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The impact of centre of mass kinematics and ground reaction forces on ball
release speeds in cricket fast bowling

Article in Sports Technology · April 2014

DOI: 10.1080/19346182.2014.893351

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 Sports Technology, 2014
Vol. 7, Nos. 1 –2, 4–11, [Link]

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The impact of centre of mass kinematics and ground reaction forces on

ball release speeds in cricket fast bowling

PAUL S. GLAZIER1 & PETER J. WORTHINGTON2

1
Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia and 2School of Sport,
Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK

(Received 27 August 2013; accepted 4 February 2014)

Downloaded by [Victoria University] at 05:12 25 July 2015

Abstract
The aims of this study were to verify previously reported relationships between whole-body centre of mass kinematics and ball
release speed, and establish whether the ‘checking of linear motion’ or ‘hinged-moment’ principle is a valid biomechanical
principle governing cricket fast bowling. Three-dimensional, full-body kinematic and ground reaction force data were
collected from a group of 20 male high-performance English fast bowlers using an 18-camera Viconw M2 MCam motion
capture system and an interfaced Kistlerw 9287B force platform. Ball release speed was found to be moderately correlated
with the horizontal velocity of the centre of mass at back foot contact (r ¼ 0.499, p ¼ 0.025), the average horizontal
acceleration of the centre of mass during the front foot contact to ball release phase (r ¼ 2 0.544, p ¼ 0.013), the change in
horizontal velocity of the centre of mass during the front foot contact to ball release phase (r ¼ 0.658, p ¼ 0.002), but not the
duration of the front foot contact to ball release phase (r ¼ 20.307, p ¼ 0.188). These results suggest that it is the magnitude
of centre of mass velocity reduction during the front foot contact to ball release phase, rather than the duration over which this
reduction occurs, that is important in the generation of high ball release speeds. In addition, the resultant ground reaction
force vector was found to act in front of the centre of mass for most bowlers during the front foot contact to ball release phase,
indicating that the ‘checking of linear motion’ or ‘hinged-moment’ principle is unlikely to be a valid biomechanical principle
governing cricket fast bowling.

Keywords: run-up, biomechanics, horizontal velocity, delivery stride, hinged-moment

Abbreviations: ANOVA, analysis of variance; BFC, back foot contact; BR, ball release; BRS, ball release speed; BW,
bodyweight; COM, centre of mass; COP, centre of pressure; FFC, front foot contact; FFF, front foot flat; HMA,
hinged-moment angle; RGRF, resultant ground reaction force; RGRFV, resultant ground reaction force vector

have typically only reported run-up speed during the

1. Introduction
pre-delivery stride or at BFC (see abbreviations) and
The run-up is widely considered to be an important its relationship to BRS (Duffield, Carney, &
component of successful fast bowling in cricket. Karppinen, 2009; Glazier, Paradisis, & Cooper,
Many coaching texts (e.g. Bradman, 1958; Lillee,
2000; Stockill & Bartlett, 1992). All of these studies
1977; Pont, 2006) emphasise the need for a smooth
reported moderate to strong correlations between
and rhythmical run-up so that the bowler arrives at
run-up speed and BRS (r ¼ 0.55 – 0.73), although a
the delivery stride well balanced and correctly
orientated to enable him or her to release the ball at limited calibration volume in the study of Stockill and
high speed and with great accuracy. The run-up has Bartlett (1992) and small sample size of nine and six
also received coverage in the scientific literature but bowlers in the studies of Glazier et al. (2000) and
most empirical studies that have considered this Duffield et al. (2009), respectively, suggest that these
aspect of fast bowling have been limited in scope and results should be interpreted with caution.

Correspondence: P.S. Glazier, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria University, PO Box 14428, Melbourne, Victoria 8001, Australia. Email:
paul@[Link]
q 2014 Taylor & Francis
 Impact of centre of mass kinematics and ground reaction forces on ball release speeds 5

Recently, Ferdinands, Marshall, and Kersting COM deceleration was influenced by various lower
(2010) analysed 34 fast bowlers to establish the extremity kinematic and kinetic (ground reaction
relationship between whole-body COM kinematics force) variables derived from the lower extremities. A
during the delivery stride and BRS. As in previous further aim of this study was to establish whether there
studies, they reported a strong correlation between is a relationship between the magnitude and direction
COM velocity at BFC and BRS (r ¼ 0.58, p , of the RGRFV and COM kinematics during the
0.001). When the study sample was divided into sub- delivery stride, thereby enabling the validity of the
groups according to BRS, bowlers in the fast and ‘checking of linear motion’ or ‘hinged-moment’
medium-fast groups were shown to have faster COM principle in cricket fast bowling to be determined.
velocities at BFC (5.46 ^ 0.43 m·s 21 and
5.58 ^ 0.29 m·s21, respectively) than bowlers in the
medium group (5.18 ^ 0.61 m·s21) and significantly 2. Method
( p , 0.05) faster COM velocities than bowlers in the 2.1 Participants
slow-medium group (4.62 ^ 0.67 m·s21). Perhaps
the most notable finding of this study, however, was Twenty high-performance male fast bowlers
that average COM acceleration during the period (mean ^ SD: age ¼ 20.1 ^ 2.6 years; height ¼
between BFC and FFC and between FFC and BR 1.88 ^ 0.08 m; body mass ¼ 81.5 ^ 7.1 kg) were
both had significant ( p , 0.02) moderate to strong selected to participate in this study. All bowlers had
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correlations with BRS (r ¼ 2 0.62 and r ¼ 2 0.42, either represented England at senior or under-19
respectively). Furthermore, stepwise multiple linear level or were a professional first-class cricketer with
regression indicated that COM deceleration over the the potential to play for the senior England team
delivery stride phase was the strongest predictor of within 3 to 5 years. All bowlers were injury-free
BRS in the two fastest sub-groups. However, despite and had been involved in regular match-play or
collecting ground reaction force data and full-body practice leading up to data collection. Prior to data
kinematics, potential biomechanical mechanisms collection, all bowlers were briefed about the testing
responsible for COM deceleration were not explored. procedures, which had previously been approved by
One theoretical principle that has yet to be the Loughborough University Ethical Advisory
validated in cricket fast bowling, which may be Committee, and informed consent forms were signed.
instrumental in COM deceleration and the transfer Each bowler was instructed to undertake a thorough
of energy and momentum to the bowler’s upper warm-up prior to data collection.
extremities, is the ‘checking of linear motion’ or
‘hinged-moment’ principle (Dyson, 1978). This
2.2 Data collection
little-known biomechanical principle suggests that
ground reaction forces generated during the FFC- All data were collected at the England and Wales
BR phase can be used to decelerate the lower body Cricket Board National Cricket Performance Centre
whilst causing the trunk and bowling arm to based at Loughborough University. The dimensions
accelerate around the front leg and foot (Bartlett, of this purpose-built indoor cricket facility were
2000). For this principle to be valid, however, sufficient to enable each bowler to use their normal,
Alexander (1992) argued that the RGRFV should act full length, run-up and bowl test deliveries on a
behind the bowler’s COM, not in front of, or standard size cricket pitch. Each bowler was fitted
through, it, presumably to produce the torque with 47 £ 14 mm retro-reflective markers, which
required to induce forward rotation about the were temporarily adhered to prominent anatomical
COM. Of the few studies that have reported ground landmarks (Figure 1) and used to estimate joint
reaction forces in cricket fast bowling (e.g. Elliott & centres of rotation as well as enabling the position
Foster, 1984; Elliott, Foster, & Gray, 1986; Hurrion, and orientation of body segments to be calculated.
Dyson, & Hale, 2000; Mason, Weissensteiner, & An additional marker, a 15 £ 15 mm patch of 3M
Spence, 1989; Portus, Mason, Elliott, Pfitzner, & Scotch-Lite reflective tape, was attached to the ball to
Done, 2004), none has described how the magnitude enable the instant of BR and BRS to be calculated.
and direction of the RGRFV changes during the Ninety-five anthropometric measurements, as
delivery stride or how COM kinematics are related to described by Yeadon (1990), were also taken from
these changes. each bowler to calculate personalised inertia par-
The main aim of the current study was to establish ameters and whole-body COM.
whether the significant negative relationship between Six maximum-effort deliveries of ‘good length’
COM acceleration during the delivery stride and BRS (i.e. deliveries that either hit, or just passed over, the
previously reported by Ferdinands et al. (2010) could top of the off stump) were then captured for each
be replicated in a group of high-performance fast bowler using an 18-camera Viconw M2 MCam
bowlers who produced higher BRSs and, if so, how motion capture system (OMG Plc, Oxford, UK)
 6 P.S. Glazier & P.J. Worthington
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Figure 1. A bowler fitted with a full-body marker-set consisting of 47 £ 14 mm retro-reflective markers.

operating at 300 Hz. The cameras were positioned calculated as the mid-point between two markers
such that they yielded a capture volume of approxi- positioned either side of the respective joints. The
mately 7 £ 3 £ 3 m (63 m3). A Kistlerw 9287B force hip joint centres were calculated from markers placed
platform(Kistler Instruments AG, Winterthur, Swit- over the left and right anterior superior iliac spine
zerland), measuring 900 £ 600 mm and operating at and the left and right posterior superior iliac spine
1008 Hz, was used to collect ground reaction force (Davis, Ounpuu, Tyburski, & Gage, 1991). Lower
data during the FFC phase. The force platform was and upper trunk motions were defined using the four
mounted in a recessed pit located beneath the location markers on the pelvis in addition to markers placed
of FFC and was covered with a layer of artificial grass over the cephalad and caudad ends of the sternum
that was 25 mm in thickness. and the spinous processes of L1, T10 and C7.
The instants of BFC, FFC and FFF were
identified using the motions of the markers on the
2.3 Data processing
foot (Figure 2). Ground contact was defined as the
The three fastest deliveries with acceptable marker first frame in which the foot’s motion was visually
visibility for each bowler were manually labelled observed to change due to contact with the ground.
and processed using Viconw Workstation software FFF corresponded to the first frame in which the
(OMG Plc, Oxford, UK). The ankle, knee, shoulder, forefoot was on the ground. BR was identified using
elbow and wrist joint centres of rotation were the time-history of the distance between the ball

Figure 2. Key instants during the delivery stride: (a) BFC, (b) FFC, (c) FFF and (d) BR. The delivery stride (BFC-BR) was sub-divided into
two phases: the BFC-FFC phase and the FFC-BR phase.
 Impact of centre of mass kinematics and ground reaction forces on ball release speeds 7

marker and the mid-point of a pair of markers placed HMA indicated that the RGRFV was acting in front of
over the wrist. The frame corresponding to BR was the COM whereas a negative HMA indicated that the
defined as the first frame in which this distance RGRFV was acting behind the COM.
increased by more than 20 mm relative to the All statistical analyses were performed using
distance in the previous frame. All marker trajec- Statistical Package for the Social Sciences v.17
tories were filtered using a recursive fourth-order (SPSSw Corporation, Chicago, USA). The variation
low-pass Butterworth filter with a cut-off frequency observed in each parameter from the three trials was
of 30 Hz determined using the residual analysis assessed using an ANOVA. For the parameters
method described by Winter (2009). COM kin- calculated in this study there was an intra-class
ematics for both the BFC-FFC and FFC-BR phases correlation coefficient of 0.74– 0.97 (mean 0.91)
for each bowler were interpolated using a cubic spline using the method of Donner and Koval (1980). As
and time normalised to 101 data points so that the there was good between-trial repeatability for all
start and end of each phase were represented as 0% parameters (Norton et al., 2000), the three trials
and 100%, respectively. analysed were averaged to provide representative data
Local reference frames were defined comprising a for each bowler. Relationships between kinematic
three-dimensional full-body 18-segment represen- variables and BRS were formally assessed using two-
tation of a bowler (head and neck; upper trunk; lower tailed Pearson’s product-moment correlation coeffi-
trunk; pelvis; 2 £ upper-arm; 2 £ lower-arm; 2 cients, which were deemed to be significant at p ,
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£ hand; 2 £ upper-leg; 2 £ lower-leg; and 2 £ two- 0.05. The underpinning assumptions of this statistical
segment foot). These reference frames were defined test were assessed and no evidence was found to
using three markers on the segment itself, allowing indicate that they had been violated.
segment orientations and joint angles to be calcu-
lated. A global coordinate system was defined with
3. Results
the y-axis pointing down the pitch (towards the
batsman), the x-axis pointing to the right and the z- The range of BRSs obtained from the sample of 20
axis representing the upwards vertical. Ground high-performance fast bowlers was 32.8 –39.7 m·s21
reaction force data remained unfiltered and the (mean ^ SD: 34.9 ^ 1.7 m·s21). Means, SDs and
coordinate axes of the force platform were coincident ranges for selected COM kinematic variables are
with the global coordinate system. presented in Table I along with Pearson’s product-
moment correlation coefficients (r-values) and
probability statistics ( p-values).
2.4 Data analysis
Ensemble mean ^ SD time-normalised plots for
The following kinematic variables were calculated for the horizontal velocity of the COM, the HMA and
each bowler and their correlations with BRS assessed the RGRF during the FFC-BR phase across the 20
(all velocity and acceleration variables were measured bowlers, are shown in Figure 4. The minimum mean
with respect to the global y-axis): HMA (3.48) and maximum mean RGRF (6.40 BWs)
occurred almost simultaneously at 26% and 29% of
. Horizontal velocity of the COM at BFC the FFC-BR phase, respectively.
. Horizontal velocity of the COM at FFC In total, 9 of the 20 bowlers analysed exhibited
. Horizontal velocity of the COM at BR negative HMAs and the percentage of the FFC-BR
. Average horizontal COM acceleration during the phase during which the RGRFV was acting behind
BFC-FFC phase the COM ranged from 2% – 23% (mean ^ SD: 7.9
. Average horizontal COM acceleration during the ^ 6.9%). Of these nine bowlers, only three had
FFC-BR phase maximum negative HMAs exceeding 2 28. Figure 5
. Change in horizontal velocity of the COM during shows synchronous HMA and RGRF time-normal-
the BFC-FFC phase ised plots over the FFC-BR phase for these three
. Change in horizontal velocity of the COM during bowlers. The RGRF that coincided with the
the FFC-BR phase maximum negative HMA for each bowler, when
. Duration of the BFC-FFC phase expressed as a percentage of the maximum ground
. Duration of the FFC-BR phase reaction force during the FFC-BR phase, was 36.3%
(top), 49.6% (middle) and 70.2% (bottom).
To establish whether the ‘checking of linear motion’
or ‘hinged-moment’ principle is a valid biomechanical
4. Discussion
principle governing cricket fast bowling, the HMA,
defined as the angle between the RGRFV and the The aims of the current study were to verify
vector adjoining the COP and the COM during the previously reported relationships between COM
FFC-BR phase, was calculated (Figure 3). A positive kinematics and BRS, as well as establish whether
 8 P.S. Glazier & P.J. Worthington
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Figure 3. The hinged-moment angle (HMA).

the ‘checking of linear motion’ or ‘hinged-moment’ The horizontal velocity of the COM at BFC was
principle is a valid biomechanical principle governing found to be significantly correlated with BRS, thus
cricket fast bowling. Findings relating to each of corroborating the results of Stockill and Bartlett
these aims are considered in Sections 4.1 and 4.2, (1992), Glazier et al. (2000) and Ferdinands et al.
respectively. (2010). Furthermore, the horizontal velocity of the
COM at FFC was significantly correlated to BRS as
also shown by Ferdinands et al. (2010). No
4.1 Relationships between centre of mass kinematics
significant relationship was found between BRS and
and ball release speed
the horizontal velocity of the COM at BR, which was
The majority of the findings in the current study consistent with the findings of Burden and Bartlett
support those previously reported in the literature. (1990) and Ferdinands et al. (2010).

Table I. COM kinematic variables and their relationship to BRS.

Variable Range Mean ^ SD r p

Horizontal velocity of the COM at BFC (m·s21) 4.77 to 6.76 5.79 ^ 0.58 0.499 0.025
Horizontal velocity of the COM at FFC (m·s21) 4.35 to 6.25 5.20 ^ 0.54 0.508 0.022
Horizontal velocity of the COM at BR (m·s21) 2.94 to 4.50 3.69 ^ 0.40 0.075 0.754
Average horizontal COM acceleration during the BFC-FFC phase (m·s22) 20.97 to 2 6.21 23.01 ^ 1.40 2 0.181 0.444
Average horizontal COM acceleration during the FFC-BR phase (m·s22) 27.21 to 2 55.18 2 34.78 ^ 14.12 2 0.544 0.013
Change in horizontal velocity of the COM during the BFC-FFC phase (m·s21) 20.17 to 2 1.28 0.60 ^ 0.27 0.102 0.668
Percentage change in horizontal velocity of the COM during the BFC-FFC phase (%) 23.5 to 221.5 10.2 ^ 4.3 – –
Change in horizontal velocity of the COM during the FFC-BR phase (m·s21) 20.74 to 2 2.22 1.51 ^ 0.37 0.658 0.002
Percentage change in horizontal velocity of the COM during the FFC-BR (%) 216.9 to 237.5 28.8 ^ 5.9 – –
Duration of the BFC-FFC phase (s) 0.12 to 0.24 0.19 ^ 0.032 0.184 0.437
Duration of the FFC-BR phase (s) 0.08 to 0.12 0.10 ^ 0.011 2 0.307 0.188
 Impact of centre of mass kinematics and ground reaction forces on ball release speeds 9
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Figure 4. Ensemble mean ^SD of the horizontal velocity of the

COM (top), HMA (middle) and RGRF (bottom) during the FFC- Figure 5. HMAs and RGRFs during the FFC-BR phase for the
BR phase across the 20 bowlers (zero reference line ¼ horizontal three bowlers who exhibited maximum negative HMAs exceeding
dash dot line; FFF ¼ vertical dash line). 228 (zero reference line ¼ horizontal dash dot line; FFF ¼
vertical dash line).
In contrast to the results of Ferdinands et al.
(2010), no significant negative relationship was the change in the horizontal velocity of the COM
found between BRS and average horizontal COM during the FFC-BR phase but not between BRS and
acceleration during the BFC-FFC phase. However, the duration of the FFC-BR phase. These results
there was a significant negative relationship between suggest that it is the magnitude of COM velocity
BRS and average horizontal COM acceleration reduction during the FFC-BR phase, rather than the
during the FFC-BR phase. These findings suggest duration over which this reduction occurs, that is
that the FFC-BR phase is the most important phase important in the generation of high BRSs.
of delivery stride and as such the mechanics of the In the study of Ferdinands et al. (2010), 9
front leg and the geometry of ground reaction forces bowlers were classified as fast (. 33.3 m·s21), 10 as
need to be closely considered. Further analysis medium-fast (31.9 – 33.3 m·s21), 8 as medium
revealed a significant relationship between BRS and (30.6 – 31.9 m·s 21 ) and 7 as slow-medium
 10 P.S. Glazier & P.J. Worthington

(, 30.6 m·s21). Interestingly, when Ferdinands 5. Conclusion

et al. (2010) systematically removed the slowest
This study found that BRS was linearly related to the
groups (i.e. slow-medium, slow-medium and
horizontal velocity of the COM at both BFC and
medium, etc.) from their sample, the strength of
FFC, the average horizontal deceleration of the
the negative correlation between BRS and average
COM during the FFC-BR phase and the change of
horizontal COM acceleration, especially over the
horizontal velocity during the FFC-BR phase, but
FFC-BR phase, tended to diminish and become
not the duration of the FFC-BR phase for this
non-significant. The results of the current study,
group of high-performance fast bowlers. These
which were derived from 17 fast bowlers and only 3
results suggest it is the magnitude of COM velocity
medium-fast bowlers, according to the criteria of
reduction during the FFC-BR phase, rather than the
Ferdinands et al. (2010), suggest that the negative
duration over which this reduction occurs, that is
relationship between BRS and average horizontal
important in the generation of high BRSs. Although
COM acceleration over the FFC-BR phase is
little evidence was found to support the ‘checking of
robust at higher BRSs and that the non-significant
linear motion’ or ‘hinged-moment’ principle as a
results of Ferdinands et al. (2010) may be
valid biomechanical principle governing cricket fast
attributable to a sampling artefact (i.e. the narrower
bowling, this study represents one of the few cricket-
range and smaller variability of BRSs in that study
related biomechanical studies that is underpinned by
could have contributed to the non-significant
strong theoretical rationale and it is recommended
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negative correlations that were reported).

that future research on performance aspects of
cricket fast bowling follows this lead (see Glazier &
Wheat, 2014, for a commentary on this state-of-
4.2 Changes in the hinged-moment angle during the affairs). Future research could focus on examining
front foot contact to ball release phase the relationship between the geometry of the ground
reaction forces and the transfer of energy and
For the ‘checking of linear motion’ or ‘hinged-
momentum along the kinematic chain. To increase
moment’ principle to be a valid biomechanical
the practical application of this work, it is
principle governing cricket fast bowling, the
recommended that more individual-based research
RGRFV should act behind the bowler’s COM, not
designs are adopted since findings derived from
in front or through it (Alexander, 1992). The
group-based research designs may not necessarily
ensemble mean profile (Figure 4) indicates that, on
apply to individual fast bowlers (see Bouffard, 1993).
average, this sample of fast bowlers did not exhibit a
negative HMA during the FFC-BR phase, although
peak RGRF and minimum HMA did occur almost
Acknowledgements
simultaneously. When individual bowlers were ana-
lysed, 9 of the 20 bowlers exhibited a negative HMA This study was partly funded by the England and
but the percentage of the FFC-BR phase during which Wales Cricket Board.
the RGRFV acted behind the COM was compara-
tively short for most bowlers. Furthermore, of these
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