ABSTRACT

This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the physical properties and

application of hydrogen usage in Compression Ignition (CI) engines. Alternative fuels

are necessary because of environmental concerns and the depletion of non-renewable

fuel stocks. When compared with diesel and petrol fuel, we need alternate fuel to

reduce pollution and move towards sustainable development. A potential alternative

to conventional vehicles can be hydrogen fuel cell vehicles , which can play a

significant role in decarbonizing the future transport [Link] paper will be a

review paper on the evolution of the engines to run with hydrogen fuels in various

forms. This review thoroughly examines the latest research on integrating hydrogen

fuel cells into vehicles, including modeling and experimental studies. It delves into

the performance, energy management strategies, life-cycle cost, and emissions of fuel

cell vehicles. Furthermore, the paper discusses the current state of knowledge and

outlines potential future research directions for advancing hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

1. Introduction

1.1. The emergence of alternative fuels

The demand for non-renewable fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal is

continually increasing due to their heavy reliance in various activities like electricity

generation, transportation, and industrial processes. In 2017, global consumption of

oil, natural gas, and coal reached 4621.9, 3164.6, and 3731.5 million tonnes of oil

equivalent respectively. This increase in fossil fuel consumption has also led to a rise
in global greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions which

increased by 1126.2 million tonnes in 2017[1]. Efforts to reduce pollution from

internal combustion engines (ICEs) have led to the development of hydrogen fuel

cells, which have shown promise in reducing emissions and maintaining driving range

comparable to conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles. However, the use of hydrogen

in engines may lead to technical challenges such as engine backfire, pre-ignition, and

knock due to differences in fuel properties[2].

In the future, it is highly likely that electricity and hydrogen will be crucial in

the energy landscape, predominantly sourced from renewable resources, particularly

solar energy. Hydrogen is anticipated to serve as a chemical energy carrier for

electricity. However, a major drawback of hydrogen is its low volumetric energy

density, posing challenges for its storage in transport, distribution, and vehicle

applications.

Fig.1.1 Worldwide demand growth of NGVs(Natural Gas Vehicles)

[25].

In the past few years, there have been limitations placed on exhaust emissions

due to their substantial contribution to the depletion of the ozone layer and the
phenomenon of global warming. This has been achieved through the implementation

of various agreements. Due to these environmental concerns, many researchers have

been exploring alternative fuels for internal combustion engines. Among the various

alternatives tested, hydrogen appears to be the most promising alternative fuel due to

its superior performance. Hydrogen offers numerous advantages over fossil fuels,

primarily because it does not produce carbon or other harmful substances, and it is

abundantly available in nature. When used as a fuel, hydrogen can effectively regulate

all exhaust emissions except nitrogen.

In contrast, Figure 1.2 shows that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions kept

increasing until 2021, playing a key role in driving global temperature up. GHGs are

still the main factor causing global warming, and it is essential to reduce them in order

to tackle this significant challenge[12].

Fig. 1.2 Global Green House Gas emission up to year 2021[12].

 However, there are some drawbacks to using hydrogen as a fuel in spark-

ignition (S.I.) engines, such as engine knock, pre-ignition, and NO x emissions.

Furthermore, using hydrogen as an alternative fuel in ignition-compression (I.C.)

engines is a new concept. Without a spark or additives, hydrogen can not be ignited

because of the high ignition temperature of hydrogen which is around 858K [4].

Different methods of using hydrogen in I.C. engines include air enrichment with

hydrogen, direct injection into the intake system, and in-cylinder injection.

1.2 . Choosing hydrogen as the alternate fuel

The most abundant chemical substance in the universe is hydrogen,

which constituting roughly 75% of its elemental mass. However, free hydrogen is

scarce on Earth due to its high reactivity, which leads it to primarily exist in

compounds such as water and hydrocarbons. This results in a vast and diverse range

of molecular configurations, making hydrogen a key component in a wide array of

chemical and industrial processes[3]. Hydrogen, a versatile fuel, can be used

independently or in conjunction with conventional fuels like gasoline or diesel. It is

found in hydrocarbons such as natural gas (NG) and water (H 2O). The idea of using

hydrogen as a clean fuel for internal combustion engines dates back to the 1970s[1].

Hydrogen offers many advantages over liquid gasoline and diesel. It can be produced

from renewable and non-renewable sources using various methods such as

gasification, electrolysis, and steam reforming. Hydrogen also possesses properties

that can enhance in-cylinder combustion and engine efficiency. Even research from
Allister Hickson[13] have shown that most of today’s population is relying more

towards hydrogen as fuel used in daily use for transportation.

Table.1. The list of produced hydrogen vehicles available on the world’s

market[16].

All forms of fuel must go through a transformation process, like combustion,

to be changed into various types of energy such as thermal, mechanical, or electrical

energy. When a fuel can be easily converted into various forms of energy, it becomes

more adaptable and convenient to utilize. Table 2 illustrates the various fuels and the

techniques for converting them into other forms of energy at the user end. It's evident

that, except for hydrogen, all fuels can be converted through the combustion process.

However, hydrogen can be transformed into other energy forms by: it can be directly

converted into steam, generate heat through catalytic combustion, serve as a heat

source and/or sink through chemical reactions, and be converted directly into

electricity through electrochemical processes.

Table.2. Versatility (convertibility) of fuels[14].

 1.3 Properties of hydrogen

The characteristics of diffusion, density, quenching distance, minimum

ignition energy, flammability limit, flame speed, and auto-ignition temperature play

crucial roles in the efficient operation of an engine (Table 3 and Table 4)[5].

Flammability range: The flammable range is the concentration range of a

flammable vapor or gas (expressed in volume percent) in air over which a flash or

flame will occur if ignited.

Flame velocity: The velocity at which unburned gases move through the

combustion zone in the direction normal to the flame front .

Adiabatic flame temperature: It is the temperature reached by a flame under

the ideal conditions.

 Fig. 1.3. Adiabatic flame temperature for hydrogen air mixtures[17]

In recasting the flammability range in terms of equivalence ratio, it's clear that

H2ICE can operate stably under highly diluted conditions, giving more control over

engine operation for emissions reduction and fuel metering[17].

It is crucial to take note of flame velocity and adiabatic flame temperature in

engine operation and control. These properties have a substantial effect on thermal

efficiency, combustion stability, and emissions. Laminar flame velocity and flame

temperature are plotted against equivalence ratio, and we will be using these graphs in

the above section.

Table.3. Thermodynamic properties of hydrogen, methane and gasoline[5].

Table.4. Combustion properties of hydrogen, methane and gasoline [5].

1.2. Behaviors on the influence of hydrogen enrichment in compression ignition(CI)

engines

Table.5. Behaviors of CI engines on the influence of hydrogen enrich

fuels[modified from 6].

Characteristics Behavior of the CI engine on the influence of hydrogen

Power and Torque H₂ has a positive impact on enhanced ignition delay due to its

wide flammability range and short quenching distance.

Fuel Consumption The combination of H2 and air leads to improved combustion in

the cylinder due to the high diffusivity of H2, resulting in

reduced fuel consumption.

Combustion (pressure, Compression Ignition engines can run at higher compression

heat, release rate, thermal ratios, leading to increased in-cylinder temperatures and higher

efficiency, COV, etc) heat release rates (HRRs).

Emissions- HC At medium engine speeds, Cl engines reduce HC emissions

through appropriate combustion characteristics.

Emission- CO and CO2 The addition of H2 on Compression Ignition engines resulted in

an increase in the required time for the oxidation reactions of CO

and CO2, leading to a reduction in emissions.

Common Fuel Mixtures Other gaseous fuels such as CH4, C2H6, C3H8 and natural gas are

used in the combustion process. Also, bio-diesel blends are used

as fuel additives in CIEs.

Period of amortization Hydrogen tank, pipelines, injectors, and hydrogen fuel prices

adds additional costs. Profits from fuel consumption result in an

approximate amortization period of 70,000 km or 3 years.

Safety and Weight When switching between vehicles, hydrogen storage equipment

adds extra weight. Hydrogen safety is a critical requirement for

all required cases. To prevent explosions, it must be ensured that

hydrogen is stored and used according to the permitted ways

mentioned by any organization.

Re-fueling The main problem that we face using H 2 as a fuel is that fueling

stations are not widely available.

Infrastructure Hydrogen transport infrastructure is one of the main challenges

due to issues with piping lines and potential leakage. The risks
 associated with the molecular weight of H 2 have led to a shift in

the direction of transport towards liquid hydrogen.

NOx When it comes to NOx emissions, H2 has a negative impact on

combustion engines. Its higher flammability and faster flame

propagation lead to increased temperatures during combustion.

This higher temperature and limited timing result in NO x

formation. Almost all the research papers mentions that the

addition of hydrogen increases NOx emissions.

Knocking Although hydrogen (H2) has significant potential as a fuel, it is

associated with a knock problem due to its structure. Fast and

high-temperature combustion leads to a rapid increase in

pressure. If this issue is not controlled, it can result in backfire,

auto-ignition, as well as pre-ignition and/or post-ignition,

potentially causing damage to the system and engine.

2. Methods for Producing Hydrogen

Knowing the points of the need of alternate fuel other than petrol and diesel to

rely on in futures and that alternate fuel being hydrogen, it becomes important to

know the various processes where hydrogen is produced i.e. methods of production of

hydrogen. These following are some of the researchH2ed processes to produce

hydrogen.

2.1. Water electrolysis

The process of splitting water into O2 and gases using electricity generated

from renewable sustainable energy (RSE) sources like biomass, geothermal, wind,
and solar energy is an environmentally-friendly process. The chemical reaction

involved is as follows:

H2O + 2F --> H2 + 1/2 O2 ……………. (1)

where F represents the Faraday constant, equal to 1 mole of electricity (96,485 C)[7].

The opposite of this reaction can be utilized in combustion or hydrogen fuel cells

(HFC) to produce electricity from hydrogen:

H2 + 1/2O2 --> H2O + 2F………………. (2)

When it comes to the initial reaction, the expense of water is considered insignificant,

which implies that the cost of producing hydrogen through electrolysis is

predominantly determined by the price of electricity.

2.2. Plasma arc decomposition

Plasma, an ionized state of matter, has the potential for high-voltage electric

current release due to its electrically charged particles. When natural gas, mainly

methane, undergoes thermal plasma activity, it breaks down into hydrogen and carbon

black. Fulcheri et al.[9] studied this reaction using a thermal plasma reactor with three

electrodes connected to a three-phase voltage. Their results show 100% pure

hydrogen production with zero CO2 emissions.

CH4 - C(s) + 2H2(g) [8]

2.3. Photo-electrolysis

Photo-electrolysis is the process of using heterogeneous photo-catalysts on

electrodes to convert solar and electrical energies into chemical energy, particularly

hydrogen[10]. The process involves creating an electron-hole pair with high-energy

photons, allowing electrons to move from the anode to the cathode to produce electric
current, breaking down water into hydrogen ions and gaseous oxygen, reducing

hydrogen ions at the cathode to create hydrogen gas, and then extracting, processing,

and storing the resulting gases[8].

2.4. Fossil fuel reforming

The three primary technologies used for reforming fossil fuels to produce

hydrogen are steam reforming, partial oxidation, and auto-thermal reforming. Steam

reforming involves the use of an external heat source and does not require oxygen for

the process. This method operates at a lower temperature and yields a higher ratio of

hydrogen to carbon monoxide (H2/CO) compared to the other methods. On the other

hand, partial oxidation entails the partial oxidation of hydrocarbons with oxygen to

generate hydrogen, utilizing the heat produced from the partial oxidation reaction.

Compared to the other methods, it does not necessitate a catalyst and exhibits greater

tolerance to sulfur[7].

2.5. Coal gasification

A hydrocarbon-rich feed-stock, such as coal, is gasified at high temperatures

to produce synthesis gas rich in CO, H 2 and CO2. The gas can be further improved

using the water-gas shift reaction to convert CO into additional CO 2 and hydrogen,

followed by removal of impurities and separation of hydrogen from the mixture[15].

 Fig. 2.1 Coal Gasification processes[15].

2.6. Biomass

The process of partial oxidation involves the conversion of biomass into a highly

flammable gas mixture, which is known as gasification. This method necessitates the

use of very high temperatures, typically ranging from 800 to 900 degrees Celsius.

During this process, partial oxidation occurs, converting the carbonaceous feed-stock

into gaseous energy carriers. These carriers include permanent, non-condensable gas

blends such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),

hydrogen (H2), and water vapor (H2O). Notably, biomass gasifiers produce nearly

equal amounts of CO and H2, making them an important source of gaseous energy

carriers/[29].
Fig. 2.2 Different methods of biomass based hydrogen

production[7].

To obtain hydrogen from solid biomass the following equation takes place in very

high temperature heating[7],

CxHy+ xH2O - (y/2 + x) H2 + xCO

The above reaction takes place in very high temperature so that tar is not produced.

The product that is unwanted from this reaction is tar, as it can negatively impact the

process by causing slugging and fouling.

2.7. Organic gasification

Our homes produce a lot of organic waste such as food scraps and lawn clippings.

Even materials like paper and timber also contribute to organic waste. In a study by

Nielsen et al. [30], they explored removing hydrogen from the fermentation of organic

household waste using a mix of anaerobic bacteria. The study used a bio-reactor

where 600 grams of household waste was fermented. Nitrogen was injected into the
bio-reactor at a rate of 3 ml/min from the lower part of the reactor. The researchers

found that around 85% to 90% of the hydrogen was separated by a Pd/Ag membrane,

while ZnO did not extract a significant amount of hydrogen[29].

Table. 6. Overview of different hydrogen production methods[11]

2.8. Natural gas reforming

Natural gas reforming, the cheapest and most efficient way of producing hydrogen is

followed in USA to produce about 95% of their total hydrogen generated. Here

natural gas is reacted with high temperature steam and synthesis gas, mixture of H,

CO, and small amount of CO 2, is formed. But the CO which is produce as a side

product is reacted with water to obtain additional hydrogen[35].

3. Hydrogen internal combustion engines

Regarding hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines (ICEs) before 2006,

Reference [17] provides a review of research. Compared to gasoline ICEs, hydrogen

ICEs using premixed or port fuel-injected (PFI) systems had lower power densities
due to low volumetric efficiencies and frequent pre-ignition combustion events. A.

MacCarley conducted research on Electronic fuel injection techniques for hydrogen

powered IC engines in 1980 [20] and also worked on the Development of a high-

speed injection valve for electronic hydrogen fuel injection [21]. However, the

advanced hydrogen engines development has made significant progress through the

use of direct injection (DI), leading to improved power densities. Traditionally,

hydrogen engines were designed with the mixture prepared upstream of the intake

valves, usually by port fuel injection (PFI). Direct injection (DI) represents an

important advancement in engines because it allows for higher power densities and

improved fuel conversion efficiencies. DI engines offer several advantages. They

ensure that only air passes through the intake valves, preventing fuel from escaping

through the exhaust. Furthermore, DI reduces the time it takes to produce knock by

utilizing cryogenic liquid-phase hydrogen injection, which lowers the charge

temperature and allows for higher compression ratios. Knock refers to the self-

ignition of the end gas due to rising pressure and temperature during the compression

stroke. In comparison to port fuel injection (PFI), direct injection reduces the time it

takes to develop knock. Late direct injection creates a lean fuel-air mixture, restricting

the mixture to the central area of the combustion chamber and surrounding it with a

cushion of air. The use of liquid cryogenic hydrogen in direct injection reduces the

temperature of the fuel-air mixture due to the lower fuel temperature and the latent

heat of vaporization. Jet ignition in DI engines ignites the lean stratified mixture using

multiple jets of combusting gases, reducing the time needed to develop knock and

explaining the ability to significantly increase the compression ratio in direct injection

jet ignition liquid cryogenic hydrogen engines [18]. Lijun Wang [55] researched the

quality of the hydrogen-air mixture formation and the combustion characteristics of a

hydrogen-fueled engine in his paper. A three-dimensional simulation model was

established using AVL Fire software. The study focused on the variation of total

hydrogen mass, velocity field, concentration field, and turbulent kinetic energy under

different hydrogen injection parameters. The results indicated that nozzle position,

nozzle diameter, and injection timing significantly influenced the formation quality of

the mixture and combustion state. The study suggested that selecting the right

parameters can improve the uniformity of the mixture in the cylinder and optimize the

combustion heat release reaction. Furthermore, it found that an early hydrogen

injection starting point, along with a smaller nozzle hole diameter, improved

combustion performance and decreased the risk of pre-ignition and backfire.

For improving the fuel efficiency and reducing the emission, hydrogen

enhanced combustion (HEC) is used in internal combustion engines. The HEC shows

both 5-30% improvement of fuel economy in both gasoline and diesel engines. HEC

has been a great asset due to its working, also reducing CO 2 emission and saving the

cost of input hydrogen gas[59].

Many researchers have also worked on modeling and experimental

investigations as mentioned on the paper by Jayakrishnan Krishnanunni[40] and even

on the paper of N.N. Smirnov[41] and lots more. N.N. Smimov have give a brief

discussion about computer aided design and mathematical tools needed for modeling

of hydrogen combustion in engines while Jayakrishnan Krishnanunni talked about

experimental evaluation of a single cylinder hydrogen fuelled IC engine doptimized at

a peak power of 4.8 kW @ 3600 rpm while operating under lean condition. The work

presented by C.C. Rakopoulos[53] conducts a preliminary evaluation of a new

computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model, whose purpose was to examine complex

test case. The flow field inside the cylinder and the mixing of hydrogen and air were
studied, and the results were promising. Based on this initial model evaluation, it was

determined that the model accurately predicts the flow field and the concentration of

fuel-air mixture in both space and time for all tested cases. Alberto Boretti[56], in his

paper re-engineered a heavy-duty diesel truck engine to exclusively run on hydrogen.

The primary objective was to ensure that the hydrogen engine delivered the same, if

not better, full and part load efficiencies, as well as power and torque outputs. The

results were remarkable, showcasing superior fuel efficiencies compared to diesel

across the entire load range, and enabling enhanced full load power and torque

outputs while maintaining a similar stoichiometry. A predictive model by Krebs[61]

for premixed hydrogen combustion in internal combustion engines is presented,

combining the advantages of the entrainment model with reaction kinetics. The model

improves the calculation of flame front propagation and evaluates the laminar flame

speed online. It accurately predicts combustion efficiency and emissions, particularly

nitrogen oxide emissions. It can also predict abnormal combustion phenomena and is

a valuable tool for engine development and optimization.

The research mentioned by Nicolas Castro[58] delves into the examination of

emissions, engine performance, and the potential for substituting diesel with hydrogen

in a turbocharged four-cylinder direct injection diesel engine. Furthermore, it

investigates the correlation between the hydrogen flammability limit, engine knock,

and hydrogen energy substitution.

A hydrogen IC engine produce more than three times water and waste more

heat than a conventional engine. So, literature by Noboru Yamada[52] talked about an

open steam Rankine cycle waste heat recobery sub-system which is combined with an

hydrogen IC engine to reduce the heat loss and water loss from it.
 Massimiliano Comotti[34] in his research paper worked about hydrogen

generated system for ammonia-hydrogen fulled IC engine. His objective was to

effectively utilize ammonia which is well known hydrogen carrier, in IC engines,

showing it can be use in either spark-ignition (SI) or compression-ignition(CI)

engines with special modification like Hydrogen Generation System ( HGS) which is

capable to supply upto 1.4Nm^3 h^-1 of H 2 from [Link] to the papers

of Nuo Lei[38], studies show the valuable insights for future research on power train

modeling which is based on ammonia-hydrogen synergy fuel.

Fig.3.1. Auto thermal ammonia cracker[36].

Auto thermal cracker(ATC) is a device that has been developed to dissociate the

ammonia into hydrogen and nitrogen on-board and provide them to the engine. Inside

the ATC two reaction occurs, one is ammonia oxidation with air and other is

ammonia dissociation. Even after that some challenges were faced in this experiment

like achieving emission control during cold start and to improve the combustion

efficiency without auxiliary hydrogen [36].

 Emission characteristics
 HC Emissions: HC decreases with the increase of hydrogen percentage, as

shown in fig.3.2 in different compression ratios . At 100% hydrogen, the emission of

HC tends to reduce to nearly 0%.

Fig.3.2. Effect of hydrogen substitution on HC[67].

CO Emission: Similarly, CO emission reduces with the increase hydrogen

composition in the fuel as illustrated in fig.3.3, even for different compression ratio.

Fig.3.3. Effect of hydrogen substitution on CO[67].

 NOx Emission: As shown in fig.3.4 , we can see NO x increasing tread even

though it was quite low. Also with the increase in compression ratio, the emission of

NOx also increases.

Fig.3.4. Effect of hydrogen substitution on NOx[67].

Particulate Matter: With the increase of the presence of hydrogen, we can

see a decrease in the presence of particulate matter as shown in fig.3.5 .

Fig.3.5. Effect of hydrogen substitution on PM[67].

 Effects on the pre-ignition, knocking and back fires

Unintended combustion can happen prior to the spark plug igniting when the

intake valves are already shut. This unintended occurrence is known as "preignition."
When the valves are closed and the cylinder mixture is being compressed, it can result

in extremely high pressures and significant damage[68].

The phenomenon of hydrogen engine knock represents a distinctive form of

abnormal combustion when compared to gasoline engines. This is a result of the

specific properties of hydrogen gas, including its low ignition energy and small

quenching distance. These factors contribute to the occurrence of combustion knock

at high engine speeds (>3000 r/min), setting hydrogen engines apart from their

gasoline counterparts. Even backfire can increase the possibility of knocking as

backfire can increase the initial temperature at ignition[65].

Frequent backfiring can happen in inlet port fuel injection hydrogen internal

combustion engines (HICEs) when the fuel-to-air ratio is greater than 0.56, which

limits the engine's power improvement. To control backfiring, a test system for inlet

port fuel injection HICE and a computational fluid dynamics model have been

established to investigate the factors contributing to backfiring under high loads[64].

3.1 Properties of hydrogen IC Engines

3.1.1 Variation of average temperature

The graph below depicts the changes in average temperature within the cylinder in

relation to the crank angle at different excess hydrogen coefficients. The data

illustrates a notable similarity in the trends between average temperature and pressure

within the cylinder. At an excess hydrogen coefficient of 1.04, the peak average

temperature is recorded at 3102 K [19]. Notably, a further increase in the excess

hydrogen coefficient results in a decrease in in-cylinder average temperature and

subsequently in power output. This is in contrast to conventional internal combustion

engines, where power output generally increases across a wider range of excess fuel

coefficients. The difference in behavior can be attributed to the relatively long

molecular chains of traditional fuels, which generate numerous intermediate species

and release more heat, leading to power increase with higher hydrocarbon emissions.

In contrast, the short molecular chain of hydrogen and the scarcity of intermediate

products limit its contribution to power increase mainly to combustion speed.

Fig. 3.6. Variation of average temperature with respect to crank angle[19]

3.1.2 Combustion pressure and heat release rate

In an internal combustion engine, the pressure caused by the burning air/fuel

mixture applies direct force to part of the engine. The heat release rate is defined as

the rate at which the chemical energy of the fuel is released by the combustion

process. Studies from Carlos Eduardo Castilla Alvarez[23] have shown how the rapid

increase heat release rate at initial stage of combustion, decrease in a stable short

period of time.

In 4000 rpm with different mixture concentrations, the pressure of measured

cylinder is shown in fig.3.7. Figure 3.8 illustrates the relationship between pressure

rise rate and mixture richness. It becomes apparent that a richer mixture leads to a

higher peak cylinder pressure and a more rapid pressure rise rate. Additionally, figure

3.9 demonstrates that the heat release rate is influenced by the combustion rate. As the

equivalence ratio increases, there is a significant and undeniable rise in the heat

release rate, leading to a notable decrease in the combustion duration[22].

Fig.3.7 Combustion pressure with respect to crank angle[22].

 Fig.3.8 Pressure rise rate with respect to crank angle[22].

Fig.3.9 Heat release rate with respect to crank angle[22].

3.1.3. Variation of NO distribution

The main product of hydrogen air reaction if NOx which is over 95% of it’s main

emission gas. With the rise in temperature the concentration of NO also increases, and

at the highest temperature the NO concentration reaches the peak value. But the
reason of rapid NO concentration is the decrease in temperature can decrease N2

activities and so the forward reaction rate decreases, but increase in reverse rate

reaction can be observed, forming more N2[24].

Fig.3.10 Variations of NO mass[24].

3.1.4. Flow characteristics of the injector

Figure 4.6 illustrates the flow characteristics of the injector at various

pressures. At smaller pulse widths, the flow of hydrogen increases nonlinearly as the

pulse width increases. This is because the movement of the armature is hindered by

both the pressure of hydrogen and the electromagnetic force generated by the current,

both of which increase non-linearly.

Fig.3.11 Characteristics of the injector under different pressure[26].

3.2 Hydrogen in combination with other fuels

In order to make hydrogen a more effective alternative fuel, it can be enhanced by

mixing it with other fuels. Blended operation includes the combination of hydrogen

with one or more gaseous fuels, which are stored and delivered together using a single

carburetion or fuel-injection system. This approach is commonly used to enhance the

performance of natural gas by introducing hydrogen into the mix. On the other hand,

dual-fuel operation involves combining hydrogen with liquid fuels, which may

require multiple mixture preparation devices. For different fuels, there can be separate

storage and fuel systems or in some cases, hydrogen may be generated onboard.

3.2.1 Nature gas dominated blends

Burning velocity of methane is less than that of hydrogen’s burning velocity. Adding

hydrogen with natural gases, research have shown that an overall better combustion

process have taken place , showing advantages like a higher efficiency, lower CO 2

production and emission[31].

In the paper, the relationships between fuel consumption, pollutant production,

equivalence ratio, and engine load have been established for a single engine. These

relationships are then utilized to create different engine operating "cases," which are

assessed based on varying engine power, speed, and load in a driving cycle

simulation[32].

Similarly, experiments have been conducted by mixing H 2 and CH4 in internal

combustion engine as referred by S. Orhan Akansu[62] and Manfred Klell[60]. The

utilization of hydrogen and methane mixtures as fuel in internal combustion engines

offers a cost-effective solution for significantly reducing CO 2 emissions. Natural gas

also have perfect knock resistance characteristics. This is achieved as through the

adaptation of prototype vehicles to operate with these mixtures, accompanied by the

implementation of necessary technical adjustments and safety measures for road

traffic. The text also delves into the synergies in the production, storage, distribution,

and combustion of these mixtures, highlighting the updated EU legislation that

incorporates blends of hydrogen and methane as an option for reducing emissions in

vehicle traffic. Furthermore, the text offers an in-depth analysis of the global

regulations and standards governing vehicles powered by gas. It delves into a range of

important topics including type-approval procedures, fuel efficiency requirements,

and detailed regulations around emissions of pollutants.

3.2.2. Hydrogen dominated blends

When added a small amount of methane to hydrogen greatly improves the storage

capacity of compressed storage systems. This means vehicles powered by gas can

travel longer distances. When 5% methane is mixed with hydrogen, the stored energy

content increases by 11%. If a 20% methane blend is used with hydrogen, the stored

energy content increases by 46% compared to using pure hydrogen. Tests on an

engine using hydrogen and different methane blends showed a slight decrease in

harmful emissions with more methane, but the engine's efficiency went down,

especially at low power levels. Vehicle tests on a Mercedes-Benz E200NGT, which

can run on multiple fuel types including hydrogen and natural gas blends, showed up

to a 3% increase in performance.[31].

i. Blended hydrogen-natural gas-fueled

Hydrogen-enriched compressed natural gas (HCNG) or H2NG is a potent blend of

natural gas with increased hydrogen content, specifically engineered for ultra-lean

combustion conditions to effectively minimize engine out NOx emissions. However,

the utilization of lean-burn engine technology necessitates substantial tuning

modifications, resulting in a noticeable reduction in engine-specific power. Blends

comprising 30% to 50% hydrogen exhibit a marked decline in NOx tailpipe emissions

and deliver superior efficiency in comparison to traditional gasoline, CNG, or

Hythane fuels[33]. Research as mentioned by R.L. Hoekstra[63] shows different

possibilities of adding CNG in different percentages with hydrogen .

Using HCNG as an alternate fuel brings us an advantage of significant reduction of

tailpipe emission, like NOx which result smog in urban places and methane causing

green house effect. But HCNG requires fill nozzle aand receptacle equipment at the

filling station.

Fig.3.12. NOx emissions versus degree of lean-burn for hydrogen fractions from

10% to 50%[33].

There are significant challenges ahead for HCNG. When it comes to greenhouse gas

emissions, combining locally sourced biogas with CNG may be a better option than
relying solely on natural gas for HCNG. HCNG engines need to be specifically

engineered and approved to operate using both HCNG and CNG. When HCNG

fueling infrastructure is not accessible, the engines should be able to seamlessly

switch back to using pure CNG. It's important to note that the cost of setting up an

HCNG fueling station will be considerably higher than that of a standalone hydrogen

or CNG fueling station[33].

Even studies from Kasidet Pichayapat[37] have shown that using proper HCNG

blended as a secondary source with minimum pilot diesel in IC engine can result in

reduction of emission substantially, thus showing that using HCNG diesel dual fuel

system in diesel engine system is safe to use.

ii. Oxy-hydrogen as fuel additive

Oxy-hydrogen (HHO) is a gas mixture consisting of 2/3 hydrogen and 1/3 oxygen by

volume, obtained through the process of water electrolysis. However, there is some

ambiguity regarding its composition. Various sources propose different compositions,

with some suggesting that the molar fractions of hydrogen and oxygen exist in their

diatomic state (O2 and H2), while others claim that they appear in a mono-atomic

state. Pierpaolo Polverino's literature explores the practical application of HHO under

realistic operating conditions, assuming that HHO is produced through electrolysis

and directly connected to the engine[39].

 Fig.3.13. System layout[39].

Many literature are there that have examined on the Oxy-hydrogen as fuel

additives giving a vast open field to explore on this. Premkartikkumar S[43] have

worked on diesel engine of 661cc, where the power is 5.9kW @1800rpm, while Manu

P[44] have also worked on diesel engine of 553cc, at 3.7kW power @1500rpm, also

Wang H[45] worked on diesel engine of diesel engine of 5883cc, 24.5kW power

@1600rpm and Bari S[46] on diesel engine of 4009cc, of powers 19kW, 22kW,

28kW @1500rmp. All of these experiments are performed in constant power

operation. But a literature of Falahat A[47] shows experiment of HHO as fuel

additives has also been conducted on a gasoline engine of 197cc in various rpm,

keeping the speed constant.

Over-viewing papers related to using HHO as a fuel additive, it can be

conclude that fuel saving was more supporting with small engines but more

improvements could be obtained by the means of introducing proper engine control

logics and optimized operating conditions.

iii. Hydrogen-biodisesel dual-fuel

Hydrogen diesel dual fuel is also an upcoming topic of today’s world but it have been

noticed that it often lead to increase of the highly temperature depended NO x

emission, even though significantly reducing the emissions of HC, smoke and carbon.

[35,49]. Global air pollution is on the rise, and oil reserves are dwindling. It is

imperative to prioritize recent research on renewable fuels such as bioethanol, bio-

turbosine, biodiesel, and green hydrogen (gH2) among others as viable options to

significantly mitigate the impact of fossil fuel use and consumption[57].

A literature of Pavlos Dimitriou[42] gives us an overview of the various

properties of hydrogen-biodiesel fueled IC engine and also comparing it with normal

diesel engine.

Fig.3.14. . In-cylinder pressure and rate of heat release comparison among

different rates of hydrogen energy share ratios (H2-biodiesel dual-fuel) and

conventional diesel (diesel with EGR) operation at 20 and 60kW[42].

The purpose of literature provided by Kuntang Winandun[48] is to analyze

how diesel engines perform when running on a combination of hydrogen gas and

palm oil biodiesel fuel. In dual-fuel diesel engines, using a mix of hydrogen and

biodiesel results in improved combustion characteristics such as shorter ignition

delays, higher cylinder pressure, and faster heat dissipation. When 10 liters per minute

of hydrogen is added to biodiesel, there is a 10% increase in cylinder pressure and a

5% increase in heat release rate compared to using biodiesel alone. Additionally, the

addition of hydrogen reduces engine knocking by 10% compared to using only

biodiesel. These findings suggest that the inclusion of modest amounts of hydrogen

gas enhances the combustion process in diesel engines using palm oil biodiesel,

thereby reducing knocking. This research could be extended to assess the effects of

dual-fuel diesel engines on performance and exhaust emissions.

4. Safety

The safety considerations of fuels revolve around two main factors: their toxicity and

their flammability. In addition to the potential toxicity of their combustion by-

products, the fuels themselves can also be toxic. As the carbon to hydrogen ratio

increases, so does the toxicity. Hydrogen and its main combustion byproduct, water or

water vapor, are not harmful substances. However, the combustion of hydrogen, as

well as fossil fuels, can produce NOx, which has toxic effects. When comparing the

amounts of toxic pollutants produced per unit of energy consumed, it is clear that

hydrogen is the safest fuel, followed by methane and then gasoline. Due to the

increase of the buoyancy force for speedy dispersal of fuel in case of a leak , lower

density makes a fuel safer[14].

A literature by A. Ciancia[50] describe about the position of the hydrogen

bottle placement for safety purpose. Those hydrogen bottles were placed under the

floor outside the passenger compartment for weight problems. Breaking of these

vessels and valves in time of crash is quite impossible as bust test has been done at

about 800 bar by the manufactures. But the HYPASSE Project[51], supported by

Daimler Benz used a more advanced aluminium tank, wrapped with composite of

aramide fibre and epoxy resin for more stability. Literature by J.G. Hansel[54]
provide us with all the necessary means to avoid any miss-happening and also

informed us about different cautions we must follow for safety consideration in the

design of hydrogen powered vehicles.

Table.7. Safety ranking of fuel[14].

[Link] and Development Projects

 A project called HyICE took place in Europe between 2004 and 2007, during

which engine concepts were demonstrated to surpass a specific power output of

100 kW/l and achieve a peak efficiency of 42%. BMW coordinated this project,

which was funded under the 6th Framework Programme of the European

Commission. The aim of the project was to explore the potential of hydrogen in

single and multi-cylinder engines equipped with direct injectors[27].

 A sponsored work by the Next-generation Environmentally Friendly Vehicle

Development and Commercialization Project (EFV21) of the Ministry of Land,

 Infrastructure, and Transport (MLIT) in Japan took place whose aim was develop

a hydrogen internal combustion engine truck with CO 2 free operation of the

Japanese freight fleet[28].

 Between 2004 and 2011, the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

within the U.S. Department of Energy's FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies

Program provided funding for projects at the Argonne and Sandia National

Laboratories. These projects were focused on achieving targeted peak and part

load efficiencies, as well as on reducing NOx emissions. To accomplish these

goals, researchers conducted experimental work on metal and optical single

cylinder engines, complemented by computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

simulations[27].

 In a groundbreaking initiative, the United Nations Industrial Development

Organization (UNIDO) in collaboration with the International Centre for

Hydrogen Energy Technologies (UNIDO-ICHET), the Indian Institute of

Technology-Delhi, Air Products, Indian Trade Promotion Organization (ITPO),

and Mahindra & Mahindra, launched fifteen hydrogen-fueled three-wheelers

(also known as rickshaws) in Delhi, India. This project marks an important step

forward in promoting sustainable and eco-friendly transportation in the region.

Future Potentials

The current performance and emissions achieved by hydrogen engines already surpass

those of conventional engines to a significant extent. Despite this, many challenges

like NOx emissions, pre-ignition, knocking, back fires are faced and have to

overcome to obtain the future potential of hydrogen engines in terms of performance

and emissions. It is crucial to conduct a thorough examination of the heat transfer in a

hydrogen engine due to its substantial impact on overall efficiency. Also, an area of

opportunity for future research is designing control laws for ignition angles when

using different fuel blends.

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