Text, Text Types, And Genres further on the differences between genre and text types, Biber (1988)

between genre and text types, Biber (1988) gives

the following: Genres characterize texts on the basis of external criteria,
The discovery of language has paved the way for literacy or the while text types represent groupings of texts that are similar in their
ability to read and write which is also considered a necessity for survival in linguistic form, irrespective of genre. For example, an academic article on
the present world. As such, the encounter of texts, or verbal records of Asian history represents formal, academic exposition in terms of the
communicative acts (Brown and Yule 1983:6); or chunks of written author's purpose, but its linguistic form might be narrative-like and more
language which carry a whole meaning, has become a common similar to some types of fiction than to scientific or engineering academic
phenomenon. This phenomenon calls for each of us to have the literacy articles. The genre of such a text would be academic exposition, but its text
skills to identify the intent or the most important point conveyed or type might be academic narrative (p.170). If a text is analyzed in terms of its
communicated in every text we encounter. But, identifying the intent of a intended audience, purpose, and activity type, then the text is analyzed
text is affected by several factors including the language used and how it is based on its genre. But, if its linguistic (or grammatical) features are
used. Hence, two terms we need to remember in dealing with texts are examined, then it is examined based on its text type. Biber (1988) further
genres and text types. Though the title starts with text types to highlight the mentioned in his book that “In an analysis of text types, texts from different
relevance of language in communication, it is but logical to introduce genre genres are grouped together when they are similar in their linguistic form;
first before text types because in attempting to understand a text, the texts from a single genre might represent several different text types” (p.
external characteristics (that are considered in genres) are seen first before 170). The following classification in Table 1 can help you visualize what
the internal linguistic characteristics (that are considered in text types) are Biber explained regarding text types and genres.
analyzed.
Taking genre first for discussion, we consider the idea that though
genre involves both written and spoken communication, genre pedagogy is Types Of Texts
most often used to teach academic and professional writing (Millar, 2011). Each text has a PURPOSE (has a reason for being written)
The importance of genre has been one important and influential concept in 1. Instructive
literacy education (Hyland, 2008). Hence, as would-be professionals, you 2. Informative
are urged to be aware of the genres you are going to encounter in your 3. Persuasive
workplace and the genres that are often used in the academic arena. 4. Descriptive
Knowing the genre – a classification of a communicative event in which the 5. Entertaining
communicators share the same set of communicative purposes (Hyland,
2008)- required by the receiver of your message, would facilitate Target Audience
understanding. Genre awareness - “the ability to select and use an • The intended group for which something is performed
appropriate genre based on a number of factors, including the purpose of • Who is the author trying to reach?
communication, the context, and the people involved” (Millar, 2011)- is
therefore essential. After all, if the purpose of communication is to make A. NARRATIVE TEXTS
sense and the primary aim of the communicator is to be understood. • Tells a story or just a part of it
Hence, using the class of communicative event that is understood by the • Can be fiction or nonfiction
communicators is reasonable. However, considering the genre to use is not • Includes plot structure, conflict characterization, setting,
enough. The internal factors such as the linguistic features (such as the theme, point of view, sequencing, and transitions
vocabulary and syntax or structure) used in a text should also be • Examples (Genre): personal narratives, autobiography, fairy
considered. Our use of specific linguistic features that reinforce our tales, fables, folktales, fantasy stories, mysteries, myths, and
intention in a text helps us achieve our goal in communication. To clarify diaries
 • E.g. Twilight (Stephenie Meyer) and The Catcher in the Rye (J.D. vocabularies, rhythm, educational background,
Salinger) geographical origin, or social class

Narration – recounting of events (real or imagined) B. EXPOSITORY TEXTS

– incidents are arranged in the order of time or occurrence • An informational text that provides factual information (and
explains it) about a topic using a clear, non-narrative
General Classifications organizational structure with a major topic and supporting
a. Objective – events control the narrative composition and are information
actual happenings in real life • Examples (Genre): biographies, reports, journal articles,
b. Subjective – writer controls the narration of events and the textbooks, non-fiction books, newspaper and magazine articles,
whole story is the product of the author’s imagination directions, essays, speeches, user manuals (how-to guides),
and government documents (driver’s license test booklet)
Elements
a. Setting – where the action happens and indicates Elements (each makes its own demands on the reader)
background of the story a. Description – the author lists characteristics, features, and
b. Characters – define personalities and must be living people examples to describe a subject (For example)
in whose existence we can believe b. Sequence – lists items or events in numerical or chronological
c. Action / Plot – move through a series of related events and order (First, Second, Thid, Next, Then, Finally)
movements must be in a coherent manner to some definite c. Comparison – explains how two or more things are alike or
outcome different (Different, In contrast, Alike, Same as, On the other
hand)
Motion and Time – movement of a series of incidents follows the d. Cause & Effect – explains one or more causes and the resulting
order of time (chronological arrangements) effect/s (Reasons why, If, Then, As a result, Therefore, Because)
– series of events must have significant relation to e. Problem & Solution – states a problem and lists one or more
each other (one thing must lead to another) possible solutions for the problem (Problem is, Dilemma is,
Puzzle is, Solve this by)
Point of View
a. POV of the Main Character Exposition – the expository plan must be built for progress and must
b. POVE of the Observer proceed in an orderly manner
c. POV of the Omniscience - From old to the new
- From simple to complex
Dialogue - makes the action more vivid and the characters more - From known to the unknown
lifelike - From specific to general/from general to specific
- not just a transcript of what people say - From less important to the more important
- must be carefully planned and organized to develop a point
or issue Method (Rhetorical Pattern)
- must give an impression of naturalness
- must give the impression of the speech of the particular
individual because people have different mannerisms,
C. PERSUASIVE TEXTS how Americans think using his students’ compositions. Thus, Kaplan’s
• Try to persuade or get a reader to agree with the writer’s thought patterns were born.
thoughts and opinions With Kaplan’s thought patterns was the birth of contrastive rhetoric
• Examples: Campaign materials, advertisements, and editorials which holds that people in different cultures organize their ideas differently.
• Informs, explains, convinces, presents a position, evaluates, As shown in Figure 1, the following are Kaplan’s representation of though
refutes, or persuades (same as argumentative) patterns through language:
• Examples (Genre): letters, editorials, advertisements, essays, English (including the Germanic languages such as German, Dutch,
and compositions (same as argumentative) Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish) is portrayed by Kaplan graphically as a
downward arrow. This style of communication is said to be linear, straight,
ARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS and direct. The main statement and supporting statements follow in a
• Presents arguments about both sides of an issue hierarchical arrangement, but this directness may be viewed by other
• Counter-argument – an argument to refute earlier arguments cultural groups as abrupt or inappropriate.
and give weight to the actual position or stand The Semitic languages (for example, Arabic or Hebrew) are viewed
• Argumentative Essay – require writers to investigate a topic; to have their thoughts expressed in a series of parallel ideas, both positive
collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a and negative symbolized by a zig-zag line. Coordination is valued over
position on the topic in a concise manner subordination. For example, in synonymous parallelism, the first part of the
sentence is balanced by the statement or idea presented in the second
D. LITERARY / POETIC TEXTS part. The example from Kaplan's work reads: 'His descendants will be
mighty in the land, and the generation of the upright will be blessed'.
• Expresses ideas both fictional and nonfictional in creative and
Another example is in antithesis parallelism in which the idea expressed in
other non-standard ways
the first part of the sentence is contrasted in the second part to give more
• Characteristics: Poetic intention, Free style, Use of literary
emphasis for the first part. Kaplan provides this example: 'For the Lord
figures, Subjective, Language used, Entertaining, and Fictional
knoweth the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked shall perish'.
• Examples (Genre): free verse, pattern poem, haiku, acrostic
The Oriental languages (Languages of Asia including the
poem, cinquain, diamante, and limerick
Philippines) are indirect, portrayed by Kaplan as spiral. A topic is not
addressed but viewed from various perspectives working around the point.
E. DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS
Hence, some Filipinos are viewed to be repetitive in the sense that they
• Provides words in such a way that a picture is formed in the
tend to go back to what has been said for more than twice.
reader’s mind
The Romance languages (including French, Italian, Romanian, and
• Examples: Catalogues, Poems, and Stories
Spanish) are symbolized by a a zig-zag line but with the lines not being
parallel to each other. Communication in these languages often times
digresses or moves away from the main point. In addition, extra ideas are
On Language and Culture introduced to add to the richness of the central idea. One is encouraged to
Aside from the impact of an organization or discipline to writing, the hear or read an argument for instance, from its beginning till its conclusion
impact of cultural thought patterns should also be considered especially in to fully understand what is being communicated.
understanding cross-cultural communication. In 1966, Robert Kaplan The Russian language is represented by non-parallel zig-zag lines,
compared the thought patterns of his students who were from different but with even more digressions which can be better indicated with a
nationalities and arrived at a hypothesis on thought patterns. In the essay of dashed or broken line pattern. Although Kaplan’s thought patterns may not
his students, Kaplan tried to trace the way for instance Chinese think and be absolute, this idea has influenced a number of research that tried to
verify or contradict Kaplan’s concept. In line with communication, it is Sources of Misunderstanding
important to follow what is being communicated through the language used a. Ambiguity - Lack of explicitness on the part of the speaker in the
and how it is used displayed in the so-called linguistic features of a specific form of problematic reference and ambiguous semantics in which
writing, hence, the text types. an utterance is open to different interpretations
b. Performance-related Misunderstanding - Slips of the tongue and
mishearing which may be due to utterances spoken quickly and

Coping With The Challenges Of unclearly

c. Language-related Misunderstanding - Ungrammaticality of
Intercultural Communication sentences
d. Gaps in world knowledge - Gaps in content rather than language
• Has different languages - leads to miscommunication and e. Local context - Turns and the turns within sequences produced by
misunderstanding the participants themselves, and the orientation of the participants
When we are communicating with people who are very as well as the repair moves that follow the displayed understanding
different from us, it is very difficult to know how to draw
inferences about what they mean, and so it is impossible to Three Approaches to Intercultural Communication
depend on shared knowledge and background for confidence in
our interpretation (p.22) (Scollon and Scollon (1995))
• Lack of shared knowledge & beliefs, Cultural Diversity – more
complicated to make correct inferences or interpretation of
meanings
• Ownership of English – belongs to those who use it as a native or
home language, or to those who use it as an auxiliary language

Reminder:
1. New varieties of English have evolved for communal purposes
2. They are influenced by the local culture and its speakers.
3. Misunderstanding in intercultural communication may not always be
caused by verbal utterances.
4. Wrong interpretation of the non-verbal code.

Reasons for Misunderstanding

a. Speech perturbations
b. Poorly managed turn-taking
c. Non-aligned “parallel talk”

Meierkord (2000), cited by Kaur (2016)

Communication in English as a lingua franca (ELF) is “a form of
intercultural communication characterized by cooperation rather than
misunderstanding” (p. 135)
Handshake Implications
- Firm handshake • To broaden our horizon, we have to become aware of cultural
- Free hand should not be in the pocket identities and backgrounds
- a sign of respect to grasp the right arm with the left hand when • All cultures are equal
shaking hands • No culture is superior or inferior to another
- • It is relevant to understand cultural diversity for better
Soft handshake, Brisk and light, One or two up and down understanding and appreciation
movement
• We need to learn to live with other people, recognizing and
France Salut – Hi, Hello, Bye
Bonjour – Good Morning respecting diversities in languages, lifestyles, ways of thinking,
Bonsoir – Good Evening speaking, and behaving.
Firm and brief, conveying confidence and reliability
Accompanied by a slight bow
Greet male counterparts with a firm handshake,
accompanied by a slight nod of the head
Germany When being introduced to a woman, wait to see if she
extends her hand
Guten Tag – Hello/Hallo
Guten Morgen – Good Morning
Guten Abend – Good Evening
Limp and with little or no eye contact; arm firmly extended
Some Japanese bow and shake hands
Japan The bow is a highly regarded greeting to show respect and
is appreciated
Konnichiwa - Hi, Hello
Men shake hands when formally meeting with other
Middle East men
Free hand placed on the forearm of the other person
Done with everyone present at a business meeting
or social occasion; Shake hands again when leaving.
Singapore
Firm handshake; may bow slightly as they shake
your hand.
Namaste - "I bow to thee” or “I honor the godhead
India
within.”
Aloha - Hello
Hawaii
Mahalo - Thank you
Selamat Pagi – Good Morning (00:01 – 11:00)
Selamat Siang – Good Afternoon (11:00 – 15:00)
Indonesia
Selamat Sore – Good Evening (15:00 – 17:00)
Selamat Malam – Good Night (18:00 – 24:00)
Cambodia Head is like in prayer position with bowing of head
Malaysia Right hand in the left chest