STUDY CENTRE

CHAPTER - 05
ECOSYSTEM

• An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals and other organisms, as well as weather
and landscape, work together to form a functional unit of nature. Thus an ecosystem consists of all
the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact.
• Ecosystem is an open system, having input and output.
• The word Ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley.
• Father of Indian Ecosystem Ecology - Ramdeo Misra
• Ecosystem varies greatly in size - from a small pond to a large forest or a sea.
• Entire biosphere can be considered as a global ecosystem which consists of all local ecosystems on
earth.
• Ecosystem can be classified into two basic categories :
Terrestrial and the Aquatic

Ecosystems

Terrestrial Aquatic
Eg. Forest, grassland, Eg. Pond, lake, wetland,
desert river, estuary, ocean

Ecosystems can also be classified into Natural and Anthropogenic (Man made)

Ecosystems

Natural Anthropogenic
Eg. Forest, Grassland, Eg. Crop field, Garden,
Desert, Tundra, Ocean, Orchard, Aquarium,
Coral reef, Hydrothermal vent, Reservoir, Township
Mangrove
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 NEET 2025 LECTURE NOTE - BIOLOGY [SECOND YEAR]

Ecosystem - Structure and Function

Structure
Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical structure that is characteristic for
each type of ecosystem.
1. Stratification of a community depicts vertical layering of the vegetation.
Different layers are occupied by different species. The vertical stratification provides physical
structure to the plant community in which many forms of plant and animal life are adapted to live in.
For eg. A well developed forest ecosystem exhibits a highly stratified structure, consisting of several
layers of vegetation. These layers include the canopy, the understory tree layer, the shrub layer and
the herb layer.
2. Species composition : Identification and enumeration of plant and animal species.
Components of Ecosystem
An ecosystem is formed of two components

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

Biotic
Abiotic
Physical (Climatic)
Producer Consumer Decomposer (Temperature, light,
soil, humidity, pressure)

Photosynthetic Heterotrophs
Reducers or
autotrophs directly or
Saprobes
(Plants, algae) indirectly depends
take energy from Inorganic
on autotrophs organic remains (H2O gases, Minerals)
(Fungi, Bactria)

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Organic
Herbivores Primary canivores
Secondary carnivores (Components of
(Protozoa (Fishes, insects, (Lion, Large fishes dead body, excreta)
Grasshopper frog, wolf) Owl, Man)
Catterpillar
Cow)

Eg. Pond Ecosystem :

A pond is a shallow water body. The abiotic component is the water with all the dissolved inorganic and
organic substances and the rich soil deposit at the bottom of the pond. Other abiotic factors are
temperature, light, day-length and other climatic conditions. These regulate the rate of function of the
entire pond. The photoautotrophs include the phytoplankton, algae and the floating, submerged and
marginal plants found at the edges. The consumers are represented by the zooplankton, the free
swimming and bottom dwelling forms. The decomposers are the fungi, bacteria and flagellates especially

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abundant in the bottom of the pond. It performs unidirectional flow of energy. This system can performs
all the functions of any ecosystem and of the biosphere as a whole.
The component of the ecosystem are seen to function as a unit :
Functions of Ecosystem
(i) Productivity
(ii) Decomposition
(iii) Energy flow
(iv) Nutrient cycling
I. PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity refers to the rate of biomass production. It requires a constant solar input. Productivity are
two types.
1. Primary productivity - Amount of biomass or organic matter producer per unit area. It expressed in gm/m2
The amount of biomass produced per unit area over a period by producers. It is expressed in terms of
weight (gm-2 year-1) or Energy (Kcalm-2 year-1)
Gross primary productivity (GPP) - Rate of production of biomass or accumulation of energy by
green plants during photosynthesis per unit area per unit time. GPP depends on the chlorophyll content,
availability of sunlight and nutrients.
Net primary productivity (NPP) - The amount of biomass which has been stored by green plants. It
serves as the food of herbivores and decomposers.
NPP = GPP - R (R is energy loss through respiration)
2. Secondary productivity
The amount of biomass synthesized by consumers per unit area per unit time. Consumers utilize the
produced food for their respiration and also convert the food matter to different tissues by overall
process. So secondary productivity is not divided into ‘Gross’ and ‘net’.
“The annual net primary productivity of the biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons ;
Terrestrial - 115 billion tons ; Aquatic - 55 billion tons”.
II. DECOMPOSITION
It is the breakdown of complex organic matters present in dead remains into simple inorganic
compounds. The organisms carrying out decomposition are known as decomposers. They are
microbes and detritivores.
The organic matter from dead materials is known as detritus. Its decomposition takes place through
the following steps.
Fragmentation - Conversion of detritus in to smaller particles by detritivores (earthworm, termites).
Due to fragmentation the surface area of detritus particles increased.
Leaching - Water soluble substances dissolved by water removes to the soil horizon. It helps to
maintain a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of salts on soil surface.
Catabolism - Chemical conversion of detritus into simpler inorganic substances. Bacteria and fungi
can do this by their catabolic enzymes. The phenomenon of incorporation of nutrients in the biomass
of decomposers and detritivores known as immobilisation.

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 NEET 2025 LECTURE NOTE - BIOLOGY [SECOND YEAR]

Humification - formation of a colloidal organic matter from detritus, named humus. It is a dark
amorphous substance. Humus is resistant to microbial action and undergoes extremely slow
decomposition. It serves as a reservoir of nutrients. Cellulose, lignin, tannins, resin etc. are the
main components of humus.
Mineralisation - Formation of simple inorganic substances like CO2, H2O, minerals etc. from detritus.
They formed along with simple soluble organic substances by the action of saprophytic microbes.

Humification
Environmental Humus
conditions
Detritus
fragmentation
catabolism Mineralisation
leaching CO2, H2O
Minerals

In detritis In soil

Factors Affecting Decomposition

1. Chemical nature of detritus - slow if contains more cellulose, chitin, tannin etc. Rapid in detritus is
rich in nitrogen and water soluble substance like sugar.
2. Temperature - Temperature above 25oC is optimum. Under low temperature (10oC) decomposition is
very slow.
3. Moisture - Optimum moisture helps fast decomposition. Reduction in moisture and excess reduces
the rate. Warm or hydrated environment inhibits decomposition.
4. Aeration - Reduced aeration slow down the rate of decomposition.
5. Soil pH - Detritivores are fewer in acidic soil. Detritivores are abundant in neutral and slightly alkaline
soil. Microbes are rich in neutral and slightly acidic soil. So more decomposition possible in neutral pH.
Standing Crop
Amount of living biomass in each trophic level at any given period. It express in the form of
number or weight (fresh weight or dry weight) of organisms per unit area. Forest ecosystem
has high standing crop but it is low in grass land or arid ecosystems.
III. ENERGY FLOW
In ecosystem the energy flow is unidirectional. The source of all energy is solar energy. 50% of incident
solar energy is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). In photosynthesis solar energy changed
into chemical or potential energy with which biomass is built up. The energy flow in ecosystem obeys
the first two laws of thermodynamics.
Ist law - Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can transfer from one form to another.
IInd law - No transfer of energy occurs unless and until it is accompanied by dissipation of energy.
The transfer of food energy is accompanied by degradation and loss of energy as heat. Only a
small fraction of energy, 10% is transfered in biomass (Lindeman - 1942). Under favourable conditions
1 - 5% of solar radiation or 2-10% of PAR captured by producers. The trapped energy is GPP. It’s
20% is utilised by producers in their own respiration. So NPP is 0.8 - 4% of solar energy or 1.6 - 8%

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of PAR. The NPP is available to herbivores. After utilisation 10% energy transferred from one trophic
level to other (ten percent law). The remaining unutilised NPP changed into detritus. It is the energy
source of decomposers.
In some ecosystems more energy flows through the detritus food chain than the grazing food chain.

Incident Solar radiation (100%)

50% PAR Absorbed - gas, water vapour

Reflected - Clouds
Scattered - Dust
Not utilised (45 - 49%)

Photosynthesis (GPP)
(1 - 5%) (2 - 10% of PAR)
Loss in respiration
(20% of GPP)

NPP (0.8 -4%) (1.6 - 8% of PAR)

900 KCl
at at
90 KCl t 9 KCl
He He He
a
Producer biomass Herbivores Ist carnivores IInd carnivores
(1000 KCl) (100 KCl) (10 KCl) (1 KCl)

A) FOOD CHAIN

Sequence of trophic levels through which food travels while passing from producer to ultimate consumer.
Based on the source of their food, organisms occupy a specific place in food chain that is known as
their trophic level. In aquatic ecosystem GFC is the major conduit for energy flow. Food chains are two
types.

1. Predator - prey (grazing food chain) (GFC)

Common type starts from producers. Producers eaten by herbivores, herbivores by carnivores and
latter by higher order carnivores.

Grass  Rabbit  Snake  Hawk

2. Detritus Food Chain (DFC) : In terrestrial ecosystem, more fractions of energy flows through DFC.

Starts from detritus. Mainly contains scavengers and decomposers.

Detritus  Earthworm  Sparrow  Hawk

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 NEET 2025 LECTURE NOTE - BIOLOGY [SECOND YEAR]

B. FOOD WEB (FOOD NET)

Interlocking of two or more food chains at different trophic levels. The consumer has choice of two or
more type of food. Food web is never straight. It provides alternate source of food. Food web provides
stability to ecosystem because no species is exploited beyond the degree of its recovery.

C. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

The graphical representation of various ecological parameters at the trophic levels. Producers at
the base, top consumers at the apex and intermediate levels in between. Quantity at each level is
indicated by the length of the bar, in the graph. So the pyramids also known as bar diagrams.
Ecological pyramids were first prepared by Elton (1927). Hence called eltonian pyramids. Number,
biomass and energy are the common parameters using in pyramids.

C1 Pyramid of number

Pyramid based on number of individuals in each trophic level. The size of individuals not take into
consideration. The pyramids may be 3 types.

In tree dominant ecosystem, pyramid of number may be inverted or spindle shaped.

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C2 Pyramid of Biomass

Pyramid based on the amount of biomass. In terrestrial ecosystem it is usually upright but in aquatic
ecosystem it is inverted.

C3 Pyramid of energy
Graphic representation of energy per unit area. According to ten percent law, 90% energy loss from
one trophic level to other. So these pyramids are always upright.

Any species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time. Energy
at a lower trophic level is always more than at higher level. So pyramid of energy is always upright.
Limitations :
1. Represent only food chain rather than a food web.
2. Food chain is almost never exist in nature
3. It does not take into around the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
4. Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the
ecosystem.

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