final words or letters. Missing, substituted, added or poorly pronounced
word/sound may make a speaker difficult to understand.

Causes of Articulation Problems

Okuoyibo and Makinde (2004) opined that the causes of articulatory
disorders can be divided into two:
(a) The Physical malformation of articulators e.g. the mouth, the lips
or palette (cleft palette), the jaws or teeth. Any abnormality in the
formation of the above structures could lead to articulation
disorder.
(b) Functional causes: This refers to disorders that occur in the
presence of normal articulators. A good example is faulty learning
of poor speech model.

3.3.2.2 Voice Disorder

This is an abnormal spoken language production, characterized by

unusually pitch, loudness or quality of sounds. An individual is said to
have voice problem if such individuals speak with a voice that differs in
pitch loudness or quality from the voices of others of the same age and
sex in their cultural group.

Pitch: This is an aspect of voice. Its perceived high or low sound quality.
Loudness: Intensity can be used to describe loudness. Voice can be
described as either being too loud or too soft.

Causes of Voice Disorders

Voice disorders may occur as a result of the following:
(a) The way the voice is being used
(b) Undue abuse of the voice by screaming, shouting, straining. (c)
Cold
(d) Imitation
(e) Hearing Impairment
(f) Brain damage – stroke

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3.3.2.3 Language Disorders

Language is the complex system; we use to communicate our thoughts

and feelings to others. A person that has language impairment will have
breakdown in one of the three aspects of language. These are:
- Form
- Content - / Phonology

Form: This is the rule of language including phonology, morphology and

syntax.

Phonology: Rule within the language governing combination of sounds.

Phonological Awareness: This is understanding, identifying and

applying sound – symbols relationships (letter sounds rhyming). Aphasia
is a major form of language disorder. It is the partial or complete loss of
the ability to speak or to comprehend spoken words due to injury or
disease.
Causes of Language Disorder
The causes of language disorders are:
A. Brain damage
B. Hearing Impairment
C. Genetic Causes
D. Environmental factor (unstimulating environment)

Characteristics of Language Disorders

- Cannot create rhymes
- Is unable to follow oral direction
- He/she has inadequate vocabulary
- Has difficulty in expressing personal needs
- Exhibit poor concept formation
- Cannot break words into syllables
- Has poor voice quality such as distracting pitch

3.3.2.3 Fluency Problems

Speech is supposed to flow sequentially and uninterrupted. But when

speech sound begins to be jerky, not smooth according to time sequence,
we can then talk of speech disorder of time. Fluency disorders or
dysfluencies usually involve hesitations and repetition of parts of words
that interrupt the flow of speech: stutter and cluttering are fluency
problems. Stuttering is the lack of fluency in an individual’s speech
pattern often characterized by hesitation or repetition of sounds on words.
We should note that stuttering can be learnt. It can be hereditary.

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3.3.3 Educational Approaches

In order to enrich classroom environment and help learners to develop

better language skill, certain strategies should be put in place. The
following methods can be employed.
(a) Instructional supports
(b) Explicit language instructions
(c) Language sensitive environment

Self-Assessment Exercises SAEs 1

Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.
1. An impairment in the ability to use speech or language to communicate is
referred to as
A. Speech disability
B. Communication disorder
C. Voice disorder
D. Language Disorder
2. In order to help learners to develop better language skill, the following
strategies are put in place except
A. Instructional supports
B. Explicit language instructions
C. Language sensitive environment
D. Phonology support

3. One of these is not among the causes of language disorder

A. Brain damage
B. Ethical Challenges
C. Hearing Impairment
D. Genetic Causes

3.4 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about various definitions of communication.

Communication disorder is an impairment in the ability to use speech or
language to communicate. Various causes and characteristics of

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

communication disorders were identified. Method of educating children

with communication disorders were also discussed.

3.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Okuoyibo, J.M. and Makinde, A.O. (2004). Speech Disorders. In J.M.

Okuoyibo (Ed.) An Introduction to the Education of Children with
Special Needs. Ibadan: Emola-Jay Communication

Smith, D.D. (2007). Introduction to Special Education: Making a

Difference. Boston: Pearson Education Incorporation.

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EDU 426 MODULE 3

3.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Communication Disorder
2. Phonology Support
3. Ethical Challenges

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

MODULE 4 EDUCATION OF THE PHYSICALLY AND

HEALTH IMPAIRED AND
LEARNING DISABLED

Unit 1 Definition, Types and Causes of Physically and Health

Impaired
Unit 2 Meaning, Causes, Identification and Educational
Intervention for Children
With Learning Disabilities

UNIT 1 DEFINITION, TYPES AND CAUSES OF

PHYSICALLY AND HEALTH

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Main Content
1.3.1 Definition of Physical and Health Impairment
1.3.2 Causes and Types of Cerebral Palsy
1.3.2.1 Types of Cerebral Palsy
1.3.2.2 Causes of Cerebral Palsy
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content

1.1 Introduction

Children and adult with physical or Health disabilities live in our midst.
They are part and parcel of our societies. Physical disabilities and Health
Impairment may be congenital or acquired later in life. Further readings
on physical impairments can be seen here

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define physical and health impairment

• distinguish between neurological impairment and muscular
condition
• identify chronic and infectious diseases.

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EDU 426 MODULE 4

1.3 Main Content

1.3.1 Definition

Physical disability is a condition that interferes with individual’s ability

to use his body. Most of these conditions affect the nervous, muscular or
skeletal system and in most cases, they have mild, moderate or severe
impact on mobility and motor skills. Health impairment, on the other hand
is a condition that involves the internal organs and the blood and which
requires ongoing medical attention (Kirk Gallagher and Anastaswoo,
1997).

Physical impairment can be divided into two (2)

(i) Neurological Impairments and

(ii) Muscular/Skeletal condition Neurological impairment are:
- Cerebral palsy
- Multiple sclerosis
- Muscular dystrophy
- Polio
- Seizure
- Spinal Cord disorders
Muscular/Skeletal Conditions:
- Limb deficiencies
- Juvenile Arthritis
- Skeletal Disorders

Cerebral Palsy: This is not a disease. It is an incurable condition caused

by brain injury resulting from damage associated with lack of oxygenated
blood to the brain, some children with cerebral palsy show only one
indication of brain damage such as motor disorder, others may exhibit
combinations of symptoms. Although cerebral palsy may be incurable,
advancement in medicine and rehabilitation technologies shows that long
term intensive physical therapy in combination with surgical procedure
bring improvement.

1.3.2 Causes and Types of Cerebral Palsy

The following can be possible causes of cerebral palsy; material

infections, diseases, toxic substances, excessive exposure to x-ray during
pregnancy. The use of forceps, high fever, hypoxia cerebral bleeding,
oxygen deprivation, direct trauma to the brain.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

1.3.2.1 Types of Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy can be classified thus:

(a) Hemiplegia: it involves one half of the body (right or left)
(b) Diplegia: legs are involved more than arms.
(c) Quadriplegia: all four limbs are involved
(d) Paraplegia: only one leg is involved.

Other problems associated with cerebral palsy are spasticity characterized

by stiffness or tenseness of muscles and inaccurate voluntary movement.
Multiple Sclerosis: It is a chronic disease common in adults that causes
the myelin covering the nerve fibbers of the brain and spinal cord to
degenerate, impending the transmission of electrical signals from the
brain to other parts of the body.

Muscular Dystrophy: Though very rare, is a disease that weakens and

then destroys the affected individual muscles.
Seizures: The most common type of neurological impairment in children
is Epilepsy. It is a condition of recurrent convulsion caused by abnormal
brain electrical activity. People with epilepsy have recurrent seizure.

1.3.2.2 Causes of Cerebral Palsy

Seizures can be caused by any kind of damage to the brain. Insufficient

oxygen (hypoxia), low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia), infections, and
physical trauma.

Spina bifida: Spina bifida is a neural tube defect or abnormality of the

spinal column as a result of an embryonic developmental failure. It is a
congenital impairment which results in the outward protrusion of the
meninges which cover the spinal cord (Ladipo, 2006).

Poliomyelitis: It is caused by a viral infection. If the virus successfully

destroys the cells of the spinal cord, it results in paralysis of the muscles
of the lower limbs. Different symptoms may occur in form of fever,
painful muscle spasm and the inability to move the limbs that are affected.

Muscular/Skeletal condition are very common in children. This manifests

itself in limb deficiencies, juvenile arthritis and robotics. Limb
deficiencies involve missing or non-functioning arms or legs resulting in
mobility problems while Juvenile arthritis is a profound and painful
muscular condition seen in children using of high-tech devices to perform
motor skills is called “robotics”.
Health disabilities can be grouped into 2. These are:

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EDU 426 MODULE 4

(i) Chronic illnesses.

(ii) Infections diseases.

The chronic diseases we refer to here are Asthma, Cysties fibrosis,

Diabetes, Congenital heart defects, Tuberculosis (TB), Childhood
Cancer, Blood disorders.

The infectious diseases are HIV and AIDS, Hepatitis B,

It is worthy to note that disability is no respecter of any race or age.
However, it can be prevented if the following are adhered to.
(a) Good Hygiene
(b) Good pre-natal education
(c) Avoidance of Injuries
(d) Universal Immunization program.

Self-Assessment Exercises SAEs 1

Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.
1. The condition that interferes with individual’s ability to use his body is
known as
A. Physical disability
B. Chronic illnesses.
C. Infections diseases.
D. Spina bifida
2. In how many groups is health disabilities grouped into?
A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Four
3. The disease that weakens and then destroys the affected individual
muscles is
A. Seizures
B. Poliomyelitis
C. Muscular Dystrophy
D. Spina bifida

1.4 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about physical and health related problems.
Physical impairment is divided into 2; Neurological impairment and
muscular conditions. Health disabilities can be grouped into 2. Chronic
and infectious diseases.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

1.5 References/Further Reading/Web Resources

Ladipo, S.O. (2006). The Physically Handicapped in Regular schools. In

Obani T.C. (Ed.). Teaching Pupils with Special Educational Needs
in Regular UBE Classroom. Ibadan: Bookbuilders.

Kirk, S.A., J.J. Gallagher and N.J. Anastasiow (1997). Educating

Exceptional Children. 8th Ed. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

Massachusetts Department of Elentary and DSecondary Education

(2016). Physical and Health Impairement
https://www.doe.mass.edu/sped/links/pi.html#:~:text=The%20ph
ysical%20capacity%20to%20move,movement%3B%20performi
ng%20basic%20life%20functions.

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1.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Physical Disability
2. Two
3. Muscular Dystrophy

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UNIT 2 MEANING, CAUSES, IDENTIFICATION AND

EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTION FOR
CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Main Content
2.3.1 Meaning of Learning Disabilities
2.3.2 Causes of Learning Disabilities
2.3.3 Identification of Learning Disabilities
2.3.4 Educational Intervention for Children with Learning
Disabilities
2.4 Summary
2.5 References/Further Reading
2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content.

2.1 Introduction

The child with learning disability has strengths in many areas but
weaknesses in some core attributed that lead to underachievement. The
learning disability is unexpected because of the above average or average
intelligence as the weaknesses lead to difficulties with achievement and
adaptive functions, but not all areas of adaptations (Netcher, Morris and
Lyon, 2006).

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define the term learning disabilities
• mention educational interventions for children with learning
disabilities
• list 5 characteristics and 4 causes of learning disabilities

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2.3 Main Content

2.3.1 Meaning of Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are disorders that affect the ability of an individual

to process analyse and store information. The individual with learning
disabilities exhibit discrepancy between potential and achievement.
Learning disability is sometimes referred to as learning disorder, learning
difficulty or learning difference. People with learning disabilities possess
average or above average intelligence, yet they encounter difficulties in
learning. They have an innate potential to learn if they receive early
intervention. Learning disabilities could be mild, moderate or severe,
people with the difficulty have different strengths and weaknesses, and
they can be found in almost all classrooms. Nothing physical depicts a
learning disability, and most people with the disorder are not discovered
until they get to school where they experience persistent failure. It should
be noted that learning disability is not the same thing as intellectual
disability.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) defined learning

disability as a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes
involved in understanding or using language spoken or written, that may
manifest itself in an imperfect ability, to listen, think, speak, read, write,
spell or to do mathematical calculations, including such conditions as
perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia
and developmental aphasia.

Smith (2004) described learning disability as a discrepancy between what

the child ought to be able to learn and what the child can actually learn.

2.3.2 Causes of Learning Disabilities

Nobody is really sure of the causes of learning disabilities, the causes as

at now are largely based on hunches and assumptions. The suspected
causes of learning disabilities as posited by Siegal (2009) are genetics, a
minimal brain injury, neurological problems, biochemical reaction and
psychological issues. Some of the suspected factors that could cause the
disorder according to Smith (2004), Kirk and Gallagher (1989) are
minimal brain injury, inadequate instruction, hereditary factors, structural
brain differences, drug abuse and malnutrition.

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2.3.3 Identification/Characteristics of Children with Learning

Disabilities

Messina and Messina (2004) enumerated some signs that can be used to
identify pre-school children with learning disabilities. According to them
such children
• Speak later than most children
• Have pronunciation problems
• Have slow vocabulary growth and are unable to find the right
word.
• Lack interest in story telling
• Have difficulty rhyming words
• Have trouble learning numbers, alphabets, days of the week,
colours and shapes.
• Exhibit poor memory for routines
• Are extremely restless and easily distracted.
• Have difficulty sitting still
• Show lack of persistence at tasks
• Have trouble interacting with peers
• Have difficulty following directions or routines.
• Are slow to develop fine motor skills
• Have trouble learning self help skills e.g. (tying shoelaces)
• Are clumsy
• Show reluctance to draw or trace
• Have trouble reading from left to right.
Experience and observation also show that Nigerian children with
learning disabilities exhibit the traits listed below
• Poor memory
• Poor spelling
• Poor handwriting
• Poor reader
• Grips writing materials too tightly or too loosely
• Avoid reading aloud
• Unable to form simple and correct sentences
• Unable to comprehend read passages
• Uses vocabulary that is below age
• Poor mathematical/Arithmetic concept/ may not be able to tell the
time
• Poor art work
• Avoidance of tasks considered difficult
• Fails to submit classwork and assignment for marking
• Hyperactivity (in some)
• Hypoactivity (in some)
• Inability to read the mood of others
• Easily distracted
• Inability to transfer knowledge

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• Gives excuses
• Aggression
• Feign illness
• Truancy
• Inferiority complex
For high school and adults with learning disabilities, Messina and
Messina (2004) noted that they exhibit the following traits
• Continue to spell incorrectly, frequently spell the same word
differently in a simple piece of writing
• Avoid reading and writing tasks
• Trouble summarizing
• Trouble with open ended questions on tests
• Weak grasp of information
• Foreign language problems
• Poor written expressions
• Mental fatigue
• Weak memory skills
• Difficulty adjusting to new setting
• Work slowly
• Poor grasp of abstract concepts
• Either pays too little attention to details or focuses on them for too
long.
• Misreads information

That an individual exhibits one or some of these traits that can be used to
identify learning disabilities does not or may not signify that the
individual has learning disabilities. If several or some of these traits are
persistent over a considerable length of time, learning disabilities is
present.

2.3.4 Educational Intervention for Children with

Learning Disabilities

Educational interventions for children with learning disabilities can be

very tasking. Educational interventions are diverse because of the
individual differences exhibited by those affected. In a class where there
are twenty pupils with learning disabilities, the teacher may need to plan
twenty different programmes. These children may exhibit different
problems in reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic etc, and what works for
one child may not work for another. To buttress the above view, Steele
(2005) stated that curricular and instructional decisions based on the
individual child make the teaching learning disabilities. Irrespective of the
educational intervention planned for children with learning disabilities,
Individualized Educational Programme (IEP) is essential. IEP is a one-
on-one programme that ensures that each child’s unique needs are met.
Educational intervention needs a multidisciplinary approach, it must be

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early and it must be intensive in nature. Children with learning disabilities

must be included, although when IEP is needed the teacher should create
time to render the needed services, when instructions are generalized,
these children sometimes do not benefit. The multidisciplinary approach
needed by children with learning disabilities involves special educators,
regular teachers and professionals that are related to the field of Special
Education.

The teachers of these children must be qualified and the use of rote
learning must be discouraged. Children with learning disabilities will gain
little or nothing in an overcrowded class because of the additional support
that they need. Parents should be involved in whatever interventions to be
planned, parents’ involvement is necessary so that they can continue at
home from where the teacher stops at school. Relevant instructional
materials should be used to teach children with learning disabilities.
creative arts should also be employed to reach all concepts, because it
boosts their memory and makes learning easier.

Specific intervention strategies are not discussed here because these

interventions most of the time are specific to the individual child. An
example of a tool that can however be used to make learning meaningful
for children with learning disabilities is the computer. The computer is a
versatile instrument that can enhance the learning ability of these children.
For example, children who have writing problems should be encouraged
to use the computer to do their work, magnetic letters can be used to teach
reading while computer games can be used to teach most, if not all
subjects to these children.

In some cases, children can be required to answer questions orally during

tests and examinations, so as not to deprive them of education. Teachers
should be aware of the learning modality of each child and fashion out
their lessons so that it can take care of such modalities. Teachers of
children with learning disabilities should be patient, they also need to be
abreast of information as they unfold where these children are concerned.
When teachers are not qualified, uninterested and impatient, children with
learning disabilities will not benefit within the classroom setting they
become frustrated and may drop out of schools.

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Self-Assessment Exercises 1
Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.

1. The child with learning disability has strengths in many areas but
weaknesses in some core attributed that lead to
A. Laziness
B. Discriminatory achievement
C. Underachievement
D. Below achievement
2. In the study of Kirk and Gallagher (1989), these are some of the causes
of learning disability except
A. minimal brain injury,
B. inadequate instruction,
C. hereditary factors, and
D. psychological issues
3. Exhibition of poor memory for routines is an attribute of
A. Mental disorder
B. Learning Disability
C. Autism
D. Menta loose

2.4 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about the definition of learning disabilities as

disorders that affect the ability of an individual to process, analyse and
store information. We further discussed about the characteristics of
learning-disabled children such as having difficulty sitting still, have
pronunciation problems; have difficulty rhyming words. We also learnt
about educational interventions for children with learning disabilities.
You have learnt about the characteristics of learning-disabled children.

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2.5 References/Further Reading/Web Resources

Fletcher, J.M. Morris, R.D & Lyon, G.R. (2006). Classification and
Definition of Learning Disabilities. An Integrative Perspective. In
Sawnson, H.L., Harris, K.R. & Graham, S. (Eds.) Handbook of
Learning Disabilities. New York: The Guilford Press.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. (2004). Evaluation and

Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabilities. U.S.A. Department
of Education.

Kirk, S.A. & Gallagher, J.I. (1989). Educating Exceptional Children.

New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Messina, J.J. & Messina, C.M. 1999 – 2004. Learning Disabilities.

Retrieved 10th July from coping.org

Siegal, L.M. (2009). Nolo’s IEP Guide: Learning Disabilities. U.S.A.

Delta Printing Solutions Inc.

Smith, C.R. (2004) Learning Disabilities: The Interaction of Students and

their Environments. New York: Pearson Education Inc.

Steele, M.M. (2005). Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities:

Constructivism or Behaviourism? Current Issues in Education. On
line 8(10) http://cle.asu.edu/vol 8/no 10. Retrieved 23rd July 2011.

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2.6 Possible Answers to SAEs 1

1. Under achievement
2. psychological issues
3. Learning Disability

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MODULE 5 GIFTED AND TALENT DEVELOPMENT

Unit 1 Definition, Characteristics and Administration of

Gifted And Talented Children
Unit 2 Curriculum Modification for Gifted and Talented
Students

UNIT 1 DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS AND

ADMINISTRATION OF GIFTED AND
TALENTED CHILDREN

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Main Content
1.3.1 The Meaning of Giftedness
1.3.2 Definition of Giftedness
1.3.3 Characteristics of Gifted Students
1.3.4 Administrative and Educational Programmes Gifted and
Talented Students
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Readings
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content.

1.1 Introduction

Gifted and Talented individual are found in every society of the world. In
ancient Greece for instance, in the days of Plato to be precise, these group
of children are categorized thus:
(a) Children of Gold; (b) Children Silver,
(c) Children of Bronze

When one looks critically at various events on the globe, one will be
marveled at the brains behind diverse inventions in various fields of
human endeavour. Therefore, one can tag these superior and extra
ordinary events to be the products of the persons we called the prodigious,
the precocious and the gifted.

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1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you will be able to:

• define the term gifted and talent; and

• list common characteristics of giftedness.

1.3 Main Content

1.3.1 The Meaning of Giftedness

Key Points
Many definitions of giftedness have been proposed. They vary according
to whether they are conservative or liberal; are single or multi-
dimensional; and focus on potential or performance.
Part of the reason for the variation in definitions is that their advocates are
searching for one ‘true’ definition when manifestations of giftedness will
differ across time and cultures.
Thus, it is unlikely that a single definition of giftedness will receive
unanimous endorsement.
Nevertheless, the breadth of definitions can contribute to a comprehensive
view of giftedness and suggest avenues for future research.

1.3.2 Definition of Giftedness

As Davis and Rimm (1998:17) observe: ‘Defining gifted and talented is

both an important and complicated matter: Our definition has
implications for whom we identify as being gifted, and for our
programming or curricular decisions. The resulting label we apply to
children can have both positive and negative effects on their self-esteem,
self-expectations and family and peer relationships. (Danis and Rimm,
1998).

Yet the literature on giftedness yields some contradictory definitions.

This lack of clarity means that the concept of giftedness is difficult to
defend because it is ‘defined to a loosely while being measured too
restrictively’ Gagne (95:104). This is perhaps inevitable because the
skills that are regarded as most valuable will differ across time and
between societies (McApine 1996). Therefore, our definition must be
sensitive to and will depend on these contexts (Borland 1990).

Reflective on the diversity of definitions, McAlpine (1996) points out

that definitions differ according to whether they are conservative or

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liberal, are single or multi-dimensional, and focus on potential or

performance.

Conservative versus liberal. Conservative definition tends to restrict the

areas included in the gifted category or how many people will be regarded
as gifted (Renzulli, 1986) – say, the top 5% on a given ability measure.
These definitions use a single criterion, such as high intelligence (as
measured by an IQ test), to define giftedness. Liberal definitions, in
contrast, observe that there are no discernible differences in productivity
between the top 3-5% and the 10-15% who fall just below that IQ level
and so include up to 15-20% of the population in the gifted category (Reid
& Renzulli 1982; Renzulli, 1982).

Single-versus multi-dimensional. Some definitions focus on

achievements within the academic domain only, while others include
achievements in a number of domains. The more dimensions a definition
embrace, the more liberal the definition is likely to be. The push for an
inclusive definition reflects a valid desire to avoid excluding individuals
who truly are gifted. At the same time there is a recognition that, although
the notion of giftedness needs to be broadened, it cannot become so broad
that everyone is regarded as gifted – that, exceptional – as exceptionality
would then be the norm (Runco 1993).

Potential versus Performance. Some definitions require evidence of

ability, others include under achieving children within the gifted category,
despite the fact that they are not demonstrating remarkable abilities in
everyday situations. Ultimately, as Stermberg and Davidson (1986:3)
observe:

‘Giftedness is something we invent, not something we discover; it is what

one society or another wants it to be’. We construct the category of
‘giftedness’ statistically by choosing where to place the demarcation
between ‘giftedness’ and average abilities. This decision is entirely
arbitrary (Birch 1984), and probably has as much to do with how many
resources are available for addressing advanced learners as it has to do
with any characteristic that distinguish gifted from average learners. In
other word, our definition is political as well as psychological
(SaponShevin 1994). Therefore, we must temper our judgements about
children’s abilities and needs with an awareness of the limitations of the
constructs and tools that guide our practice.

1.3.2 Characteristics of Gifted Students

Being gifted in America today is not necessarily a positive experience.

Gifted students and their parents experience a lot of rejection from an
educational system in which conformity is valued and most kids are

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expected to work along with the group without resistance or complaint. I

have long wondered why we can spend considerable time and effort
teaching students to appreciate diversity in ethnic and cultural terms, but
we don’t extend that mindset to differences in learning ability. I’ve never
met a gifted kid who asked to be born that way. It just happens. We need
to consider giftedness as simply another difference and make gifted kids
as welcome in our classrooms as any other students.
There are already so many definitions for giftedness that I hesitate to offer
another. However, in terms of classroom teaching, I define gifted
students as “those who have ability in one or more learning areas that
exceeds grade/age level expectations by two years or more”. By this
definition, the regular curriculum can’t possibly provide the challenge
these students need to continually move forward in their learning.

In recent years, some fascinating new insights into giftedness have

emerged from the work of polish psychiatrist and psychologist Kazimierz
Dabrowski (1902-1980). When Dabrowski studied a group of gifted
children and youth, he found that they displayed what he called ‘over
excitabilities”. They perceived all kinds of stimuli more intensely than
others: they were super – sensitive to everything in their environment and
felt the joys and sorrows of life more extremely than other children.
(Today, over excitability – OE – is considered a maker of giftedness, one
of the many things to look for when identifying a gifted child).
Dabrowski believed that OE may lead to a series of “positive
disintegrations”, a developmental crisis, during which the individual
rejects the status quo and questions everything. When things go well, this
process continues and the person emerges as an autonomous, authentic
human being with carefully thought – out values and beliefs. When they
don’t, the person may get stock in antisocial behaviour, disharmony, and
despair. Dabrowski’s theories help us to understand why living with the
teaching gifted kids can be such an incredible challenge.

People often ask me for a “short list” of the characteristics’ gifted

children have which make identification easier. I believe that any student
who possesses most or all of the following five characteristics is probably
gifted.
1. Learns new material faster, and at an earlier age, than age peers.
2. Remembers what has been learned forever, making review
unnecessary.
3. Is able to deal with concepts that are too complex and abstract for
age peers.
4. Has a passionate interest in one or more topics, and would spend
all available time learning more about that topic if he or she could.
5. Does not need to watch the teacher to hear what is being said; can
operate on multiple brain channels simultaneously and process
more than one task at a time.

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Other characteristics are described throughout this chapter. To be gifted,

one does not have to possess all these characteristics. However, when
you observe students consistently exhibiting many of these behaviours,
the possibility that they are gifted is very strong. Trust your own
observations more than the “evidence” of mediocre standardized, test
scores of poor grades. Listen respectfully to parents whose descriptions
of their children at home match some of the information presented here.
Sometimes, gifted kids choose to not appear gifted at school while
continuing to demonstrate gifted characteristics at home. It’s rare to find
a child who is “gifted across the board”. Most gifted kids are more likely
to be gifted in one or two specific areas and average or even below
average in others. For example, many highly verbal youngsters appear
deficient in bodily kinaesthetic abilities, especially in Gym or physical
education classes. I say “appear” because their physical abilities may be
developmentally appropriate to their age but seem glaringly different
from their intellectual abilities. Children who show evidence of
giftedness in one or two areas are as eligible for compacting and
differentiation opportunities as those who are gifted in many or all areas.
Before we get into characteristics, I want to reassure you that you will
probably never need all of this information. Chances are, you won’t be
asked to formally identify gifted students, they often identify themselves
by showing their readiness for compacting and differentiation. The
characteristics are included here in case you want and need guidelines for
recognizing gifted behaviours. You may choose to share this information
with the parents of gifted students in your classroom.

1.3.4 Administrative and Educational Programmes for Gifted

and Talented Students:

The administration of a gifted programme is crucial to the success of their

programme. In fact, the success of any educational programme for the
gifted depends on it. According to some scholars, there are three main
administrative provisions for the gifted. They are ability grouping,
acceleration and enrichment (Clark 1983; Adesokan, 1990).
Ability grouping allows some students to be separated from the regular
students. The selection is done through the level of measured intelligence.
Thus, ability grouping can be done in the form of special classes or
schools with special groups meeting prior to or after school. There are
also the pull-out programmes during school hours in which gifted students
could be separated for a given period of time before returning to the
regular programme. A good example of such practice is that of the special
school programme for the gifted in Nigeria, called Suleja Academy in
Minna, Niger State.

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Ortion (1980) observed that the longer the gifted are allowed to be in
special programmes, the greater will be their gains. This observation is
valid for the mathematicians studied by Bloom (1982). Bloom who
attributed their success to the opportunities of special programmes which
enhanced the exploration of topics of their interest to greater depths as
well as gave them the opportunities of developing their own techniques
in solving problems in such areas.
The following are several forms of ability grouping as recorded by Clark
(1983) and Adesokan (1990).

(a) Regular Classroom and Regular Classroom with Clusters:

In this setting, the gifted are grouped with non-gifted in a regular
classroom. It is the most inappropriate organization for the gifted
owing to the reliance on group instruction and or rigid curriculum.
The instruction provides the same experience for everyone.
Whitemore (1986) commented on this as follows: “It seems likely
that future research could prove that the regular classroom is the
most restrictive environment for the gifted, child”. This is due to
the conventionalized nature of the curriculum. Gifted and talented
students need a flexible and dynamic curriculum in order to
function properly.
(b) Regular Classroom with Pull Out
Here, the regular students are grouped with the gifted students, but
they have an opportunity to mix with other gifted students for a
part of the day. They also have access to resource room, a special
class, field trip; seminar and other unique learning arrangements.
The disadvantage of this setting is that the gifted students are made
to do the regular work for the period they were absent. The pull-
out time is also inadequate in meeting all their learning needs.
Moreover, the regular teachers sometimes recent the interruption
of their classes by the pull-out programmes.
(c) Regular Classroom with Clusters and Pull Out:
The gifted students are grouped with the regular students and there
are more opportunities for interaction with other gifted peers.
Consequently, there is a better follow through with the gifted
programme. The quality of the programme depends on the regular
teachers and the pull-out teachers. In this setting, the gifted
students are also made to do the regular curriculum for the period
they were away.
(d) Individualized Classroom:
In this milieu, individual and flexible small group instruction
“assessment” is used in determining the curriculum and materials
for each student. The classroom is decentralized and given access
to many different types of learning. In most cases, such classes are
usually upgraded with students from different age levels and
learning centres often found in the same classrooms. The

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disadvantages are that gifted students are usually isolated with no

one to share their ideas with if they are few. This setting also
requires the services of specially trained competent teachers in
order to avoid the problem of being unstructured.
(e) Individual Classroom with Cluster:
Here, students have access to many types of learning; there are
also other gifted learners whom they can share their ideas with.
The setting is also flexible with small group instructions. It
requires the services of a competent teacher otherwise it would be
unstructured and disorganized.
(f) Individual Classroom with Clusters and Pull Out:
It has the advantage of individual flexible small group instruction,
with assessment being used to determine the curriculum and
materials of each student. There is access to many types of
learning experiences. More resources are available to both
students obliged to do the work of the regular curriculum as in the
case of the pull-out classroom.
(g) Special Class with Some Integrated Classes:
The design is by subject area, with the advantages of moving into
integrated classes for subjects that stress talents. The gifted
students in this milieu have the opportunity of appreciating other
talents. This is very useful to the moderately gifted individuals.
The setting requires services of specially trained teachers in order
to avoid disorganization.
(h) Special Class:
The environment in his setting is highly conducive for the learning
styles of the gifted as it is specially designed to suit their learning
needs. There is the added advantage of their being challenged to
their full potential in all areas owing to the flexibility of the
environment.
(i) Special School:
This is mostly used for the highly gifted and talented. As such,
the services of specially trained teachers are of utmost importance.
The environment is conducive for the stimulation of the
potentialities of the gifted. The only disadvantage is that the gifted
students are isolated, allowed to integrate with their regular peers.
Moreover, this sort of setting could lead to maladjustment later in
life, since, the gifted would eventually work with the regular
students who form the majority in the society. An example of such
a school in Nigeria is the Suleja Academy, where we have the
concentration of identified gifted students as a special school.
(j) Special Group:
Gifted students can experience this as an adjunct programme after
school or during summer. The students’ experiences range from
special interest group or classes with single subject content to an
open varied approach. There are disadvantages if used as a total

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gifted programme as there are no provisions for special learning

needs or interests of the individual students. Moreover, the
programme lacks continuity. It is however, adequate if used as an
enrichment in a regular setting.
Therefore, ability grouping may provide a partial answer to the
learning needs of gifted students: Other modifications have to be
made in order for the programme to succeed, at all levels of
educational settings. Also, since there are individual differences
among this category of children, individualized instructions are to
be adopted in their education. Thus, there should be
encouragement of all areas of intellectual functioning. On the
other hand, total segregation should be avoided and the services of
specially trained teachers should be secured. Consequently,
parents and teachers should communicate with each other as their
cooperation is critical to the success of the programme.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1
Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.

1. Gifted children are also special needs children

A. True
B. Not true
C. Unsure
D. Sometimes

2. These are some of the administrative and educational

programmes for gifted students except
A. Regular Classroom with Clusters and Pull Out
B. Individual Classroom with Cluster
C. Special School
D. Equal class work in an inclusive education

3. How true is this statement? “Most gifted kids are more likely
to be gifted in one or two specific areas and average or even
below average in others”.
A. Not true
B.1.4 Summary
Undecided
C.InTrue
this unit, we have learnt that gifted and talented is both an
important and complicated
D. Sometimes true matter. Our definition has implications for

whom we identify as being gifted. We also discussed the characteristics

of gifted student such as (i) learns new materials faster, and at an earlier
age than age peers (ii) Remember what has been learnt forever, making

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review unnecessary etc. we also discussed administrative and educational

programmes that the gifted and talented children can benefit from.

1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Bloom, B. (1982). The Role of Gifts and Markers in the Development of

Talent, Exceptional Children, 48(6), 510 – 522.

Gallagher, J.J. & Gallagher, S. (1994). Teaching the Gifted Child (4th Ed.),
16, 206 – 217.

Maker, C.J. (1982). Curriculum Development for the Gifted. Austin, TX

PRO.ED

Maker, C.J. (1982). Teaching Models in Education of the Gifted.

Rockville, MD: Aspen.

Olanchak; B & Renzulli, J. (1991). The Effectiveness of the Schoolwide

Enrichment Model on Selected aspects of elementary school
change. Gifted Child Quarterly, 33, 36 – 46.

Renzulli, J.S. (1982). What makes a Problem Real: Stalking the illusive
meaning of qualitative differences in gifted education. Gifted child
Quarterly, 26, 147 – 156.

Renzulli, J. & Reis, S. (1986). The Enrichment triad/revolving door

model: A Schoolwide plan for development of creative
productivity. In J. Renzulli (Ed.). Systems and Models for
developing programs for the gifted and talented. Mansfield Center,
CT: Creative Learning Press.

Renzulli, J.S. & Reis, S.L. (1991). The Revolving Door Identification
Model. Mansfield Centre, C.T. Creative Learning Press.

Renzulli, J.S. (1994). Schools for Talent Development: A Practice Plan

for Total School Improvement, Reston, V.A.; Council for
Exceptional Children, 48, 12 – 33.

Renzulli, J; Smith, T; White, G; Callahan, B. & Hartman, F. (1994). The

revolving door identification model. Mansfield Center, C.T.
Creative Learning Press.

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Sternberg, R. (1986). Identifying the Gifted through IQ: Why a little bit
of knowledge is a dangerous thing. Roeper Review, 8(3), 143 –
147.

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1.6 Possible Answers to SAEs 1

1. True
2. Equal classwork in an inclusive education
3. True

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UNIT 2 CURRICULUM MODIFICATION FOR GIFTED

AND TALENTED STUDENTS

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Main Content
2.3.1 Curriculum Modifications for Gifted and Talented Students
2.3.2 Content Modification
2.3.2.1 Abstractness
2.3.2.2 Complexity
2.3.2.3 Variety
2.3.2.4 Organisation and Economy
2.4 Learning Environment
2.5 Summary
2.6 References/Further Readings
2.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content

2.1 Introduction

The appropriate school curriculum for the gifted is qualitatively different

from the programme for the non-gifted students (Maker, 1993).
According to her, the implication is that, the basic curriculum must be
examined and changes or modifications made, so that appropriate
curriculum could be provided for the gifted.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of the unit, you will be able to:

• design an appropriate curriculum for the gifted and talented

children.
• you also highlight the kind of environment that can enrich
education of the gifted and talented.

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2.3 Main Content

2.3.1 Curriculum Modifications for Gifted and Talented

Students

Gallagher (1994), also stated that the basic curriculum for the gifted can
be modified in content, process and learning environment. (i.e the
physical and psychological environment). While Renzulli (1991) added
the product elements (the end products expected of children as a result of
the processes used) as a dimension that must be considered.

2.3.2 Content Modification

The content of the curriculum consists of the ideas, concepts, descriptive

information, and facts that are presented to the student. It can assume a
variety of forms and can differ in its degree of abstractness, complexity,
the way it is organized, and the subject areas covered.

Abstractness: The major focus of discussion, presentations, reading

materials and lectures in a gifted programme should be an abstract
concepts and generalizations – ideas that have a wide range of
applicability or that transfer both with – and across disciplines or fields of
study. Concrete information and factual data are intended as illustrations
or examples of the abstract ideas rather than as the major focus.

Complexity: Visually abstract ideas are also complex, but abstract ideas
vary in their degree of complexity. The abstract ideas presented to gifted
students need to be as complex as possible. The complexity of an abstract
idea can be determined by examining the number and complexity of
concepts and the number and diversity of the disciplines or traditional
content areas that must be understood or integrated to comprehend the
ideas.

Variety: In the past year, variety has been the definition of enrichment
and in many programmes has been the only content modification made
for gifted students. The concept of variety suggests that in a gifted
programme, ideas and content areas not taught in the regular curriculum
should be taught.

Organisation and Economy

Since knowledge in most areas is increasing and changing more rapidly
than ever before, and since gifted students have a limited amount of time
to spend in school and in the programme, every learning experience must
be the most valuable that can be offered. To achieve economy, content

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must be organized to facilitate transfer of learning, memory, and

understanding of abstract concepts and generalizations. According to
Bruner (1983) these results can be achieved if the content is organized
around the key concepts or abstract ideas to be taught rather than arranged
in some other fashion.

Study of People
Gifted students are likely to become the scholars, leaders and creative,
productive individuals of the future. They also enjoy reading biographics
and autobiographies. For these reasons, along with their potential for
learning to deal with their own talents and possible success, gifted
students used to study creative and productive individuals. An analysis of
problems these individuals faced should be included, along with the way
they handle their problems, their personal traits, their career or
professional characteristics, and their social interactions.

The Study of Methods

Gifted students should study the methods of inquiry – the investigative
techniques – used by scholars in different disciplines. They need practice
in using these methods and they should learn a variety of techniques. Such
studies can contribute to a better understanding of the content area and
enhance the independence of the students.

Process Modification
The process aspect of the curriculum involved the way new materials is
presented, the activities in which the students engage, and the questions
that are asked. Process includes teaching methods and the thinking skills
or process developed in the students.

Higher Levels of Thinking:

The methods used in gifted programme should stress the use rather than
acquisition of information. Since gifted students can rapidly and almost
effortlessly acquire information, they should be expected to apply it in
new situations, use it to develop new products.

Open – Endedness:
Questions and activities for gifted students should include a greater
percentage of open-ended indicators that there is no predetermined right
answer and that the questions or activities are provocative in that they
stimulate more thoughts, permits and one child, and contributes to the
development of students centered interaction pattern.

Discovery
The activities designed for gifted students should include a greater
percentage of situations in which the students use their inductive
reasoning process to discover patterns, ideas and underlying principles.

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Such guided discovery has several advantages for these children:

1. It increases their interest through involvement in learning;
2. It builds on their natural curiosity, their desire to figure out the
‘how and why of things’ (Renzulli, Smith White, Callahan, and
Hartman, 1994), and their desire to organize and bring structure to
things; and
3. It increases their self-confidence and independence in learning by
showing that they are capable of figuring things out for themselves.

Evidence of Reasoning
Another important process modification for use with gifted students is to
ask them to express not only their conclusions but also the reasoning that
led them to these conclusions. This aspect of teaching is especially
important when using a discovery approach, developing higher levels of
thinking, and asking open-ended questions. Using this strategy, students
learn different reasoning process from other students, and they are
encouraged to evaluate both the process and products of others’ thinking.
It also provides a vehicle for the teacher to assess the student’s level of
thinking.

Freedom of Choice
Whenever possible, gifted students should be given the freedom to
choose what to investigate and how to study their interest and excitement
in learning will be increased by such techniques. However, not all gifted
students are independent learners, so they may need assistance in making
and executing their choices.

Group interaction activities and simulations:

Structured activities and simulation games, should be a regular part of the
curriculum for the gifted students to enable them to develop their social
and leadership skills. These activities should include following a set of
rules interacting with a small group of students, peer evaluation and self-
analysis or critique. Both peer evaluation and self-analysis will be more
effective if the activity has been video-taped or audiotaped.

Pacing and Variety

The final two process modifications serve mainly as facilitators of the
success of other changes. Pacing refers to how rapidly new materials is
presented to the students. Variety simply suggests that the teacher use
various methods to maintain the interest of the children and to
accommodate the different learning styles of the students.

Product Modification
Products are the ‘ends’ of instruction. They can be tangible or intangible,
sophisticated or unsophisticated. Sophisticated products involve detailed,
original work, while unsophisticated ones involve paraphrasing or

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copying. Products can include reports, stories, plays, dances, ideas,

speeches, pictures and illustrations. The products expected from gifted
students should resemble the products developed by professionals in the
discipline being studied (Renzulli, 1994). These professional products
will differ from typical students’ product in the following ways:
• Real Problems: The products developed by gifted students should
address problems that are real to them. Students can be allowed to
choose a specific area of concern within a certain field of study and
to design an investigation around the area.
• Real Audiences: The products developed by gifted students
should be addressed to real audiences, such as the scientific
community, the city council or a government agency. These
students should not be developing products that are only seen or
heard by the teacher. If real audiences are not available, other
students can make up a stimulated audience.
• Transformation: Gifted students’ products should represent
transformations of existing information or data rather than being
mere summaries of other people’s conclusions. Original research,
original artwork, and other such products should include the
collection and analysis of raw data. If students have used their
higher levels of thinking, they must produce a product that is a true
transformation.
• Evaluation: Often students’ products are only directed toward and
evaluated by the teacher. The products of professionals are
evaluated by the audiences for whom they were intended. Products
of gifted students should be evaluated by appropriate audiences,
including simulated audiences of peers. Students should also be
encouraged and required to complete an extensive self-evaluation
of their own products.

2.3.3 Learning Environment

According to Maker (1982) learning environment refers to the physical

and psychological climate of the school and classroom. The learning
environment appropriate for the gifted students is not too different from
that of other students. There are many dimensions of learning
environments that are important, and different individuals have different
preferences for certain aspects (for example, amount of noise, light or
presence of colour). All environment modifications presented in this
section were chosen because they met the following three conditions:
1. They are preferred by the gifted as a group
2. They are necessary for implementing the content, process and
product modifications advocated; and
3. They build on the characteristics of gifted students.

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(a) Student-Centered versus Teacher-Centered:

Environments for gifted students should include a focus on the
students’ ideas and interest rather than on those of the teacher.
There should be a high degree of emphasis on students’
discussions rather than on teacher talk, a pattern of interaction
should seldom have the teacher as a central figure or focus.

(b) Independence versus Dependence

This dimension of the environment refers to the degree of tolerance
for an encouragement of student initiative. The focus is on having
students solve all the problems rather than having the teacher solve
all the problems, including those related to classroom
management.
(c) Open versus Closed
This aspect of the environment refers to the extent to which
restriction affect the student and goes beyond academic into
nonacademic areas. The physical environment needs to be open to
permit new people, materials and things to enter. The same is true
of the psychological environment. It must permit new ideas
exploratory discussions, and the freedom to change directions to
meet new situations.
(d) Accepting versus Judging:
There are three major elements of this dimension:
(i) Attempting to understand students’ ideas;
(ii) The timing of value judgments; and
(iii) Evaluation rather than judgment.

Before teachers can assess student idea, they must accept and understand
those ideas, that is, they must attend or listen actively, accept the ideas,
and then request clarification, elaboration and extensions of the ideas
before challenging them.
(e) Complex versus Simple
As a dimension of classroom climate, complex versus simplicity
refers to both the physical and the psychological environment. A
complex physical environment, which is necessary for the gifted,
includes a variety of materials, references, and books; a balance of
hard and soft elements; and a variety of colours. A complex
psychological environment which is also necessary for gifted
students includes challenging tasks, complex ideas, and
sophisticated methods.
(f) High Mobility versus Low Mobility
This dimension of the environment refers to the amount of
movement allowed and encouraged. To permit gifted students to
develop professional products, allow movement in and out of the
classroom and access to different environments, materials and
equipment.

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Complex Environment
A complex physical environment as observed by Maker (1982) required
a variety of materials, references and books, a balance of hard and soft
elements and variety of colours and challenging tasks. Secondly, high
mobility should be encouraged, which include movement in and outside
the classroom. The appropriateness of any educational programme for the
gifted should be evaluated on how well these modifications the gifted are
provided for by the curriculum.

Clark (1993) in support of an appropriate curriculum for the gifted opined

that gifted programmes should extend beyond fact-gathering to provide
opportunities for gifted students in the curriculum so as to find their areas
of interest and abilities. Except students experience the problem of those
efforts chosen areas of interest and through personal efforts developed
real solution that affects others in these areas, we do not have a separate
programme for such learners that are designated as gifted. Therefore, the
gifted curriculum should reflect the learning needs of the students which
should be based on assessment of their characteristics as well as other
learning styles.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.
1. The content of the curriculum consists must incorporate the
following except
A. the ideas,
B. concepts,
C. descriptive information, and
D. Hypothesis
2. To permit _______students to develop professional products,
allow movement in and out of the classroom and access to
different environments, materials and equipment.
A. Disable
B. Retarded
C. Gifted
D. Intellectually retarded
3. As a dimension of classroom climate, complex versus
simplicity refers to both the physical and the
___________environment.
A. Sociological
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B. Psychological
C. Biological
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2.4 Summary

In this unit, we learnt about the appropriate school curriculum that is of

benefits to the gifted and talented students. We also discussed about
content modification of the curriculum.

We have learnt that the education of students with special gift or talents
should be based on three characteristics (i) Curriculum designed to
accommodate advanced cognitive skills (ii) Instructional strategies that is
consistent with learning styles (iii) group of instructions. This curriculum
should incorporate enrichment, acceleration as educational approaches.

2.5 References/Further Readings

Gallagher, J.J. & Gallagher, S. (1994). Teaching the Gifted Child (4th
Ed.), 16, 206 – 217.

Maker, C.J. (1982). Curriculum Development for the Gifted. Austin, TX

PRO.ED

Maker, C.J. (1982). Teaching Models in Education of the Gifted.

Rockville, MD: Aspen.

Renzulli, J.S. (1994). Schools for Talent Development: A Practice Plan

for Total School Improvement, Reston, V.A.; Council for
Exceptional Children, 48, 12 – 33.

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2.6 Possible Answers to SAEs 1

1. Hypothesis
2. Gifted
3. Psychological

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MODULE 6 EDUCATION FOR THE VISUALLY

IMPAIRED
Unit 1 Definitions, History, Causes and Prevalence
Unit 2 Characteristics And Educational Approaches of
Visual Impairment
Unit 3 Rehabilitation of The Visually Impaired

UNIT 1 DEFINITIONS, HISTORY, CAUSES AND

PREVALENCE

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Main Content
1.3.1 Definition of Visual Impairment
1.3.2 Causes of Visual Impairment
1.3.3 History of Visual Impairment
1.3.4 Prevalence of Visual Impairment
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Reading/Web Resources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content.

1.1 Introduction

Persons with visual impairment are found virtually in all societies of the
world. Record confirms the outstanding works of some distinguished
blind individual. Personalities such as Homer, the Greek poet who in the
8th century B.C. composed the odyssey and the Iliad. It was in the 18th
century that the visually impaired began to experience an appreciable
integration into the society. Personalities such as Nicholas Saunderson a
blind man rose to the pick of his career as a professor of mathematics and
a host of others.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define visual impairment
• mention at least 5 causes of visual impairment and explain them.
• write brief history of visual impairment in relation to Nigeria
• classify the history of visual impairment into three stages

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• rate prevalence of visual impairment in Nigeria in comparison with

some other countries like USA

1.3 Main Content

1.3.1 Definition of Visual Impairment

Visual impairment has been viewed by various people based on their

perceptions, disciplines and the effects it imposes on them. Millais (2010)
saw it as the condition of lack or reduction in visual perception due to
physiological or neurological factors. Eniola (2008) categorized persons
with visual impairments as those with total blindness, those with low
vision and those who are partially sighted. However, the term “Visual
Impairment” is now generally accepted as referring to people within the
visual range of no sight at all to useful but defective vision, rather than
the more strictly categorical terms of “blind”, “low vision” or “partially
sighted” (Nkangwung, 2010).

Total blindness is the inability to discriminate light from dark, or the total
inability to see. Total blindness is otherwise known as legal blindness,
and has visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye after the best
possible correction with glasses (Heward, 2004).

Low vision is a severe visual impairment with minimal visual function

after correction. It can be increased through the use of optical aids and
environmental modifications (Corn & Ryser, 1989). Students with low
vision learn from vision and other sense. Functional vision will depend
on factors such as lighting, size of print or objects, and distance. Low
vision is characterized by visual acuity of 20/200 to 70/200 (Snellen) or
6/18 to 6/60 in the better eye after the best possible correction or a field
of vision between 20 to 30 degrees (WHO, 1992).

Individual with partial sightedness would be able to use the sight to move
about, but may not be able to use it for academic task. The category is
based on the simultaneous consideration of the three aspects of vision
namely; visual acuity, field of vision and visual functioning. In a broad
sense, visual defects into loss of clear vision, central vision or peripheral
vision. All these looses are considered by measuring visual acuity, field
of vision and level of visual functioning.

Visual acuity refers to the ability of the eye to see details. The visual
acuity for distance is measured as the maximum distance at which a
person can see a certain object, divided by the maximum distance at which
a person with normal eyesight can see the same object. Thus a visual

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acuity of 6/60 means that the person examined can see, at a distance of 6
meters, the object which a person with normal eyesight would be able to
see at 60 meters. If vision is so impaired that to see the biggest E of the
E-chart, the person has to come within 6 meters or even nearer, he is
considered blind. The simplest method of testing visual acuity is to see
whether the person can count fingers at a distance of six meters (6 Mts).

Field of vision refers to the extent which both eyes can easily see in front.
The normal field of vision is 180 degrees in front of eye. It is determined
by the Confrontation Test in which mapping is done on a chart having
concentric circles marked upon it. The simplest method of testing is to
bring snapping finger from the side of the ear to the front, move it up and
down, and mark the position where the person can see the finger.

Visual functioning relates to the condition of the eye. It is determined by

the experience, motivation, needs and expectation of each individual in
relation to whatever visual capacity is available to satisfy curiosity and
accomplishment of activities for personal satisfaction. The visual
functioning refers to the degree to which/ability of a person to use vision
for all daily activities.

1.3.2 Causes of Visual Impairment

Visual impairment is a condition that is found in every corner of the globe,

and which causes vary from place to place. It can affect a person at any
particular age or stage in one’s lifetime. The causes of visual impairment
may be right from developmental stages in the womb before birth, a
condition called prenatal causes. It could be at birth (perinatal) as well as
later in life (Post-natal condition). Examples of causes of visual
impairment would therefore be discussed under three stages mentioned:

Pre-Natal Causes. This may be as a result of hereditary factors which

may affect the cornea, lens, retina, optic nerve and other muscles or
organs of sight. It could also be as a result of infections or diseases from
pregnant mother. Such diseases include syphilis or gonorrhea, German
measles (rubella) malformation or dislocation of the lens or any of the
refractive media and muscles of the eye during developmental stages of
the foetus could lead to visual impairment. Also important is the diet of
the mother during pregnancy, if a pregnant mother is malnourished,
smoking or abusing drugs, it could lead to visual impairment in the new
born baby.

Peri-Natal Causes: These are causes of visual impairment during birth.

They include the wrong use of forceps during delivery, delay or prolonged
labour, veneral diseases of mother could affect the child’s eye as he/she
is passing out of the mother’s canal.

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Post – Natal Causes: These are things that result into visual impairment
in a child after birth. They include hormonal imbalance, infectious
diseases such as small pox, chicken pox, scarlet fever, trachoma, epilepsy,
onchocerciasis (river blindness), measles, cataract, glaucoma, strabismus,
retinitis pigmentosa among others (Olukotun, 2003). Accident and
injuries involving the organs of sight can also results in visual
impairment.

Apart from diseases, physiological and pathological causes, the Nigerian

traditional culture believes in different causes of visual impairment, for
instance, havoc from evil spirit and witches, prolonged gaze at nakedness
of an opposite sex, punishment for past sins committed by parents, anger
of the gods and the violation of traditional norms (Osinuga, Adebiyi and
Ajobiewe; 2004). Traditional or cultural causes according to Osinuga et
al have no scientific proof.

1.3.3 History of Visual Impairment

Since the prehistoric age of man’s existence, conditions of disabilities

have been with man. One of these conditions include visual impairment.
Like other categories of disabilities, visual impairment has inspired
various treatments based on perceptions of the people. These treatments
range from negative to positive across the ages. Although the condition
of visual impairments was perceived differently by people at different
phases of history, however the nature of the condition remains the same.
This realization has called for the need to deal proactively with the
condition through formal education. This earlier conviction led to the
widespread establishment of special institutions, some of which cater for
the needs of persons with visual impairments. Some of these found their
ways to missionaries in earnest in the 1940’s.

However, the possibility of educating them looks more of mirage than

reality. Obani (2004) avers that some cultures still view people with
disabilities and handicaps as having been cursed. In a developing country
like Nigeria, where the literacy level is around the halfway mark, there
are still widespread primitive and superstitions beliefs about handicaps.
To him, people with disabilities are very likely to be wrongly perceived
and therefore treated. It is essential at this point to shed light on the
historical progression of education of persons with visual impairment
from the earliest time to the present under the following stages in Nigeria.
• The Pre-Missionary Stage
• The Missionary Stage
• The Post-Missionary Stage

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The Pre-Missionary Stage

The pre-missionary stage dates back as far as the advent of the
missionaries in Nigeria. The actual missionary impact on education in
Nigeria dates back to 1840. Before this time, the blind was mistreated by
most primitive societies in the world then. The Western Education was
not concerned with Special Education in Nigeria until a century later.

The Missionary Stage (1940 – 1970)

After the 2nd World-War there was a dramatic turnaround in the education
for persons with visual impairment. Their story changed; the first school
for the blind was established in Gindiri by Sudan Interor Mission in 1953.
Also, in 1962, Pacelli School for the Blind was established by the Catholic
Mission under Archbishop Taylor. The nation began to witness the birth
of many special schools for the blind. Even though during this period,
education system witnessed various educational ordinances but all were
silent on Special Education.

The Post Missionary Stage (1970 to date)

The missionaries played major role in the establishment of special schools
and in the growth of Special Education in Nigeria. Nigeria government
started to involve in the education of persons with disabilities as from
1970. Zindif (1997) opines that complete involvement in the education of
the disabled by government did not take place until the 1970s when the
then Head of States, Major General Yakubu Gowon declared
government’s interest in the education of the disabled. He directed that all
the state Ministries of Education must establish Units for Special
Education so as to strengthen the existing schools. Today, elements of
Special Education are being taught in our Colleges of Education and some
Universities’ Faculty of Education. A lot of improvements are being made
in Special Education especially in the education of persons with visual
impairment (Adebiyi, 2007).

1.3.4 Prevalence of Visual Impairment

Throughout the world, approximately 314 million people live with visual
impairment. Out of which, 45 million are totally blind. However, this
aggregate did not mirror individual country’s statistics on prevalence. For
instance, of this summation, 87% live in developing countries (WHO,
2010). This disparity between the global south and north are not unrelated
to barriers to eye care which are consistent across most demographic
groups. On the other hand, the differences in prevalence of blindness
between the different countries in Africa and Asia could be due to
differences in the causes of blindness, access to eye care services, or
differences in life expectancy. Therefore, the quality of the few local eye
care services, financial barriers and a widespread lack of eye care

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knowledge present major challenges for eye care provision, and readily
predetermine each country’s prevalence level of visual impairments.

For example, while the United States of America recorded 3.3 million
adults of age 40 and above are having one visual impairment or the other,
a developing country such as Nigeria recorded 4.25 million adults of the
same age as its prevalence level of visual impairment (Kyari, Murthy,
Gudlavalleti, Sivsubramaniam, Gilbert, Abdull, Entekume and Foster,
2009). The WHO global data on blindness for 2002 categorized Nigeria
along with a group of other countries in the region as having an estimated
prevalence of blindness of 9% among those aged 50 years and 1% for the
population of all ages. In particular, the rate of blindness in Nigeria is
consistently high in all Nigerian states with 10.2% in Delta State as the
least and 26.3% in Yobe State as the highest.

Aside the different level of economic growth as a probable factor, age is

also a leading factor in some country’s prevalence level of visual
impairment. For instance, a Unite States report established that rapid
increase in visual impairment is not unconnected with the aging process
of the population. In Nigeria, the magnitude of blindness among adults
aged 40 years and for all ages was estimated. Based on survey findings, it
is estimated that 1.13 million individuals aged 40 years are currently blind
in Nigeria. The North West, being the zone with the largest population,
harbours the largest number of adults with blindness in Nigeria (28.6%).
It was also established that 2.7 million adults aged 40 years had moderate
visual impairment and an additional 0.4 million adults had severe visual
impairment. Thus, a total of 4.25 million adults aged 40 years in Nigeria
suffer moderate or severe visual impairment or blindness. Though, there
is a high frequency of risk among women, the recent findings did not
establish age as a major predicator in the prevalence of visual impairment
in Nigeria (Kyari, et al, 2009).

The following are the prevalence rates of the common visual impairments
in Nigeria as identified by the Nigeria National Blindness and Visual
Impairment Survey 2005 – 2007.
- Cataract: The prevalence of cataract blindness was 1.8% (95% CI:
1.57 – 2.05)
- Glaucoma: 16.7% (prevalence 0.7%; 95% CI: 0.6 – 0.9) - Corneal
Scarring: from all causes was responsible for 7.9% of blindness
84% of blindness was due to avoidable causes.
- Uncorrected refractive errors were the commonest causes of mild
and moderate visual impairment (77.9% and 57.1% respectively)
being responsible for visual impairment in 2.46 million adults in
Nigeria (i.e acuity of <6/12 – 6/60)

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- “Operable” Cataract (i.e. visual acuity of <6/60) affects 400,000

people and glaucoma has caused blindness in a further 150,000
adults.
The prognosis on the prevalence of visual impairment in relation to the
major causes of visual impairment by the next decade was not
encouraging. According to Nigeria National Blindness and Visual
Impairment Survey 2005 – 2007, by the year 2020 the number of adults
with operable cataract will increase by 43% to 600,000 assuming that the
incidence of severe visual impairment and blindness due to cataract and
cataract surgical coverage remain unchanged over the next 12 years.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.

1. When an individual exhibits his or her inability to discriminate light

from dark, or the total inability to see one can say that, such a person
is suffering from
A. Partial blindness
B. Astigmatism
C. Total blindness
D. Hyper ametropia

2. This is not among the stages of the causes of visual impairment.

A. Pre-natal
B. Peri-natal
C. Post-natal
D. Infancy

3. The history of special education can be categorized under the

following except
A. Pre-missionary stage
B. Missionary stage
C. Post-missionary stage
D. Dark stage

1.4 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about who the visually impaired persons are.
You have also learnt about different categories of and degrees of visual
impairment. You have been exposed to possible causes and symptoms of
visual impairment.

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we have learnt and defined visual impairment as people within the visual
range of no sight at all to useful but defective vision rather than the more
strictly categorical terms of “blind” “low vision” or “partially sighted”.
We also discussed brief History of Education of learners with visual
impairment. The prevalence of visual impairment was discussed. By now
you should be able to identify various causes of visual impairment as
before, during and after birth.

1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Adebiyi, B.A. (2004) Special Education (A Historical Survey). Footprints

Journal of COEASU.

Adebiyi, B.A. (2007). Visually Impaired Education: Yesterday, Today

and Tomorrow. Essays in Education Volume 22, Fall 2007.

Ajaja, A.A. (2006). Self-Employment of Persons with Disabilities in

Adebiyi, B.A. (Ed.) Employment of Persons with Disability. A
Publication of National Resource Centre for the Disabled.

Fatima Kyari, Murthy, V.S. Gudlavalleti, Selvaraj Sivsubramaniam,

Clare E. Gilbert, Mohammed M. abdull, Gabriel Entekume and
Allen Foster (2009). Prevalence of Blindness and Visual
Impairment in Nigeria: The National Blindness and Visual
Impairment Survey Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science,
May, 2009, Vol. 5, No. 5.
Heward, L.W. (2004). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special
Education 7th Ed. Ohio: Merril Prentice hall
Obani,T.O. (2004). Handicap, Disability and Special Education. What
Parents and Teachers want to know.

Olukotun, J.O. (2003). Teaching Children with Blindness and Visual

Impairment: A Basic Text. Ibadan: Codat publications.
Scholl, G. (Ed.) (1986). Foundations of Education for Blind and Visually
Handicapped Children and Youth. American Printing House for
the Blind. Louisville, KY 40206
The Free Dictionary (2011). Definition of Visual Impairment. Retrieved
from
http://thefreedictionary.com/Visual+Impairment”>VisualImpairm
en t</a
Zindif (1997). Special Education in Africa. Botswana: Tasalls
Publishing

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1.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Total blindness
2. Infancy
3. Dark stage

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

UNIT 2 CHARACTERISTICS AND EDUCATIONAL

APPROACHES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Main Content
2.3.1 Characteristics of Visual Impairment
2.3.2 Educational Approaches and Consideration for Visual
Impairment
2.4 Summary
2.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content.

2.1 Introduction

Students who are blind differ from those who have low vision. They also
have individual differences. We should remember that no one set of
characteristics fits all. For example, learners with low vision read print
and can access the general education curriculum alongside their peers
without disabilities.

In order to enhance effective teaching for the visually impaired, the

visually impaired learners must be given training skills in listening,
Braille etc. the teacher should understand the child, visual functioning.
Also develops a predictable and understand system to initial
communication.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• state the characteristics of visual impairment in relation to type of

visual loss, severity, age of onset and environmental experiences.
• enumerate the educational approaches and considerations for
learners with visual impairment
• mention the components of unique curriculum.

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2.3 Main Content

2.3.1 Characteristics of Visual Impairment

Visual impairments have characteristics some of which imposes certain

constraints on the individual’s developmental tasks. However, the degree
of this constraint depends on the type of visual loss, severity, age of onset,
intellectual ability and environmental experiences. The lack of vision or
reduced vision may result in delays or limitations in motor, cognitive and
social development. Without visual input, an infant may not be motivated
to reach and move toward interesting objects in the environment. As soon
as the infant with a visual impairment finds it exciting to hear sound, he
or she will begin to reach and move toward the objects in the environment
that make sound. This does not occur until several months later, since
hearing sounds does not motivate toward objects as soon as seeing objects
does.

Cognitively, the child who has a visual impairment cannot perceive

objects in the environment beyond his or her grasp, including those that
are too large or too small or are moving. While use of other sense enables
the child to obtain information about the environment, a cognitive
limitation does exist in the range and variety of experiences.

Socially, a child with a visual impairment is limited in interaction with

the environment. The child cannot see the facial expressions of parents,
teachers and peers; cannot model social behaviours through imitation; and
sometimes is unaware of the presence of others unless a sound is made.
While touch provides direct information, it is often socially unacceptable.
The older child is limited in the ability to orient to environmental cues
and travel freely. For more information on Characteristics of visual
impairment click here

2.3.2 Educational Approaches and Considerations

It is the current practice, especially in developed countries, that students

with visual impairments are being mainstreamed successfully into regular
classes for many years in spite of their condition. They receive instruction
from specially trained teachers in the additional skills necessary to
increase independence. The Unique curriculum (otherwise called
curriculum plus) for students who are blind includes reading and writing
through the use of Braille, Typewriting, Listening skills, Personal Social
and Daily Living Skills, Orientation and Mobility, career education, and
instruction in the use of special aids and equipment. In addition to these
areas, students with low vision and visual limitations may need instruction

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in the efficient use of vision and in the use of optical aids, assistive
technology and alternative learning materials.

However, since educational services for children with visual impairment

vary according to individual needs. Residential schools, or regular
classroom (inclusive settings) with special assistance may be an
appropriate educational approach for individual students. Based on the
characteristics of learners with visual impairment, the educational
approaches and considerations should reflect the essence of
Individualized Educational Plan (IEP), which advocate those individuals
should be allowed to progress at their own rate, through equal
accessibility to instruction without the barrier of disability (Scholl, 1986).

Considering the peculiarity of this group, intervention approaches by both

parent and teacher should focus on active participation of the child in all
activities. Because children with visual impairment may not be able to
learn by watching what is going on around them, they must learn “by
doing” and interacting with their environment. Interventions should focus
on the development of contingency awareness and the intrinsic motivation
and rive of the very young infant and the development of the physical
skills that are necessary for the child to move out and explore. Children
with visual impairments should be given the opportunities to participate
in all the activities that they encounter. If a child cannot participate
independently, explore ways that he can be assisted through the activity,
allowing him to participate and complete the tasks appropriate to his level
of development.

Also, there is the need to concretize concepts as much as possible, since

the learner’s condition implies minimal or zero response to visual stimuli.
At all time the teacher should make as explicit auditory inputs as possible,
even for the low vision children. For a totally blind child or a child who
cannot see enough to imitate, the teacher may need to move the child
through an activity to demonstrate what he wants the child to do. When
demonstrating a new skill, it is easier to be behind the child so that the
teacher’s body is in the same orientation as the children. following the
demonstration, the child should be allowed to practice the concept too.

Braille: Braille is a system of communication that is written in raised dots

and perceived through the tactual sense (sense of touch). It is made up of
elements called Braille cell. The Braille system was introduced in the
nineteenth century in France by Louis Braille. We have the literary Braille
code, the Nemeth Code and a Unified Braille Code.

Slate and Stylus: It is a method of writing in Braille in which the paper

is held in a slate while a stylus is pressed through opening to make
indentation in the paper.

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Listening Skills: Listening skills play an unparallel role in the life of

children with visual impairment. Listening gives opportunities for
reaching the visually handicapped certain concepts like the sounds of wild
animals, Trucks and even the flood of traffic. Listening skills assist the
visually impaired in mobility and orientation. It is essential therefore, that
proper education should be given to children with visual impairment on
this.

Mobility and Orientation: Ability to move gracefully and knowing

one’s environment is important. In order for children with visual
impairment to be mobile he/she should be giving training in mobility and
orientation. This includes the use of long cane, guide dogs, human guide.

Technological Aids
A lot of technological devices are accusable for the visually impaired
individual to learn one of such devices is Kurzweil 1000; others are
computer system (Use of JAWS) software.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1
Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.

1. These are among the ways through which visually impaired can be
trained except
A. Braille,
B. Typewriting,
C. Listening skills, and
D. Signs

2. The visually impaired learner cannot be affected in the following

ways
A. Cognitively
B. Metaphysically
C. Socially
D. Psychologically

3. 2.4
TheSummary
method of writing in Braille in which the paper is held in a slate
In this unit, you have learnt about various characteristics of the visually
impairedwhile a stylusYou
persons. is pressed
have through opening
also learnt to make
about indentation
different in the
signs and
symptoms. You have learnt
paper is known as about how to educate them and what it takes
to educate them. Mobility and orientation is equally very important in
A. Slate and Stylus
education of the visually impaired.
B. Braille writing
C. Technological Aids
D. Modern Braille Stylus

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

2.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Heward, L.W. (2004). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special

Education (7th ed.). Ohio: Merril Prentice Hall

Noura, A. B. (2022). Vision Impairment Types, Causes & Characteristics

What is Visual Impairment? Related Study Materials
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-vision-impairment-
definition-causes-symptoms.html

Obani,T.O. (2004). Handicap, Disability and Special Education. What

Parents and Teachers want to know.

Olukotun, J.O. (2003). Teaching Children with Blindness and Visual

Impairment: A Basic Text. Ibadan: Codat publications.

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EDU 426 MODULE 6

2.6 Possible Answers to SAEs

1. Signs
2. Metaphysically
3. Slate and Stylus

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

UNIT 3 REHABILITATION OF THE VISUALLY

IMPAIRED

Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Main Content
3.3.1 Definitions
3.3.2 The Visually Impaired and Vocational Education
3.3.3 Types of Rehabilitation Programme
3.3.4 Community Based Rehabilitation
3.3.5 Persons Involved in Rehabilitation
3.3.6 Workshops and Employment Opportunities for the Visually
Impaired in Nigeria
3.4 Summary
3.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises within the content

3.1 Introduction

The visually impaired are often marginalized in Nigeria just like any
minority group. This marginalization may arise from prejudices,
stereotyping attitudes of people towards them and socio-economic
deprivation. People with special educational needs have hitherto lived
their lives so to speak watching from sidelines while medical
professionals, educationists, social workers and scientists actually run
their lives.

It is a fact that persons with special need have access to socio economic
rights as others but in reality, they are denied access to existing social
services and economic support. Most individual with special need is
denied access to adequate information that could improve their
socioeconomic conditions. Therefore, in order to improve the living
standards of individuals with visual impairment, vocational rehabilitation
is necessary. Rehabilitation of learners with visual impairment is an
avenue of making them to be self-actualized.

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3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define Rehabilitation in your own words

• mention and explain what is meant by Community Based
Rehabilitation (CBR).
• itemize challenges facing rehabilitation of the visually impaired in
Nigeria.

3.3 Main Content

3.3.1 Definition

Rehabilitation is a practical aspect of Special Education that assists in

restoration of handicapped persons to the maximum usefulness of which
is capable physically, mentally and vocationally.

However, the visually impaired are persons with any limitation for normal
visual functioning that occur as a result of visual disorder. This includes
the partially sighted, the blind and individuals with low visions. Various
authors have defined rehabilitation in different ways, especially from
professional point of view. Eni-Olorunda (2001) quoting World Health
Organization (WHO) committee (1981) defines rehabilitation as all
measures to reduce the impact of disabling and handicapping conditions
and to enable the special need and challenged individual to achieve social
integration. Therefore, vocational rehabilitation involves bringing a
person with special needs back to near normal life, as much as possible
through a vocation.

3.3.2 The Visually Impaired and Vocational Education

The human eye plays a vital role in anything we do. Generally, the
thinking in most quarters is that if any suffer sight loss, one has become
useless. To such a person, life is assumed to be meaningless. But in the
field of Special Education this presumption is not valid. This is perhaps
why Obani (2003) declares that “there are no handicapped persons, only
that person that are made handicapped by poor perception, negative
attitude and the reluctance of society to adjust and accommodate people
with special needs.

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3.3.3 Types of Rehabilitation Programmes

Rehabilitation programmes for children with special needs can be

classified as follow.

3.3.3.1 Psychological Rehabilitation

By the time a child is declared medically blind, automatically there are

bound to be reaction and counter reaction from parents and the immediate
family. Guilt feelings may ensue from the parents. This situation if not
well managed can lead to separation or divorce. It is essential therefore
for the parents to understand themselves. The parents need to educated to
be educated and counselled on the education of learners with visual
impairment.

3.3.3.2 Medical Rehabilitation

This involves team of medical personnel. It also includes all medical

attention and services rendered to the blind after being identified and
certified as having problem with sight. The doctors refer such patents to
experience ophthalmologists for proper diagnoses. After all diagnosis had
been completed and there is no improvement then the ophthalmologist
has the right to certify an individual blind.

3. 3.3.3 Educational Rehabilitation

After the medical aspect of rehabilitation has failed to correct the sight of
the child by an ophthalmologist an appropriate educational programme
should be in place so that the child will not be a liability in life. An ideal
educational programme for the blind should first be in the nursery school
where they are exposed to learning and other daily living activities such
as dressing, toileting, brushing of teeth, bathing, washing, eating etiquette.
After the nursery school the child is expose to primary school education.
Secondary school education is the next, here provisions are made for
remedial and supportive services for the blind child in the resource room
of that institution to complement the work of the classroom teacher.

Of course, the blind child who performs excellently in his/her academic

work in the secondary school has the opportunity of proceeding to the
tertiary institution. Such blind students may gain admission to the
University, Polytechnic, College of Education, etc.

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3.3.4 Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR)

This is a concept that assist the visually impaired for example to be

rehabilitated in their environment. Community Based Rehabilitation can
be defined as “a concept that involves the entire community whereby the
resources of that community are used to improve the living standard of
the disabled and the handicapped persons themselves including their
families. It is also a way of integrating persons with disabilities into their
communities.

3.3.5 Persons involved in Rehabilitation

The following are principal agents in rehabilitation of the visually

impaired.
(a) Rehabilitation Teachers
The Rehabilitation teacher counsels the blind and his parents in
respect of adjustment to blindness. He/she also guides the blind to
learn necessary skills in a particular centre.
(b) Rehabilitation Counsellor
The role of a counsellor in rehabilitation centre cannot be
overemphasized. Counsellor assists children with special need to
overcome the problems and adjustment to the new situation.
Olukotun (2003) avers that parent of children with special need in
the society face a lot of psychological, social, economic and
emotional problems because of the conditions of their disabled
children.

1.3.6 Workshops and Employment Opportunities for the

Visually Impaired in Nigeria

There are different kinds of workshops available for persons with visual
impairment. These are as follows shelter workshop. This type of
workshop is tailored towards the employment of blind individuals who
are not capable of competing with the sighted. The purpose of the
workshop is to provide them with some sort of income. Actually, shelter
workshop is an avenue for blind persons of low intelligence.

Training Workshop: This kind of workshop assist and trains blind

individual; it also prepares them for a job.

Production Workshop: This exposes the blind persons to various types

of vocations. This is a way of empowering them. It will assist them to
hold key positions in firm or in industry. They can be given training to the
poultry keeping foot-mats, flower vases, cane and mosaic materials.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

The blind can also benefit from different skill professions such teaching,
music, law, Agriculture, Administration etc. also from semi skilled
professions, telephone operators, typists, stenographers and others.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Attempt the following questions in not more than five (5) minutes.

1. The practical aspect of Special Education that assists in restoration

of handicapped persons to the maximum usefulness of which is
capable physically, mentally and vocationally is termed.
A. Refurbishing
B. Rehabilittation
C. Rehabilitation
D. Restructuring
2. The following are types of rehabilitation programmes in special
education except
A. Psychological
B. Medical
C. Educational
D. Village

3. The following are principal agents in rehabilitation of the visually

impaired.
A. Rehabiltation Teacher and counsellor
B. Government administrators and counsellors
C. Rehabilitation Tutor and Counsellor
D. Rehabilitation Teacher and Counsellee

3.4 Summary

In this unit, you have been exposed to meaning of rehabilitation as a

practical aspect of Special Education that assists in restoration of
handicapped persons to the maximum usefulness of which is capable
physically and vocationally. We also discussed types of rehabilitation
such as psychological, medical, educational and community-based
rehabilitation. Light was shed on the agents of rehabilitation and how the
visually impaired can benefit from rehabilitation through different
workshops.

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EDU 426 MODULE 6

3.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources

Eniolorunda, T.J. (2001). Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) and

Mentally Retarded Child: Challenges of the Present Political
Dispensation in Nigeria. In J.A. Ademokoya (Ed.). Exceptional
Nigerians in the New Political Dispensation. Ibadan: Options
Books.

Obani, T.C. (2003). Empowerment of People with Special Educator’s

Perspective. A Publication of the School of Vocational and
Technical Education, Federal College of Education (Special), Oyo.

Olukotun, J.O. (2003). Teaching Children with Blindness and Visual

Impairment. A Basic Text. Ibadan Codat Publications.

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EDU 426 SPECIAL EDUCATION

3.6 Possible Answers to SAEs 1

1. Rehabilitation
2. Village
3. Rehabilitation Teacher and Counsellor.

130