Biological molecules
Overview
Molecules Component molecule Examples Bond
Monosaccharide
Carbohydrates Glucose Disaccharide Glycosidic bond
Polysaccharide
Polymer
Proteins Amino acid Peptide bond
Nucleic acid Nucleotide DNA、RNA Phosphodiester bond
1 glycerol + 3 fatty acid Triglyceride
Lipid Ester bond
1 glycerol + 2 fatty acid + 1 phosphate group Phospholipid
Monomers are joined by condensation reactions, with the elimination of a water molecule.
Bonds between polymers can be broken down through hydrolysis, using a water molecule.
Test of biological methods
Molecules Test Method Positive results Negative results
Reducing sugar Benedict’s Test Add Benedict’s reagent and heat Green，yellow，orange，red Blue
Starch Iodine Test Blue black Yellow brown
Protein Biuret Test Purple Blue
Lipid Emulsion Test Add ethanol, shake and add water Milky white emulsion Transparent
Reducing sugar:
- Method: add Benedict’s reagent and heat
- Positive result: red (green, yellow, orange)
Non-reducing sugar:
- Method: 1. Add Benedict’s reagent and heat, negative result
2. Acid hydrolysis (acid + boil) 3. Neutralization 4. Benedict’s test 5. red
Mixture of reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar:
- Method: 1. Add Benedict’s reagent and heat, red precipitate
2. boil supernatant in acid 3. Neutralization 4. Benedict’s test 5. Red precipitate
What are the functions of carbohydrates?
energy source (glucose in respiration)
energy store (starch in plants, glycogen in animals)
structure (cellulose in cell wall of plants)
Example of monosaccharides
glucose (alpha and beta)
galactose
fructose
Formula for monosaccharides
C6H12O6 (isomers = same formula but different arrangement)
Difference between alpha and beta glucose
on Carbon 1, alpha glucose has a OH group on the bottom and beta glucose has a OH group on the top
Example of disaccharides
glucose + glucose = maltose
glucose + galactose = lactose
glucose + fructose = sucrose
Formula for disaccharides
C12H22O11
How are polymers separated?
hydrolysis (add water)
What is a polysaccharide?
many monosaccharides joined by condensation reaction/glycosidic bonds
Example of polysaccharides
Starch
Amylose (long chain of alpha glucose)
Amylopectin (branched chain of alpha glucose)
Glycogen (more branched chain of alpha glucose)
Cellulose (long chain of beta glucose) which makes cell wall in plants
Monomer Glycosidic bond Shape Function
Amylose α-glucose α-1,4 Helical Plant：storage
Amylopectin α-glucose α-1,4；α-1,6 Branched Plant：storage
Cellulose β-glucose β-1,4 Linear Plant：structural
Glycogen α-glucose α-1,4；α-1,6 Branched Animal：storage
Properties of Starch and Glycogen as energy stores?
Insoluble
do not affect water potential of the cell, do not diffuse out of the cell
Compact (Coiled/Branched)
more can be stored in a small space
when hydrolyzed it forms α-glucose, which is both easily transported and readily used in respiration
Structure of Cellulose?
Beta glucose arranged in a straight chain (each alternative beta glucose is rotated 180 degrees) = cellulose straight chain
many cellulose chains are cross linked by hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils
many microfibrils are cross linked to form fibres
forms structure of cell wall
strong material (prevents plant cell from bursting or shrinking)
Structure of amino acid?
central carbon, carboxyl group to the right (COOH), amine group to the left (NH2), hydrogen above and R group below
How do amino acids differ?
have different R groups
How are amino acids joined together?
by condensation reaction between the carboxyl group of one and amine group of another, leaves a bond between carbon & nitrogen (called a peptide bond) forming a dipeptide
Structure of protein
Structure Concept Interactions included
Primary Amino acid sequence in a polypeptide or protein Peptide bond
Secondary Regular coiling/folding (α-helix, β-sheet) Hydrogen bond
Tertiary 3-D coiling of peptide chain Hydrogen bond, disulfide bond, ionic bond, weak hydrophobic interaction (R group interaction)
Quaternary 3-D arrangement of 2 or more polypeptide chains Hydrogen bond, disulfide bond, ionic bond, weak hydrophobic interaction
Examples of quaternary structure proteins?
antibodies (4 chains)
haemoglobin (4 chains)
What are the 3 types of Lipids?
Triglycerides (fat for energy store, insulation, protection of organs)
Phospholipids (to make membranes)
Cholesterol (for membrane stability and make hormones)
Structure of triglyceride (RCOOH)
made of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
joined by condensation reaction, ester bonds (bond is COOC)
there are 2 types of triglycerides: saturated fat and unsaturated fat
Saturated vs Unsaturated Fat?
Saturated = has no carbon double bonds
Unsaturated = has carbon double bonds
Structure of phospholipid?
made of 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids and 1 phosphate
phosphate forms a hydrophilic head, fatty acids form hydrophobic tails
forms a phospholipid bilayer, basic structure of membranes
Structure of nucleotide
Phosphate
Ribose/Deoxyribose
Nitrogenous Base/Nitrogen-containing Base
Structure of ATP
