1

Wind Power Plant Testing and Commissioning

IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group
Contributing Members: M. Bradt, E. Beckman, W. Dilling, B. Lanz, K. Louis, T. Nicolai, M. Starke, C. Moeller

Abstract— Complete testing and commissioning of the wind complexity caused by nonuniform soils is common, and in only a
plant collector system is a critical step to ensure all equipment few cases are the soil resistivities constant with increasing depth
and systems are in proper working order prior to system [1,2].
energization and operation. In addition a comprehensive test
The most common form of Ground Resistance Testing for
agenda will ensure baseline data is available for comparing
Wind Turbines is the Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Method. This
with future test data obtained during normally scheduled
method relies on the application of a current into an electrode
maintenance outages. This paper provides an overview and
and measuring the resulting potential at a separate test
basic methodology for testing and commissioning of the wind
electrode a certain distance x (probe spacing) away from the
plant medium voltage collector system.
source. This is shown in Figure 2. The purpose of this test is to
Index Terms— Wind power plant, testing, commissioning,
develop a potential profile along the C, P, E, direction. An
resistivity, Rho, power cable example is shown in Figure 3. Potentials are measured with
respect to the ground under test, E, which is assumed for
I INTRODUCTION convenience at zero potential.

Testing and commissioning of the Wind Power Plant (WPP) is

extremely important and is an integral part in completing a
wind plant project. Through proper and complete testing of the
different components throughout the WPP, unforeseen
equipment and system issues can be minimized leading to the
successful completion and increased longevity of the WPP
project. Testing should be conducted at varying stages of the
construction and installation phases. Test results should be
compared to power system component manufacturer
specifications whenever possible. This paper will discuss
various testing methods for all major components typically
found on a WPP collector system. The following
recommendations should be reviewed by the plant owner’s
engineer before implementation.

II WPP COLLECTION SYSTEM ACCEPTANCE TESTING

A. GROUND GRID RESISTANCE TESTING
AT THE TURBINE FOUDATION
To ensure the safety of personnel and property according to Figure 2 – Three-Point Fall-of-Potential
ASTM G57-95a and IEEE 81, the ground path impedance
should be minimized and verified. Measurement of the ground
resistance and the potential gradients on the surface of the The fall-of-potential method consists of plotting the ratio of V/I
earth as a result of potential ground currents are necessary for: = R as a function of probe spacing x. To obtain the impedance
a) Verifying the adequacy of any new grounding system value of the ground circuit, the data is collected by moving the
b) Detecting changes in an existing grounding system potential electrode away from the ground under test in
c) Determining any present and potential hazardous step incremental steps, obtaining a value of impedance at each step,
and touch voltages plotting it as a function of distance, and examining the value in
d) Determining the ground potential rise (GPR) for design ohms at which this plotted curve appears to level out. This is
of protection for power and communication circuits. taken as the impedance value of the ground under test. IEEE 81
allows for a 61.8% rule in the event a curve is not generated
IEEE 81 addresses common practices for field testing the similar to the below or interpretation of the results are not readily
ground resistance at the turbine sites. The techniques employed visible.
for measuring soil resistivity are essentially the same independent
of the purpose for the measurement. However, the interpretation
of the recorded data can vary considerably, especially when
dealing with soils with non-uniform resistivities. The added

978-1-4673-1935-5/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE

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a) Transformer Turns Ratio Test (TTR) on all transformer

tap positions (if taps are present). The TTR is
performed to ensure that the turns ratio of the
transformer is correct, that is, none of the transformer
windings are shorted. This compares the number of
turns in the 1st winding to the number of turns in the 2nd
winding. This should be performed at every de-
energized tap position and at every tap position of the
load tap changer (LTC) if equipped. Values should not
exceed .5% as compared to the calculated value or the
adjacent coils.

b) Winding Resistance Test (WTR):

1) Primary winding to Ground,
2) Primary winding to Secondary winding
3) Secondary winding to Ground.
Calculate Polarization Index and record temperature of
the windings. The winding resistance test assures that
the connections are correct and there are no severe
mismatches or opens within the windings. The
measurements are made phase to phase on all de-
energized tap positions. All readings should be within
1% of each other to be considered acceptable. Keep in
mind that winding temperature is critical for
comparative tests and that the purpose of the test is to
detect major differences between windings and detect
bad connections.
c) Insulation Resistance Test:
The insulation resistance test is important for
determining the condition of the transformer
insulation. Resistance measurements are made
Figure 3 – Fall-of-Potential Curve between each set of windings and ground recording
the readings at 30 seconds, 1 min and every minute
The Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) Manufacture will dictate afterwards for 10 minutes. The dielectric absorption
the required resistance at the turbine. Additionally, the rate (DAR) is the ratio of the 60 second resistance
manufactures may require that an isolated test is performed. Care value to the 30 second resistance value. DAR
should be taken to ensure the resistance is recorded prior to the readings below 1.25 indicate cause for investigation or
Trench Ground or Concentric Neutrals being connected to the repair of the transformer. The polarization index (PI)
Foundation Ground Grid, unless the Turbine Manufacture allows is the ratio of the 10 minute resistance value to the 1
this connection to be made prior to testing.. minute resistance value. A PI value of less than 1
indicates possible deterioration and that the
B. WTG PAD-MOUNT TRANSFORMER/GROUNDING transformer is in need of repair.
TRANSFORMER TESTING
The Wind Turbine Pad Mount Transformer and grounding d) Dissolved Gas Analysis for transformer oil
transformer is typically tested over multiple stages. The first e) Standard Chemical Properties for oil including:
phase is within the transformer manufacturer’s facility prior to 1) Dielectric Strength
shipment. . Generally, a prototype is constructed and rigorous 2) Interfacial Tension,
acceptance testing is performed on the prototype unit to ensure 3) Power Factor at 25°C
operating compliance. Tests will vary depending on the 4) Neutralization Number
manufacturer and specifications from the engineer (based on 5) Water Content.
IEEE/ANSI guidelines). Successive tests are performed on the 6) Specific Gravity
production units depending on the specifications. 7) Dissolved Gas Analysis
8) PCB
Upon arriving at the site, the transformers are inspected for f) Check List for visual inspection of all components, and
physical damage. After inspection the transformers are operation of gauges and controls.
transported to their final resting place. Care should be taken in
transporting the transformers around the site. Prior to connecting It is important to note and record the above results based on the
any external cable including the MV cables, secondary cables, Serial Number of the Transformer which is typical practice for
and ground grid; the transformer is field tested. The any third party testing agency. Care should be taken to ensure
recommended tests typically consist of the following: that accurate readings are obtained and that the results are
 3

evaluated by a qualified individual to determine if there are any E. UNDERGROUND MEDIUM VOLTAGE COLLECTOR
potential material issues. In the event the transformer is moved to &SUBSTATION CABLE SYSTEMS (shielded)
a different location, it is recommended the above procedure is
repeated prior to energization to ensure damage has not occurred Medium voltage cable systems are vital links between power
during transport. system components and have been responsible for costly outages
at wind farms due to the challenge isolating and repair failures.
Cable system are unusual in that that they are one of the only
C. SECONDARY CABLES (less than 600V) sensitive dielectric power system components that is build in a
Where applicable, secondary cables are utilized between the clean room environment with exacting partial discharge (PD)
Turbine Controller and the Collection System Pad Mount factory performance requirement and yet it is opened up and
Transformer. During installation, consideration of the physical assembled in the field by technicians. Field tests range from
condition of the cables is important. Therefore, inspection and legacy methods such as insulation resistance and withstand
verification that cable jacket and insulation are not damaged methods, which are only effective at detecting gross shorts (cable
during installation is a common practice. system failures), to sophisticated, predictive partial discharge
(PD) tests which detect and locate gross and subtle insulation
The secondary cable insulation will range from 600V to defects and provide a baseline for future use. The standardized
2000V depending on the cable design and the WTG type. electrical test requirement at the factory for all completed solid
Typical installations will require multiple conductors per phase. dielectric shielded cable insulation system components (including
Conductors should be properly labeled with phasing tape or the cable, joints, and terminations) is a 50 or 60Hz elevated
colored cable jackets. After installation and prior termination to voltage in conjunction with a calibrated partial discharge
the transformer and controller, a DC insulation resistance test measurement in the range of 3 to 5pC sensitivity. Each cable
(“megger”) is typically performed. The test voltage is dependent system component must meet specific ICEA, AEIC, IEEE, and/or
on the insulation value, but is usually in the range of within 500V IEC partial discharge performance requirements [12-15]. Factory
to 2,500V. The intent of the tests are to: test reports are available from the manufacturer upon request.
a) Ensure that the insulation was not shorted during the However, after shipping, handling, and installation, the cable
installation process. A low voltage insulation system components may no longer meet these requirements.
resistance measurement of less than 100M-Ohm may Ideally a partial discharge test comparable with the factory test
indicate a problem. can be repeated on installed cable systems to assure that they still
b) Verify the cable phasing from one end to the other. meet these requirements. If this type of test is not available or
deemed impractical for a specific application, a complete list of
Results may not be accurate if the connections are made to the alternative tests can be found in [8] which is an IEEE publication
transformer or switch gear and then tested. The results should be that provides categorization and comparison of test options for
validated by qualified personnel. industrial applications without test procedure or component
performance requirements.
The following commission procedure is recommended.
D. FIBER OPTIC CABLES Typically step (d) employs an electrical test, such as a PD test,
Upon installation and termination of the fiber optic cables from performed on individual cable segments and then a limited
each WTG tests are performed to ensure the quality of the fiber voltage (operating voltage or less) dc or VLF ac test performed
optic cable and terminations. Typically one of the following two on the entire circuit prior to energization.
tests are performed: a) Visual inspection for physical damage, bends at less-
a) Attenuation (dB) Loss Testing than-minimum bending radius, phase identification,
b) Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) Testing fireproofing, proper shield grounding, cable supports
and termination connections, along with required size
The type of test performed will be dependent on the WTG and rating per design drawings and proper separation of
manufacturer’s specifications. The installer must coordinate power, control, instrumentation, and emergency circuits.
with the SCADA engineer for an acceptable loss budget to be b) Conductor phasing test
allowed. Generally, each termination is allowed an acceptable dB c) Resistance of neutral wires and tapes, conductor
loss and the overall segment being tested is allowed a budget loss resistance/ continuity (optional)
coordinated with the equipment. Any segments or terminations d) Common Electrical Insulation Tests
failing this budget will be required to be re-constructed. 1) DC Insulation Resistance Test (“megger”):
A dc insulation resistance test can be applied at a
On projects with both single mode and multi-mode fiber
voltage stress less than operating voltage which is
optics, caution should be taken to confirm that the loss budget for
generally categorized as a nondestructive test. This test
each is accounted. In this process, each fiber is tested and, after
is commonly used as a “fault (or failure) clearance” test
completion, labeled within the patch panel. The common
of an entire circuit prior to network energization. (e.g.
practice is to utilize the loss testing for acceptance testing of the
10kV for a 35kV class system operating 20kV line to
fiber optic system. ODTR Testing can be utilized for both
ground). This test is not intended to detect defects
acceptance testing and troubleshooting of segments which do not
which may fail in the near future but rather, to detect
meet the loss budget specification.
pre-existing gross shorts in a completely assembled
circuit which will likely lead to an immediate failure
 4

upon energization. Any fault (shorts) will need to be b) Conductor installation should be to IEEE 524 or the
located, repaired, and retested. Test voltage levels and manufacturer’s recommendations as required. Sag &
duration information is described in the IEEE 400 Tension of the installed conductor should not exceed
guides, but no consensus performance requirements NESC limitations, and tensions should be recorded during
exist at this time. installation and verified to be within the tolerances of the
sag charts issued by the engineer.
2) Partial Discharge Test (PD):
A PD test is generally categorized as a predictive, c) Pole Grounding Resistance Testing using the three-point
diagnostic test. The following are the most commonly fall-of-potential method as described above is the most
used manufacturers’ standards: common method used in ground resistance testing of
TABLE 1: PD THRESHOLD LEVELS overhead pole grounding. Like the turbines, to obtain an
Cable Component Standard Thresholds accurate measure of the ground resistance at a particular
IEEE 48 Terminations No PD >5pC up to 1.5Uo structure, the ground must be disconnected from any shield
IEEE 404 Joints No PD >3pC up to 1.5Uo wires or neutrals. The ground resistance of an overhead
IEEE 386 Separable Connectors No PD >3pC up to 1.3Uo line should meet the design specifications unless a variance
ICEA S-94-649 MV Cable No PD >5pC up to 4Uo* is allowed by the engineer. Pole ground resistance is an
*Actually 200V/mil. Field tests are performed to a maximum voltage important factor of an overhead line as it directly impacts
value equal to the level of system overvoltage protection which is lightning performance, short circuit calculations, and
typically 2 to 2.5 times the RMS operating voltage (line to ground,
1.0Uo). prompt operation of protection devices.

In order to meet these standards to the estimated voltage d) Guy Anchor Pull Tests can be performed on a selective
level of protection (2.0 the line to ground voltage for 35kV basis with a hydraulic jack pulling on the anchor in steps of
class systems) the test is must be performed at 50 or 60Hz increasing load in the direction of the designed load. Time
with better than 5pC sensitivity. This test is used to assess should be allotted between load increases to allow for
each cable segment, and locate substandard (defective) anchor creep. Any sustained creep over time prior to
components prior to failure. Typically, substandard reaching designed tension indicates a failure. Most
components are repaired and the system is retested to assure manufacturer’s have specific recommendations for various
compliance with the manufacturers’ standards prior to types of guy anchors and their proper installation and
circuit energization. testing.
3) Very Low Frequency (VLF) AC Withstand Test:
A VLF ac withstand test is generally categorized by G. MAIN POWER TRANSFORMER (MPT)
as a simple, destructive withstand test. This test is The main power transformer (MPT) is one of the largest
intended to cause defects that are near failure to break and most costly electrical system assets of the collector
down (fault) at the time of testing. As with the system.
insulation resistance test, this test is not likely to fail a) Factory Test Witnessing: Commonly, an owner
defects which may fault in the near future but, will representative is sent to the factory to witness testing.
likely detect components which would otherwise fail This is especially important if this is the first
immediately upon energization. Test voltage levels transformer with this configuration and size. Many
and duration information is described in the IEEE owners opt to have the transformer vendor
400 guides, but no consensus performance assemble/fill/and test the transformer to limit transfer
requirements exist at this time. Failures during the of risk to multiple parties. After shipping the
test will need to be located, repaired, and the cable transformer to the site, an owner’s representative
system is retested until it passes the withstand test. should to sign off on the tests and compare against
F. OVERHEAD MV COLLECTOR SYSTEMS factory results.
b) When the transformer arrives on site:
Overhead medium voltage collector cable system systems
i. Three axis impact recorder: A three axis impact
are typically inspected and tested at several stages during the
recorder is recommended to detect and record
project. The following recommendations provide an overview
any extreme conditioning during shipping and
of a typical overhead inspection regime.
handling. The three axis impact recorders should
be checked on arrival and after setting the MPT
a) Visual Inspection for correct pole top assembly, grounding
on the foundation pad.
and foundation construction; plumb structures or proper
ii. Insulation resistance measurement: an insulation
rake and camber as required, any physical damage, bird
resistance measurement should be made from the
caging or bent conductor; proper structure placement per
core ground to tank and compare against factory
survey, removal of temporary guys and grounds, removal
results.
of temporary guard structures, insulators wiped clean,
iii. Vacuum or dry nitrogen pressure check: The
anchor rods installed in-line with guy wires, and correct
vacuum or dry nitrogen pressure should be
phasing per the phasing diagram.
measured when the unit arrives on site.
c) MPT Commissioning
 5

i. A Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) d) Insulation resistance test

is recommended as a benchmark field test to e) Check the lead length to assure that is it not longer than
compare the curves recorded at the factory. the manufacturer’s requirement. Long lead lengths cause
Owner or representative should sign off on the the device to malfunction.
field SFRA test.
ii. Standard SFRA definition: ratio of a steady J. SUBSTATION- SWITCHGEAR
sinusoidal output from a test object subjected to Substation switchgear typically have the following
a steady sinusoidal input. The frequency is inspections and tests performed prior to energization.
swept through range of interest. a) Inspect all mechanical parts
iii. Perform Transformer Turns Ratio Test at all no b) Insulation resistance test – This is the first test to be
load taps, always testing after moving a tap. If done to determine if a high potential test is safe to
the transformer has a load tap changer (LTC), conduct. A DC voltage (normally 2500 to 5000V DC)
select a no load tap and test at all LTC positions. is applied to each phase of the switchgear bus with the
d) MPT Field Tests other two phases grounded. This test should be
Additional test for the MPT include: interpreted for comparative purposes.
i. Insulation test (bushings and windings) c) Surge Arrestors – see section H.5.
ii. Oil sample test after filling -24 hrs after d) Dielectric withstand test – This is also referred to as a
energization high potential test. An AC or DC voltage is applied to
iii. CT Testing – Ratio, excitation, polarity, each phase of the switchgear bus with the other two
continuity phases grounded for a specified amount of time. If
iv. Sudden Pressure – Verify testing into control breakdown of insulation does not occur then the test
house was satisfactory.
v. Controls – Cooling fans, LTC, etc. e) Resistance tests – A resistance test of the switchgear
vi. Check all remote alarms and analogs into bus is done to determine if any high resistance
SCADA or control house enunciators connections existing in the switchgear. This is
vii. Insulation test (bushings and windings) typically done with a low resistance ohm-meter
viii. Power Factor - 10 kV AC for each transformer (normally 100A DC) and is done from each
winding per the manufacturer’s specification. switchgear breaker cubicle to the next on each phase.
The results shall not exceed a 0.5% power factor This ensures that every bolted connection in the
when corrected to a 20° C reference temperature. switchgear is checked.

H. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS K. CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The commissioning of instrument transformers should include All circuit breakers are recommended for testing. The
the following: following inspections and test results should be compared
a) Power factor testing with factor reports whenever possible.
b) CT testing same as circuit breakers a) mechanical inspection of all observable parts.
c) Oil test (not typically performed) b) Power Factor Testing- Bushing and Tank
d) Turns ratio tests for all windings on PTs - Center tap c) Breaker time travel tests
and full taps d) Contact Resistance Test –A contact resistance test is
e) Verify operation of potential and carrier grounding performed to ensure that a good connection is made
switches on Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer where the main and arcing contacts come together.
f) Test for continuity on all PT and CT circuits This is normally done with a 10A or 100A low
g) Test for a single ground on CT circuits resistance ohm-meter. Values should not differ by
Some of the common errors that can be detected with this more than 50% between phases or per the
process are: manufacturer’s guidelines.
a) Wrong CT or PT ratio connection e) Dielectric withstand test – This is essentially the same
b) Junction box cabinet not vented test as mentioned in section I.5 and is done with the
c) CT physically mounted backwards circuit breaker closed.
d) Unused CT circuit or PT winding not grounded f) Time travel analysis – This is performed to verify the
e) Incorrect phases connected to secondary wires mechanical operation of the circuit breaker. There are
9 tests that are normally conducted
I. SURGER ARRESTORS g) Vacuum Bottle Integrity test – This test is done on
Surge Arrestors – Surge arrestors, especially those on both breakers that are equipped with vacuum bottle
the high and low side transformer, typically have the interrupters. An AC voltage, as specified by the
following tests performed. manufacturer, is applied across the open contacts of
a) Verify nameplate ratings against owner’s specification each phase of the circuit breaker for a specified
b) Power factor testing should result in similar test results amount of time. If no breakdown occurs then the
between similar units vacuum bottle is satisfactory for service.
c) Test for low impedance path to ground grid with no sharp h) For circuit breakers with insulating SF6 gas are
turns typically tested for the following:
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i. Moisture – typically < 200 PPM is satisfactory All testing results for protective relays may be subjected to
ii. Purity - >97% SF6 by volume NERC compliance audits. The following should be included
iii. Reactive gasses (decomposition) - <50 PPMv in all testing documentation
SO2/SOF2 or < 500 PPMv total a) Element testing results
Common errors found during the commissioning of b) Logic testing results
circuit breakers are: c) Yellow lines of AC/DC circuit validation
a) Breaker orientation is reversed – a major issue with d) Forms showing test results from apparatus testing
grounding breakers e) Relay and Metering Load Checks
b) Wrong Breaker installed – main or tie breaker in f) Certificates of calibration of test equipment
feeder position
c) Misinterpretation of DC Hi Pot results on a vacuum Prior to testing the relays it is important that various
breakers. Note that this procedure can produce X-ray elements that have been set i.e.: 51PU, 67, 27, 59, 81 O/U.
emissions. Note that it is more important to verify the logic setting in the
d) Breaker operated without locking pins removed relay since modern microprocessor relays have few problems
related to A/D and element pick up. Experience indicates that
setting engineers will make more logic setting errors than
L. SUBSTATION- DISCONNECT SWITCHES element setting errors.
The main substation disconnect, while not a complicated
device, is a critical component and should inspected and P. ACTIVE & PASSIVE REACTIVE COMPONENTS
test. All active or passive reactive components should be tested
a) Ensure alignment of contacts and their performance compared with factory test results prior
b) Check to assure simultaneity of closing to energization. Capacitor and filter should be subjected to:
c) Check that contacts are seated correctly when closed a) Factory test reports
d) Perform ductor/micro ohmmeter of closed contacts b) Visual, physical & mechanical inspections
e) Check that the switch is oriented per the one line c) Verify electrical characteristics
f) Verify switch handle is bonded to ground d) Insulation resistance ductor
g) Verify allowable distances to grounded parts. Confirm e) Capacitance check
that the construction is according the engineered plan or
has been signed off by the owner’s engineer.
h) Make sure the correct identification label gets installed
on the correct switch
Reactor (inductor) banks should be subjected to:
M. VOLTAGE & CURRENT TRANSFORMERS a) Winding resistance
The substation the voltage and current transformer are b) Insulation resistance
recommended for testing, especially the ones associated with c) Insulating Oil (if applicable)
the main power transformer. d) Inductance check
a) Transformer Turns Ratio verification on all taps Active compensation equipment, such as DSTATCOM,
b) Plot excitation curves and compare against should be tested and commissioned according the
manufacturers curves manufacturer’s recommendations, as procedures will vary
c) polarity checks to ensure correct orientation based on manufacturer requirements. Generally the following
d) Check for a single ground on the CT circuit procedures are recommended:
e) Continuity test (Loop check of CT circuit) a) Physical & mechanical Inspections
f) Perform insulation resistance test b) Equipment and safety grounds
c) Bus and cable torques
N. SUBSTATION- STATION BATTERIES d) Point-to-point wiring checks
The substation batteries should be subjected to the following e) Verify pre-energized initial conditions exist
tests to assure proper operation. f) Post-Energization Testing
a) Cell voltage measurements g) Measure all AC control power voltages
b) Intercell connection resistance measurements h) Measure all DC control power voltages
c) Internal ohmic measurements (BITE) i) Verify all communications
d) Load test j) Verify all protective and control functions
e) Electrolyte level and specific gravity (if applicable) k) Verify all MV voltages and rotations
l) Commission all DSTSTCOM operating modes
m) Verify all SCADA points
O. SUBSTATION- PROTECTIVE RELAYS n) Integration Testing
o) Verify DSTSTCOM Modes of Operation
p) Verify DSTATCOM Control of Capacitor Banks
q) Verify DSTATCOM Control of Filter Banks
r) Verify DSTATCOM Control of Reactor Banks
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Q. WIND PLANT ENERGIZATON TESTING

After energization of the collection system the following tests
are recommended.
a) Rotation checks at turbines
b) Follow up oil samples at MPT 24hr after energization
c) Metering checks and SCADA Readings
d) Additional relay load checks
e) Thermal scan of substation and collector system
connections at higher loads to establish a benchmark.
Hot spots should be evaluated.

III CONCLUSION
As mentioned in the introduction, this paper provides an
overview and basic methodology for testing and
commissioning of the wind plant medium voltage collector
system. Some topics were addressed with a simple list while
others topics which are related to significant reliability issues
and are commonly misunderstood, are described in more
detail. While this document provides a good overview, it is
not a substitute for a thorough commissioning specification.
All wind power plant sites will have nuances which cannot be
addressed with a generic document and thus the authors of this
document recommend that all recommendation be reviewed
and approved by the owner’s engineer.

IV REFERENCE

[1] Deepak Parmar, “Underground Cables Need a Proper Burial,”

Published in Transmission & Distribution World, April 2003.
[2] Steven. W. Saylors, “Wind Farm Collector System Grounding,”
Proc. of IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference,
Chicago, USA, April 2008.