Intelligence Notes
1. What is Intelligence?
Intelligence is a complex and debated concept in psychology. There is no standard
definition, but several attempts to define intelligence include:
- The mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select one's
environment.
- The ability to deal with novel situations.
- The ability to understand and deal with people, objects, and symbols.
- The ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the
environment.
2. Brief History of Intelligence
Alfred Binet and Henri Simon:
- In the early 1900s, French psychologists Alfred Binet and Henri Simon developed
the first intelligence test in Paris. Their goal was to differentiate students who were
expected to be better learners from those who were expected to be slower learners.
This test was known as the Binet-Simon Scale and introduced the concept of 'mental
age,' indicating that a child’s mental ability corresponded to the average abilities of
children of the same chronological age.
Lewis Terman:
- In the United States, Lewis Terman revised Binet's test, leading to the development
of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Terman incorporated a new scoring scheme
based on William Stern's 'intelligence quotient' (IQ), where IQ is calculated as a
child's mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.
David Wechsler:
- In 1939, David Wechsler published the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS),
the first high-quality IQ test designed specifically for adults. Wechsler's test included
both verbal and nonverbal reasoning tasks and introduced a new scoring system,
moving away from the traditional IQ formula.
3. Theories of Intelligence
General Intelligence (g factor):
- Proposed by British psychologist Charles Spearman, this theory suggests that a
general cognitive ability (g factor) underlies performance on various cognitive tasks.
People who perform well on one type of cognitive test tend to perform well on
others.
Primary Mental Abilities:
- Proposed by Louis Thurstone, this theory identifies seven primary mental abilities
instead of a single general intelligence:
1. Associative Memory: The ability to memorize and recall.
2. Numerical Ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems.
3. Perceptual Speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects.
4. Reasoning: The ability to find rules.
5. Spatial Visualization: The ability to visualize relationships.
6. Verbal Comprehension: The ability to define and understand words.
7. Word Fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences:
- Proposed by Howard Gardner, this theory suggests that intelligence is not a single
entity but consists of multiple intelligences, each based on different skills and
abilities:
1. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: The ability to control body movements and
handle objects skillfully.
2. Interpersonal Intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately
to others' moods, motivations, and desires.
3. Intrapersonal Intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with
inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes.
4. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and
abstractly, and to discern logical or numerical patterns.
5. Musical Intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and
timbre.
6. Naturalistic Intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants,
and other objects in nature.
7. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to
the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words.
8. Visual-Spatial Intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures and to
visualize accurately and abstractly.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
- Proposed by Robert Sternberg, this theory defines intelligence as 'mental activity
directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world
environments relevant to one's life.' Sternberg's theory includes three components:
1. Analytical Intelligence: The ability to evaluate information and solve problems.
2. Creative Intelligence: The ability to come up with new ideas.
3. Practical Intelligence: The ability to adapt to a changing environment.
4. Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence:
- The ability to solve novel problems without relying on previous knowledge. It
involves logic and abstract thinking. Fluid intelligence typically increases until early
adulthood and then begins to decline.
Crystallized Intelligence:
- The use of previously acquired knowledge, such as facts and skills learned in
school. Crystallized intelligence tends to increase with age.
5. Heredity vs. Environment
Genetic Influences:
- Intelligence is influenced by genetics, but it is not controlled by a single gene. It is
the result of complex interactions between many genes. Studies show that identical
twins have more similar IQs than fraternal twins, and siblings reared together have
more similar IQs than adopted children raised together.
Environmental Influences:
- The environment plays a significant role in shaping intelligence. Factors such as
prenatal care, nutrition, and access to education can influence IQ. For example, first-
born children often have higher IQs than their later-born siblings, possibly due to
receiving more parental attention.
