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CHAPTER 3
sueuueUupNUUENNNNINNCESTSSSE EE
Communication Technologies
for Smart Grid
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
‘After reading this chapter, you will be able to
‘= Understand the importance of communication ® Select a specific communication technology
in Smart Grid. for a specific application.
‘© Identify the various aspects. of ® Compare various wireless, wireline, optical
‘communication. and satellite communication technologies.
= Comprehend the communication technologies ® Identify available communication protocols.
required for Smart Grid,
i 3.1_ Introduction
Today, the electric power grid is undergoing a significant transition into an intelligent, reliable, and fully
automatic grid which is called the Smart Grid. Based on a report of the U.S. Department of Energy [1], the
‘Smart Grid is an electricity delivery system enhanced with communications facilities and information tech-
nologies to enable more efficient and reliable grid operations with an improved customer service and a cleaner
environment. By exploiting the two-way communications capabilities between the utilities and the customers,
it becomes possible to replace the current power system with a more intelligent infrastructure.
‘One of the key features of the Smart Grid is the integration of modern communications networks with
power systems. Communications network is the key information infrastructure to support Smart Grid applica-
tions such as demand response, load management, distributed generation, real-time pricing, and substation
automation. Unlike existing computer or wireless networks, the Smart Grid is a complex network intercon-
necting with a large number of heterogeneous devices and systems with various ownerships and management
boundaries, Such complexity adds difficulty to constructing the communications network for the Smart Grid,
which is essential to exchange information and share resources among different devices and appliances. The
three main aspects of Smart Grid communication are as follows:
L. Network architecture.
2. Communication technologies.
3. Communication protocols.
Figure 31 gives a broad overview of a Smart Grid structure with all the network layers. The communications
Retwork in the Smart Grid has a hierarchical structure consisting of the premises network [i.e., the home area Communication Technologies,
ies
“ssede] YromIaU YIM auTIONNS PUD UU ["E aAN3_y
enue,
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Sa
ok (HAN), the pes aon Naa and the industrial area network (IAN)}, neighbourhood
_ mi pork (NAN field area network (FAN), and wide area network (WAN) including the backhaul network,
; a and metro net ma i on to their teach and functions in the Smart Grid (2).
Bm onmunicatons net won ee : Ie are Grid, according to their reach and characteristics, come in
iy ee wees : bison + bs vo SNANEAN, and WAN, as shown in Figure 3.2. The figure shows
pe twig bloc! 7 aes In this network aie network for the Smart Grid with multiple network
eens and pounds, ade oa itecture, the premises network provides access to appliances
ae press. Depend san te specie environment, the premises network can be further
aided into HAN, ee ladies "Connects t smart meters, field devices, and distributed
‘eon WAN provides oe - a - ens links between the grid and the utility core network.
fom the premises network to the WAN, network complexity increases due to the increasing network size
1d coverage area. :
um The second major aspect in Smart Grid communication is communication technology. Unlike existing
computer or wireless networks, the Smart Grid is a complex network interconnecting with a large number of
devices and systems with ‘Various ownerships and management boundaries. Such complexity
sis difcalty to constructing the communications network for the Smart Grid, which is essential to exchange
iormation and share resources among different devices and appliances, Although there are various existing
vired and wireless communications standards that can be applied to the Smart Grid, design of the communica-
tonsnetwork architecture and protocols that can capture the characteristics and meet the specific requirements
of te Smart Grid is crucial in order to provide an affordable, reliable, and sustainable supply of electri
There are many communications standards and protocols to meet the Smart Grid requirements for the
renises network. They can be divided into wired and wireless technologies. Wireless communications tech-
nologies have several advantages over wired communications in the premises network, Wireless networks are
caer to deploy, more flexible, scalable, and portable than wired networks with costly infrastructure. Such
characteristics make wireless communications technologies preferred in the premises network. The main
challenges for wireless networks are power consumption, reliability, and security. Wired networks can be
complementary to wireless networks to assure the coverage of the premises and to increase the network reli-
sbi. The wired communications technologies used in the premises network should be optimised for energy
management applications
This chapter gives a detailed discussion on various network architecture, communication technologies,
1nd network protocols.
;
| 3.2 Communication Technologies
Communication technologies for Smart Grid can be classified into three categori
epical communication (Figure 3.3).
: wireless, wireline, and
321 Wireless Communication
Wires communications employ radio frequency (RF) as the medium for the interconnection of the nodes
‘the network. The RF spectrum is not only a scarce resource that should be regulated to allow for proper
“of i, but it also has different properties depending on the operating frequency, which makes different
ies interesting for different applications, Figure 3.4 shows the different technologies and the approxi-
frequency bands they use, As a general rule of thumb, the lower the frequency, the better the obstacle &/ 204 penta xe
# ABojouy>aI, ASojouyoar,
2 ‘uu soma Bs sum auoud
3 uOmaN
= way reandg, ONIN, worwonmunua>| |xz0m299)| ~ = =
z yourea, | snowosysuts Trando aapseg | semro| |NvWa| | N¥IM | | Nvam |
é
§ voneorumumme3 ead ‘wongorumunuoc surjaatyy — woneatumumes soja
as + eevee 7 87
freq, (GHz)
Figure 3.4 RF spectrum.
This makes lower frequency bands
Higher frequencies imply higher attenuation both in free
resrcts these bands to line-of-sight (LOS) communicati
iss bandwidth available, which impacts directly on the capacity achievable, while higher frequency bands
have the potential to employ higher bandwidths.
Different types of wireless technologies also have different availability, time-sensitvity, and security
characteristics that may constrain the applications for which they are suitable. Wireless technologies can be
used in field environments across the SG includin;
1g generation plants, transmission systems, substations,
distribution systems, and customer premises communications,
The choice ofthe type of wireless system to use must be made with knowledge of the appropriate appli-
cablty of the technology. Priority Action Plan (PAP) 2 [3] from the National Institute of Standards, end
Technology (NIST) is focused on identifying the requirements for use of wireless technologies for the SG (4)
tnd delivers a framework for evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of candidate wireless technologies [5]
toasist SG design decisions. This framework is summarised in Figure 3.5, where physical (PHY) and mediura
access control (MAC) blocks, together with the channel propagation model, are the most important. In addi.
ton to the documentation provided, the PAP2 provides some tools that can be used for the modelling. and
simulation of the candidate technologies, as an input for Task 6 in reference [3].
From all the candidate technologies presented by the NIST [4], the following are described in this section:
1. ZigBee wireless personal area networks (WPANS)
2. Wi-Fi wireless local area networks (WLANS).
3. WIMAX wireless metropolitan area networks (WMANS).
4, Cellular networks.
§, Satellite networks.
{ 32.1.1. Wireless Personal Area Networks
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) address wireless networking of portable and mobile computing
- devices such as PCs, cell phones, wireless sensors, and other consumer electronics, allowing them to com-
‘umicate and interoperate with each other. These networks typically require short distance communications,
W the range of tens of metres, and focus on long-lasting battery life and low deployment and maintenance
; “omplexity. At the same time, these kinds of networks require moderate to low data rates,
Among the several working groups that form the 802 Local and Metropolitan Area Network Standards
itiee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Computer Society, is the 802.18
TartiNé group for wireless personal area networks, which focuses on the development of consensus standards
Personal area networks or short distance wireless networks. Among all the task groups (TGs) that form Communication Tech,
nologies
for 5,
im
St i
ulitink Delay
Multilink
Model
| Mutitink Throughput
Link Delay
Link Reliability
Link Throughput
Rout
Top.
MAC £
| Mode [4 tera 5
_,_ [RinberafBavs Probability] pyry 8
EB [Rangereqey || Model i
2 | Mexagesize a
z Max TreRx Dist. 4
3 }——SNz__,} =
d Coverage |, Outage Prob.
§ Analysis
i Max Outage
z Prob,
= D
Environoent
Model
Figure 3.5 NIST proposed modelling framework building blocks [5].
the 802.15 group, TG 4 was created in 2000 to work on low complexity communications, focusing on battery
life more than on achieving high data rates or long-distance links. Published in September 2006, the latest
standard is IEEE 802.15.4-2006 [6]. In November 2008, a new task group, TG 4g [7], was created to propose
an amendment to the IEEE 802.15.4-2006 standard, that intends to provide a global standard for very large
scale process control applications including the utility Smart Grid network. The result of this standardisation
process is a technological basis over which the industry has built ZigBee. ZigBee protocol stack is feature
in Figure 3.6. Various layers of ZigBee are discussed in the following paragraphs.
802.154 Physical Layer
‘The physical layer (PHY) transmits and receives data wirelessly and is responsible for the following:
1. Activation and deactivation of the radio transceiver.
2. Energy detection (ED) within the current channel and link quality indicator (LQI) for received packets
The LOI measurement is a characterisation of the strength and/or quality of a received packet Te
‘measurement may be implemented using receiver ED, a signal-to-noise ratio estimation, or @ combine
tion of these methods, as specified in IEEE 802.15.4-2006 [6]. The standard does not dictate how
LQI parameter should be used by upper layers. a at
3. Clear channel assessment (CCA) to enable carrier sense multiple access with collision 20"
(CSMA-CA),
>. ————— © 42 Communication Technologies
89
ZigBee Device Object (200) {204
i Appicaton Aeneas bei
k Odject 31 ‘Object 30 ephcaton |
i feraport 31) (endpoint 30) me ere
| reins
APSDE-SAP |
f mr /————___TAPsme-sap |
a meee Lee]
i = (APS) Sub-Layer | |
Eee
E
t [poe
, coe MCPS-SAP
: haw,
‘Medium Access Control (MAC)
gate (EEE 602.154)
(PHY) Layer
. (EEE 802.15.4) |
E
Figure 3.6 ZigBee protocol stack.
4. Channel frequency selection.
5. Data transmission and reception.
‘Tee main PHY parameters are specified in IEEE 802.15 4-2006 [6]. 802.15.4e-2008 (7), and 802.15 44-2009 [8}
These parameters are summarised in Table 3.1.
____ Another key aspect of the physical layer isthe transmitted power, which is not fixed by the standard, and
|S sbould conform with local regulations, controlled by the following regional authorities (6):
1, European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in Europe.
2 Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) in Japan.
3. Radio Management Bureau of the Chinese Information Department in China.
4. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States.
5. Industry Canada (IC) in Canada.
Oe Eap EE
However, IEEE 802. 15.4-2006 {6] describes how the low power objective of the standard makes it reasonable
‘6 assume that typical transmitted power will be within -3dBm and 10 dBm. Appendix F in IEEE
2.15 4.2006 {6}, 802.15.4c-2009 [9], and 802.15.4d-2009 [8] give more detailed information about regula-
* ‘Ory requirements for each of the possible configurations supported by the standard. These figures and those communication Technologies fo,
Seay
184 PHY parameters
Table AI The 802
Data Rate Re
yen ckbivs) Seay
PHY (MH) Modulanoe Spreading os
r 779-787 MPSK DSSS 250
‘ 250 os
7 70787 O-QPSK DSSS 2s SN
i sss » s
SOs BESSON BPSK es tn
ws 808-8686 ASK PSSS
ss S68-8686 0-gPsK psss 100 s
ots BPSK Dsss 40 ly
as ASK PSSS 250 .
as O-QPSK Dsss 250 is
sso BPSK Dsss 2 Es
0 950-956 GFSK _ 100 “ts
2480 2400-835 0-gPSK sss 250 ie
corresponding transmission bandwidth -.,
given in the rest of the chapter correspond 1 the power for the
the case of 802.15.4, this bandwidth depends on the band, but it is 5 MHz for the 2.4 GHz band (6).
Another parameter that is given in IEEE 802.15.4-2006 [6]. 802.15.4c-2009 [9], and 802.15.44-2009 1:
js the receiver sensitivity, defined as the threshold input signal power that yields a specified PER (packet cry
fate), assuming an iterference-free situation. In Table 311, the different sensitivity values are given for iy
different PHY defined by the standard.
‘The channel and path loss model, dependent on the scenario and application, is also another key ase:
to analyse the physica layer performance ofthe standard. Du wo the special characteristics of the technoon,
common model used is the Hata model [10], as propose!
involved (ie. short range communications), one
the NIST PAP 2 [3]. Another channel mode! sed is the 802.11 channel model as adapted in IEEE 802.5
2003 [11] and IEEE 802.15. 2003 [12]
BOD 1S.4 Medium Access ‘Control Sublayer
‘The medium access control (MAC) sublayer handles access to the ph
for the following:
1 Generating the network beacon and synchronising t0 it
2. Supporting WPAN association and disassociation.
43. Employing the CSMA-CA mechanism for channel access,
4. Providing frame error-free communications between two peer MAC entities.
Network beacons are sent by the network coordinator and are used to synchronise the attached devices
Mert WPAN. anda describe the suture ofa special typeof MAC frame called superfame Ary 06°
dae emanate daring the conenon aces prod (CAP) between two beacons competes WH}
dae ee a sened CSMA-CA mechanism, All ransactons must be completed by the sme of :*°
ysical radio channel and is responsi: . For low-latency applications or applications requiring guaranteed data bandwidth, the WPAN
os EATay assign portions ofthe ative superframe, called guaranteed time slots (GTSs)
ie possibilities exist for the CSMA-CA operation, depending on the use of beacons by the coordinator
‘Wo Poe abled WPANS use an unslotted CSMA-CA channel access mechanism. Beacon-enabled WPAN®
Not CSMA-CA channel access mechanism, where the back-off slots are aligned with the start of the
221300 gisson. The back-of slots of all devices within one WPAN are aligned to the WPAN coordinator:
erat operation of the CSMA.CA algorithm is described in the subsequent section (Section 3.2.1.2)
ws ‘MAC establishes the Procedure for a device to join or leave a WPAN, called association and disas-
fowever, the algorithm for selecting a suitable WPAN with which to associate from the list of
‘on. H
ition criptors returned from a channel scan is out of the scope of the standard.
SPAN descrif
‘ighee Network Layer
Te network layer builds upon the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC's features to allow extensibility of coverage. The
7 mbites ofthe network layer include
1, Establishing a network.
2. Joining and leaving a network.
43, Configuring a new device.
44 Assigning addresses to devices joining the network,
5, Synchronisation within a network.
6, Routing frames to their intended destinations.
‘As defined in standard 802.15.4-2006, devices are one of two types, depending on the functions they can
perform wihin the network. They can be full function devices (FDDs) or reduced function devices (RFDs).
PODS can operate in any topology, can act as a WPAN coordinator, and can talk to any other device in the
rework. RFDSs, on the other hand, are limited to star topologies, cannot take any coordinator role, and are
restricted to communicate with the coordinator of the network.
There are two possible networking topologies—star and peer-to-peer topologies—as described in the
412.15.4-2006 standard (6] and displayed in Figure 3.7. In the star topology, the communication is established
|
'
\
!
Star Topology Peer-to-Peer Topology
AN,
———.
ok an
© Fut Function Device
© _ Reduced Function Device
# Sx communication Flow
Figure 3.7 ZigBee network topologies. 920 Communication Technologies for smart Grid
between each device and a WPAN coordinator that controls the communication inthe whole network: Inthe
peer-to-peer topology, there is also a coordinator, however, each device can communicate with any other
device within reach. Peer-to-peer topologies are more complex and allow mesh networking with self-organ.
ising and self-healing characteristics. Also, the coverage may be extended by multihop communications,
and on-demand nontree routing
Routing in this topology is carried out using a combination of tree routing
Based on the ZigBee network specification 13), a slightly modified version of the cluster-tree algorithm [14]
is used. The on-demand table driven routing is based on the AODV (ad hoe on-demand distance vector) routing
algorithm {15] and a simplified version AODVjt (ad hoc on-demand distance vector junior) [16], which guar.
antes low power consumption
ZigBee Application Layer
[As seen in Figure 3.6, the ZigBee application layer consists of the application support sublayer (APS), the
ZigBee device object (ZDO), and the manufacturer-defined application objects. ‘The APS provides an interface
hetween the network layer and the application layer through a general set of services that are used by both
the ZDO and the manufacturer-defined application objects [17]. a
(One of the responsibilities ofthe ZigBee Alliance is the definition of what are called application profiles,
“These are agreements for messages, message formats, and processing actions that enable developers to create
an interoperable, distributed application employing application entities that reside on separale devices. In
particular, the ZigBee Smart Energy profile [18] is of interest in the SG context, for it enables users to manage
their usage and generation of energy. This is achieved through the information flow between devices such as
meters, smart appliances, plug-in electric vehicles, and energy management systems,
The ZigBee Alliance has established a liaison withthe HomePlug Powerline Alliance [19] in order to develop
4 ZigBee Smart Energy profile version 2.0 (20). This new version will be IP based, and it will include other
features like support for MACI/PHY options different from the 802.15.4 (eg. 802.11, TEEE 1901). As such this
application profile is mostly an application layer specification, where lower layer protocols are not discussed.
3.2.1.2. Wireless Local Area Networks
Local area networks (LANs) are intended to interconnect several devices ina geographical area such as homes,
computer laboratories, or office buildings, wit a distance onthe order of hundreds of metres. Wireless LANs
(WLANs) are the wireless alternative to traditional LAN standards such as Token Ring, IEEE 802.5 (21), and
Ethemet, IEEE 802.3 [22]. The main wireless alternative to wired solutions isthe standard IEEE 802.11 (23)
usually known as Wi-Fi, coined by the Wi-Fi Alliance [24]
Tn. 1999 the Wi-Fi Alliance was founded as a global non-profit industry association of hundreds of com-
devoted to the proliferation of Wi-Fi technology. The alliance adopted the IEEE 802.11 specifications
program to guarantee interoperability among Wi-Fi products from
panies
as the technology basis, and it launched a
different manufacturers.
From all the standards created by the 802.11 group, the most widely used are the following:
throughput in the 5 GHz industrial,
jon multiplexing (OFDM) [25]
GHz ISM
1. IEEE 802,114, approved in 1999, provides up to 54 Mbit/s PHY
scientific and medical (ISM) band by using orthogonal frequency divi
2. IEEE 802.1 1b, approved also in 1999, provides up to 1] Mbivs PHY throughput in the 24
band by using direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) [26].
43. IEFE 802.Lg, approved in 2003, provides the same data rate and the same technoloBY ° IEEE
802.1 1a but in the 2.4 GHz band by using OFDM. ya communication Technologies
: ——— 9
4a tbe 802.1 In (27), approved in 200
2009,
anrennas and channel bonding * Provides upto 600 bg
bi’s PHY throughput by using multiple
syn IEEE. 802 | 1 aon {28} includes (and su
iw ite judes several other document . persedes) the first
Ans) am security aspects, Of interest | os ‘hot only MAC ie are that is, 802.114, bg. It
vies both MAC and PHY layers for 0 United States is the st ryers but also quality of service
wipe special licensing conditions, fase tad aa in the frequency band of Sa 802.1 1y-2008 {29} that
rescof the world. within the amendment, onl 0. 3700 MHa, available under
The standard [28] supports {60 network “an
7 vork configurat
the others are connected ( . igurations. One, 7
me thee angl ed connection It is possible to imerconaect hy ses inorconnecs es
The other alternative for th LAN, and typically all the APs will be com ee
directly among ther. Wi thi network structure is called ad hoc, where a ice soran wired satvet
a Y toe nh ee i a working group, it is Task Group S whee ot broly aay hare
s WPAN: Sect ie . Ns [30] that would allow self-configurat oct abode
those in (see Section 3.2.1.1). Although currently in draft v jguration mesh networks similar to
like the One Laptop per Child [ 31), and i version, it is already used in some projects,
is also supported in the Li :
interconnection of compaters using these systems inux and FreeBSD kernels for its use in the
wick Physical Layer (PHY)
| The 802.11 standards define several PHY, each of them consisting cof two parts:
ilities of the physical medium to the PHY service
1. A PHY convergence function adapts the capa
jure (PLCP) that lays between the PHY and the
provided by the physical layer convergence proced
MAC layer.
2. A PHY layer adapts to the characteristics of the wireless medium and defines the method of transmit-
ting and receiving data through it
This separation is used to allow the IEEE 802.11 MAC to operate with minimum dependence on the actual
physical medium, and thus there should be a PLCP specification for ‘each PHY defined in the standard.
‘As the document IEEE 802.11-2007 [28] includes all previous standards, it describes all the possible
PHY available. All of these specifications, except the inl ‘one, afe intended to work on the ISM bands
Telecommunication Union, Radiocommunication
nade available for such applications By the International
Sector (ITU-R) (321 i" $138 and 5.150 [33]. The following PHYS are defined:
the Radio Regulations
rum (FHSS) working on the 2.4 GHz band achieves 1 and 2 Mbit/s by
1. Frequency hopping spread spect
using 2GFSK (gaussian zy shift key or keying) and "{GESK modulation schemes, respectively.
ce spread spectrum (DSSS) working on the 2.4 GHz band achieves I and 2 Mbis by
itt key (DBPSK) and differential quadrature phase shift key (DQPSK)
2. Direct sequenc
using differential binary phase
1 5 to 54 Mins using a combination of seven}
the possibilities can be
modulation schemes, respectivelY:
ra working on the 5 GHZ band shines
* modulation schemes and forward tenor correction (FEC) codes. Details on all ities
found in Table 3.2. It can be sect that the standard specifies three possible bandwidths, yielding
reeterent options with all the modulation and coding schemes.
— a . Communication Technologies tor
Table 3.2 The 802.11 OFDM PHY parameters for different bandwidths (BWs)
20 MHz BW 10 MHz BW 3 Mit BW Data
Modulation Coding Rate Data Rate (Mbit/s) Data Rate (Mbit/s) Rate (Mbit/s)
BPSK wa 6 . 3 is
BPSK ua 9 45 225
QPSK nn 2 6 3
PSK wa is 9 45
16-QAM in 4 12 6
16-QAM ¥A % 18 9
64-.0AM 2 48 “4 2
64.QAM wa 54 a 135
NM
4. Infrared (IR) using this medium for the transmission instead of radiofrequency achieves 1 and 2 Mbiys
by using 16 PPM (pulse position modulation) and 4 PPM, respectively. This option is no longer mai.
tained by the working group, and current specification may not include all the features from the
standard
5. High-rate direct sequence spread spectrum (ARDSSS) increases the rate with respect to regular DSSs
by introducing the complementary code keying (CCK) modulation scheme, This allows one to achieve
1, 2, 5.5, and 11 Mbivs.
6. Eutended rate PHY (ERP) takes parts from other PHY specifications to get a set of rates from | to
54 Mbivs using DSSS and HRDSSS and applying OFDM in the band of 2.4 GHz, Furthermore, i
can make use of the same parameter options already displayed in Table 3.2
Due to the operation in unlicensed bands with no exclusive use of the spectrum, coexistence with other systems
can be an issue, Maximum transmitted power has to be kept low in order not to interfere with other users or
services. This is controlled by regional regulatory authorities. The standard does not pose any restrictions on
these terms, but offers information about regional regulation domains in Annex 1 of IEEE 802.11-2007 (28)
‘The receiver sensitivity parameter dictates the minimum signal level at the receiver required to obtain a given
frame error rate (FER) performance. It takes the following values for the different PHY:
1. -80 dBm for | Mbivs FHSS and ~75 dBm for 2 Mbivs FHSS.
2. -80 dBm for DSSS.
3, Table 3.3 gives information about the receiver sensitivity for all possible combinations of modulation,
FEC and channel spacing for OFDM PHY.
4, -76 dBm for HRDSSS.
5, ERP has the same values as the PHY it includes, as stated earlier.
In November 2009 the IEEE 802.1 1n [27] standard was released. It poses # major step in terms of throughput
compared to the previous releases. It consists of modifications of the previous standards. At the same time
more advanced technologies are included in order to attain much higher throughput. At the physical layer, the
main differences are as follows: cation Technologies
F DM PHY Rx sensitivity for different bandwidths (BWs)
ne 80211 0
wv
Coding 2 MHz BW Rx 10 MHz BW Rx 5 MHz BW Rx
Rate Sensitivity (dBm) Sensitivity (dBm) Sensitivity (dBm)
re 5 “82
‘ i 82 -85 88
. 7
S va -81 84 -87
och 2 9 -82 -85
* 4 1 80 3
e ou 2 -4 1 -80
gat a4 -10 -B 16
6
r Ww ~66 2
fat u 9 -n
wo wt -65 68 -"
multiple antennas both at the transmitter and the receiver, also referred to as multiple
1, Uilisation of
le
input multip
time block coding
+. The channel bandwidth is
ows the use of two channe|
‘output (MIMO), allows one to use up to four spatially separated data streams, space
2 (STBC), and/or beamforming,
20 MHz. and it supports the possibility to do channel bonding [34]. This
1s to duplicate the throughput using, then, a total bandwidth of 40 MHz-
cements, the rate that can be obtained is up to 600 Mbiv/s, when using the full potential of
| streams, 40 MHz bandwidth, and the highest rate FEC code)
four spatial streams through the use of a maximum number of four transmi
MIMO there exists a trade-off between throughput and diversity. The use of
lucing with it the throughput achievable but increasing
BER) performance at the receiver. In clause 20.6 of
yrameters and rates achievable from
with these iprow
se cology (Four spatial
‘The standard supports Up t
ting and receiv antennas. In
tqpc reduces the number of data streams available, red
te diversity and therefore the uncoded bit error rate (
IEEE 802 11n-2009 [27], all possible combinations of configuration pat
‘6 Mbit/s to 600 Mbit/s can be found.
The receiver sensitivity required is sl
esis availble in Table 20-22 of IEEE 802.1 In
ightly different from that of previous standards 802.11a.b.g with
2009 [27]. The maximum distance will depend not only on
th ceted configuration but also on the particular scenario where the network is to be deployed. In general,
seculculus of coverage and optimal placing of APs for a given area would be done using software tools
tks imo account all the parameters required. both specified by the standard and constrained by the scenario
cf deployment, These tools often use geographical data, maps, and environment information along with
haved channel simulation tools. Most of these are commercial tools, but it is possible to find on the Internet
some fee-of-charge tools that can help with Wi-Fi coverage planning [35,36]. The NIST [3] provides some
simulation tools in the form of MATLAB code that can be used to perform some evaluation of 802.11 tech-
tnlogies, as done in Annex A of reference [5].
Wi-Fi Medium Access Control (MAC)
MAC sublayer to be common for all the different
ayer include providing reliable data delivery.
{it has to fulfil is to manage the mechanism
Useof the PLCP introduces an abstraction that allows the
we described in Section 3.2.1. The tasks of the MAC subl
= control, and protection of data, Nevertheless, the first tas]
ich which users access the shared medium. ___Communicati
Technologies
The 802.11 MAC sublayer specifies a different mechanism throu,
wireless medium, The sinaplest is the carrier sense multiple seen conie ne macs pence oe
also used in other wireless technologies, like 802.15.4 described in Section 3.2.1.1 ces (lh ta
coordination function (DCF), the standard builds more advanced mechanisms of consent av handing
of QoS, for instance, the hybrid coordination function (HCF), which relies on different on priorities to
provide differentiated and distributed access to the wireless medium, oF the use of a centralised QoS-aware
evvainator, Details on this complex coordination mechanism can be found in the specification (28). Next,
the characteristics of the underlaying DCF are described.
In a wireless medium it is not possible to detect the collisions when two users are accessing the shared
medium concurrently. This is why the CSMA-CA protocol is designed to reduce the collision probabil
‘among multiple users accessing the medium at the point where collisions would most likely occur, which is
just afler the medium becomes idle following a busy medium. This is the situation that requires a random
tack-off procedure to resolve medium contention conflicts. The status of the medium. idle or busy. should be
obtained using physical and virtual mechanisms to sense the medium
“The need for the virtual mechanism is due to something known as the hidden node problem, where, for |
example, two stations can communicate with an access point, but they cannot communicate with each other.
Tn this case sensing the medium will be useless. Instead, a slight modification called RTS/CTS (ready to send
clear to send) can be used immediately after checking the status of the medium and prior to data transmission
This mechanism assumes that the stations send small messages called RTS prior to sending application data,
and the destination of those messages replies back with a CTS marking that it is OK to start the communica.
tion. All other stations that receive the CTS, apart from the one that initiated the communication, should
refrain from starting communication for a time that is informed in the RTS/CTS messages. This leads to a
slight throughput loss, but significantly reduces the probability of collisions especially in hidden node situa-
tions. Figure 3.8 shows graphically the operation of the possible medium access procedures, that is, with and
without RTS/CTS
‘Additionally, the MAC sublayer can provide some security within the communications in terms of authen-
tication and data encryption. The IEEE 802.11 standard defines two alternatives: wired equivalent privacy
(WEP) and Wi-Fi protected access (WPA). As specified in Section 8 of IEEE 802.1 1-2007 (28), WEP security
has been deprecated because it fails to meet the security goals, although it has been included in the standard
for backward compatibility reasons. On the other hand, WPA security involves a secure association of users
to the network and the protocols required to guarantee data confidentiality and integrity. These meet the Smart
Grid security requirements, as mentioned in Section 3.3.1
Finally, note that IEEE 802.1 1n [27] includes the possibility to aggregate several MAC frames into one,
so that the overhead is reduced and the throughput performance is increased.
3.2.1.3 Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
When communication distance reaches the order of kilometres, the standards 802.15.4 and 802.11 might be
‘an option, but they are not the best possible technologies to be used.
Metropolitan area network (MAN) is the common name used for networks that cover areas such as small
towns, campuses, neighbourhoods, or even wider areas. Within the framework of the Smart Grid, these kinds
of networks are called neighbourhood area network (NAN), field area network (FAN), of wide area network
(WAN). These networks can be used to communicate, for example, with premises networks or power genera-
tion plants placed in hard-to-aceess geographical zones (mountains, forests, etc.). In such situations, wireless
technology is possibly the best and most affordable option available. n Technologies
iatior
wn
coment
2
Assemble
a Frame
Not Using IEEE 802.11
RIS/CTS Exchange
Using IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS Exchange
Transmit
Application Data
Figure 3.8 CSMA/CA with and without RTS/CTS.
Within the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN standards committee is the IEEE 802.16 ‘Working Group on Broadband
ireless Access Standards [37], which fosters the development of the 802.16 Wireless MAN standard [38].
In 2001 the WiMAX Forum [39] was formed as a non-profit organisation to certify and promote the
patibility and interoperability of broadband wireless Products based on the harmonised IEEE 802.16
‘The name WiMAX stands for worldwide interoperability for microwave access. In South Korea a
j_mmunication service called WiBRO [40] exists, which is also based on the access technology of the
IEEE 802.16¢ called Mobile-WiMAX that was the first approach of the standard to deal with ‘mobil-
"sues and was consolidated in the current IEEE 802.16-2009 standard.
a MAX Forum's current efforts are on completing WiMAX Release 2. It is based on the standard
216m {41}. WiMAX 2 delivers higher system capacity with peak data rates of more than 300 Mbivs, “Technologies for Smart Sid
and increased voice over IP (VoIP) capacity, meeting the International Telecommunications
lower latency,
“|MT-Advanced” [39].
Union (ITU) requirements for 4G or
The 802.16 Physical Layer
air interface forthe physical layer. They can be selected depending
“There are two main propagation situations to be diferent-
(02,16 presents several options as
LOS). The main difference in these cases is the working
con the application and frequency range to be used.
sted: line of sight (LOS) and non-fine of sight (NI
standard covers two frequency ranges:
frequency. The
66 GHz for LOS applications.
1. Frequencies between 10 and
both licensed and unlicensed, for NL
OS applications.
2. Frequencies below 11 GHz,
“The 10-66 GHz band provides a physical environment here, due tothe short wavelength, line-of-sight (LOS)
is required and multipath is negligible. In the 10-66 GHz band, channel bandwidths of 25 or 28 MHz are
typical. With raw data rates in excess of 120 Mbit/s, this environment is well suited for point-to-multipoint
(PMP) access serving applications from small fficefhome office (SOHO) through medium 10 large office
applications. The PHY defined for this case is called WirelessMAN-SC and is based on single-carrier com-
anieations. In order to allow for flexible spectrum use oth time division duplexing (TDD) and frequency
division duplexing (FDD) configurations are supported. Both cases use a burst transmission format, Their
framing mechanism supports adaptive burst profiling in which transmission parameters. including the modula-
tion and coding schemes, may be adjusted individually to each subscriber station on & frame-by-frame bass.
‘The FDD case supports full-duplex as well as half-duplex subscriber stations.
Frequencies below 11 GHz provide a physical environment where due to the longer wavelength, LOS
might not be necessary and multipath may ie significant. The ability o support near-LOS and NLOS scenarios
requires additional PHY functionality, Mach as the support of advanced power managemen! techniques, interfer-
vane mitigation/coexistence, and multiple anierie Mp this range there are some Ticense exempt ands, for
example, ISM frequencies where ‘additional interference and coexistence constraints are introduced. At the same
time regulatory constraints limit
re allowed radiated power. Tere ate (wo PHYS defined for these applications:
WirelessMAN-OFDM (orthogonal frequency
