TARGET BIOLOGY TARUN SIR M- 7679598996

Class - XI NEET Crash Course 9153668079

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Chapter 16 : Digestive System
➢ Nutrition is the getting and utilization of energy rich nutrients (food) by an organism.
➢ Food consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fats (lipids), vitamins, minerals and water.
➢ Food provides energy for life activities, materials for growth, maintains body temperature and
repairs tissues.
➢ The water plays an important role in metabolic processes and prevents dehydration of the body.

1. ALIMENTARY CANAL (GUT)

It includes the following parts:----
a) Mouth: To receive the food (ingestion).
b) Buccal cavity (oral or mouth cavity):
 Consists of palate (roof), teeth & muscular tongue.
 Palate has anterior hard palate and posterior soft palate.
 Tongue is a muscular organ attached to the floor of oral cavity by the frenulum. Tongue has small
projections called papillae. Some papillae bear taste buds.
 At the back, on either side of tongue tonsils present.
c) Pharynx:
 Common passage for digestive and respiratory systems.
 When food materials pass through the pharynx, the cartilaginous epiglottis closes the glottis
(opening of larynx) and prevents the entry of food into trachea.
d) Oesophagus:
 Muscular tube (30 cm) that conducts food into stomach.
 Posterior part of the oesophagus has gastro-oesophageal
sphincter (a circular muscle). It controls the opening of
oesophagus into stomach.
e) Stomach:
 ‘J’ shaped structure for storage and digestion of food.
 4 parts: a cardiac portion into which the oesophagus
opens, a fundic region, body (main central region) and a
pyloric portion (antrum).
  Pyloric stomach leads to small intestine by an opening called Pylorus, guarded by pyloric
sphincter muscle.
 Inner wall of stomach bears rugae (longitudinal folds).
f) Small intestine:
 Longest part of gut (7 m long and 2.5 cm diameter).
 Consists 3 parts, namely duodenum (C shaped first part),
Jejunum (middle part) and Ileum (terminal part).
 Finger-like villi are seen at the mucosa. Each villus has a
brush-bordered columnar epithelial layer provided with
microvilli. Villus consists of a capillary network and a small
lymph vessel (lacteal).

g) Large intestine:
 m long. Consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
 Caecum is well-developed in herbivores but very small in man. Arising from the caecum is a finger-
like vestigial organ, the vermiform appendix.
 The colon consists of ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and Sigmoid
colon.
 Pelvic colon leads to rectum that opens out by anus. Anus is guarded by anal sphincter (circular
voluntary muscles).
 In some herbivores, the large intestine consists of several cellulose digesting bacteria.

TEETH
Nature & mode of arrangement of teeth is called dentition. Human dentition is Thecodont, Heterodont &
Diphyodont.
1) Thecodont: It means teeth are placed in the jaw sockets.
2) Heterodont: It means different kinds of teeth are present. They are
incisors (I) for cutting, canines (C) for tearing, premolars (PM) &
molars (M) for mastication.
Premolars & molars are collectively called as cheek teeth which
have cusps.
3) Diphyodont: It means teeth appear twice in the lifetime. They are
milk (deciduous) teeth and permanent teeth.
Milk teeth (20 in number) are erupted at 6-7 months of birth. They are
replaced by permanent teeth (32 in number) at the age of 6-7.
Last 4 molars (wisdom teeth) appear only at the age of 18. The hard chewing surface of teeth is made
up of enamel.
Dental formula: It explains the kinds and number of teeth.
Human dental formula (of permanent teeth):

2102
I 2/ C 1/ PM 2/ M 3/ x 2 = 32 2102
2 1 2 3
Dental formula of milk dentition:
2102
2102
 Histology of human gut (Transverse section)
Human gut is formed of 4 layers:
1. Mucosa: Innermost, moist epithelial layer. Contains
secretory and absorptive cells.
2. Submucosa: Soft connective tissue layer just outside
the mucosa. Nerves and blood vessels are present.
3. Muscularis: Outer to submucosa. Smooth muscle layer
(inner circular & outer longitudinal muscles).
4. Serosa: Outermost fibrous layer.

II. DIGESTIVE (ASSOCIATED) GLANDS

 They secrete digestive juices.

 They include salivary glands, gastric glands, intestinal glands, pancreas & liver.

a. Salivary glands
1) 3 pairs. They are
 Parotids (2): Largest salivary gland. Seen in cheeks.
 Submaxillary/submandibular (2): Seen in lower jaw.
 Sublingual (2): Below the tongue.
2) Salivary glands secrete saliva. It contains 99.5% water, mucin (mucus), enzymes like salivary
amylase (Ptyalin) and Lysozyme and electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO - etc).
b.3 Gastric glands
Tubular glands found on the inner wall. They consist of -----
a. Mucus neck cells: Secrete mucus. Mucus and bicarbonates protect the stomach wall (mucosal
epithelium) from HCl and prevents autodigestion.
b. Chief (zymogen or peptic) cells: Secrete proenzymes like pepsinogen & prorennin and some
lipase.
c. Oxyntic (parietal) cells: Secrete HCl & Castle’s intrinsic factor (for absorption of vitamin B12).
Gastric glands secrete acidic (pH 1.8-2.0) gastric juice.
c. Liver
1) Largest gland (1.2 - 1.5 kg). Reddish brown.
2) Situated in abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm.
3) Bilobed (large right lobe & small left lobe). Each lobe is
formed of hepatic lobules (structural & functional
units).
4) A lobule has many hepatic cells arranged as cords
around a central vein. They secrete alkaline bile
juice.
5) Liver lobule is covered by Glisson’s capsule.

6) Bile is transported from liver to duodenum as follows:

Bile → hepatic duct → gallbladder → cystic duct → common bile duct → common hepato-pancreatic duct → duodenum.

7) Hepato-pancreatic duct is guarded by sphincter of Oddi.

8) Bile has no enzymes but contains bile pigments (bilirubin & biliverdin), bile salts, cholesterol and
phospholipids.
 d. Pancreas
1) Second largest gland. Seen near duodenal loop.
2) It is a cream-coloured heterocrine gland, i.e. it has both exocrine and endocrine parts.
3) The exocrine part has a pancreatic duct that opens into duodenum along with bile duct (hepato-
pancreatic duct).
4) Exocrine part secretes alkaline pancreatic juice. It contains inactive protease enzymes
(trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen & procarboxypeptidases), amylases, lipases & nucleases.

e. Intestinal glands
1) Simple tubular glands. 2 types:---
a) Crypts of Lieberkuhn: Consists of mucus-secreting Goblet cells and enzyme-secreting
Paneth cells.
b) Brunner (duodenal) glands: Confined to submucosa of duodenum. Secrete mucus only.
2) Intestinal glands secrete alkaline intestinal juice (succus entericus). It contains enzymes (maltase,
lactase, sucrase, dipeptidase, lipases, nucleotidases, nucleosidases etc).
3) The bicarbonate and mucus provide alkaline medium and protect intestinal mucosa.

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD

Digestion is the conversion of complex insoluble food materials into simple and absorbable form. It includes
mechanical processes such as mastication (chewing), deglutition (swallowing) & peristalsis (wave-like
movement of food bolus through the gut by muscular contraction).

a) Digestion in buccal cavity: Only starch digestion.

Ptyalin converts starch (polysaccharide) into disaccharides. About 30% of starch is digested by ptyalin.

b) Digestion in stomach: Stomach stores food for 4-5 hrs. It is mixed with gastric juice by the churning
movements and is converted into acidic pasty form (chyme).

The gastric lipase hydrolyses a small amount of lipids.

c) Digestion in small intestine (in Duodenum): Chyme is mixed with succus entericus, pancreatic juice
& bile juice.
i) Action of bile: Bile helps in digestion by emulsification (conversion of fat into micelles or tiny
droplets). It provides large surface area for the action of lipase on fat. Bile also activates lipase.
ii) Action of pancreatic juice: Amylopsin (Pancreatic amylase) hydrolyses remaining starch into
disaccharides.

Starch Amylopsin Maltose + Isomaltose + limit dextrins

Enterokinase (Enterokinin) secreted by intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen to active trypsin.

 Trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen & procarboxypeptidase.

iii) Action of intestinal juice: At duodenum region, the intestinal enzymes act on the products of
above reactions.

In large intestine, there is no significant digestive activity.

The functions of large intestine are:----
a) Absorption of water, minerals and certain drugs.
b) Secretes mucus for adhering waste (undigested) particles together and lubricating it for an easy
passage.
Fully digested semi fluid and alkaline food formed in small intestine is called chyle.
The digestive activities like gastric & intestinal secretions are controlled by neural and hormonal
mechanisms. The sight, smell or presence of food in buccal cavity stimulate salivary secretions.
Gastric & intestinal mucosa secretes digestive hormones. They control secretion of digestive juices

Absorption of digestive foods

Absorption is the transfer of end products of digestion through the intestinal mucosa into blood & lymph.
It is 2 types- passive and active.
a) Passive absorption (Passive transport): Absorption of nutrients from higher concentrated region
to lower concentrated region without the expenditure of energy. It includes osmosis (absorption of
water) and diffusion (absorption of solute molecules).
Diffusion is 2 types:
i. Simple diffusion: In this, molecules alone can be diffused. E.g. Small amounts of
monosaccharides like glucose, amino acids, vitamins, electrolytes like Cl- etc.
ii. Facilitated diffusion: Diffusion with the help of carrier proteins. E.g. glucose, amino
acids etc.
b) Active absorption (Active transport): Absorption of nutrients from lower concentrated region to
higher concentrated region (i.e. against concentration gradient). It needs energy. E.g. absorption of
amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ etc.

Absorption of lipids
 Monoglycerides, diglycerides and fatty acids cannot be absorbed directly as they are insoluble
in water.
 Bile salts and phospholipids convert them into small spherical water-soluble droplets called
micelles.
 They are reformed into small protein coated fat globules (chylomycrons). They are transported into
lacteals in the villi. From the lymph, the chylomicrons enter the blood.

Absorption in different parts of alimentary canal

a) Mouth: Certain drugs.
b) Stomach: Water, simple sugars, some drugs & alcohol.
c) Small intestine (mainly Jejunum & Ileum): All nutrients including minerals & vitamins.
It is the chief area of absorption due to the presence of villi, its great length and coiled nature.
d) Large intestine: Water, some minerals & drugs.
The absorbed materials are incorporated into tissues for their activities. It is called assimilation.
The undigested substances like plant fibres, dead bacteria etc. form faeces. It enters caecum
through the ileo-caecal valve, which prevents back flow of faeces. Faeces are temporarily stored in
rectum and are eliminated through anus. It is called egestion (defaecation).

CALORIFIC VALUE OF PROTEIN, CARBOHYDRATE & FAT (Not for evaluation)

1) Heat is the ultimate source of all energies. So energy content of food is expressed as measure of
heat energy.
2) Its unit is calorie (cal) or joule (J).
3) One calorie is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1oC.
4) This value is tiny amount of energy. So physiologists use kilocalorie (kcal or Cal) or kilo joule (kjl or
Joule).
5) One kilo calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1oC.
6) Amount of heat liberated from complete combustion of 1g food in a bomb calorimeter (a closed metal
chamber filled with O2) is its gross calorific (gross energy) value.
7) Actual amount of energy combustion of 1g of food is the physiologic value of food.
Food Gross calorific value Physiologic value
Carbohydrates 4.1 kcal/g 4.0 kcal/g
Proteins 5.65 kcal/g 4.0 kcal/g
Fats 9.45 kcal/g 9.0 kcal/g

DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Jaundice: Here, the skin and eye turns yellow due to the deposition of bile pigments. It indicates liver
damage.
2. Vomiting: Ejection of stomach content through mouth. It is controlled by medulla oblongata.
3. Diarrhoea: Frequent elimination of watery faeces. It reduces the absorption of food.
4. Constipation: Infrequent elimination of dry stool. It is due to decreased peristalsis in colon.
5. Indigestion: Condition leading to feeling of fullness due to improper digestion. It is due to anxiety,
inadequate enzyme secretion, food poisoning, spicy food etc.
6. Protein-Energy malnutrition (PEM): It is the dietary deficiencies of proteins & food calories.
PEM causes Marasmus & Kwashiorkor in children.
a) Marasmus: It is due to deficiency of both proteins and calories. It is found in infants less than a
year in age.
Reason: Replacement of mother’s milk by foods with poor proteins and caloric value. This often
happens if mother has second pregnancy or child birth when the older infant is still too young.
Symptoms: Impaired growth and replacement of tissue proteins; extreme emaciation of the body,
thin limbs, dry, thin and wrinkled skin, declined growth rate and body weight, impaired growth and
development of brain and mental faculties.
b) Kwashiorkor: It is due to protein deficiency only.
Reason: Replacement of mother’s milk by a high calorie-low protein diet in a child more than one
year in age.
Symptoms: Like marasmus, it shows wasting of muscles, thinning of limbs, failure of growth & brain
development. Unlike marasmus, some fat is still under the skin; extensive oedema and swelling of
body parts are seen. ==========