KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN,

MUMBAI REGION

STUDENT STUDY
SUPPORT MATERIAL
FOR CBSE BOARD EXAMS 2023-24

CLASS – 10th SUBJECT - SCIENCE

STUDY MATERIAL INCLUDES

✓ Mind maps
✓ Notes ( descriptions of topics)
✓ Required labelled diagrams

PRACTICE QUESTIONS BANK

✓ Multiple choice questions
✓ Very short answer questions
✓ Short answer questions
✓ Assertion-reason questions
✓ Long answer questions
✓ Case based (CCT) questions
 GUIDANCE

SMT. SONA SETH

Deputy Commissioner
KVS, MUMBAI REGION

Sh. Samaj V. Joglekar Sh. Rayamallu Sokalla Sh. Sumit Mehra Smt. Alice P. Kachchap
Assistant Commissioner Assistant Commissioner Assistant Commissioner Assistant Commissioner

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN, MUMBAI REGION

CO-ORDINATOR

SH. FEROZ KHAN SMT. SHABANA KHAN

PRINCIPAL, KV AJNI, NAGPUR PRINCIPAL, KV LONAVALA

COMPILATION & EDITORIAL TEAM

• DR. DEEPESH (TGT-BIO) KV WCL, CHANDRAPUR
• MRS. SHIPRA MISHRA, KV KAMPTEE
• MRS. RUPA SIDHU (TGT-BIO) KV NO.1 VASCO DA GAMA, GOA
• MS. SAUMYA NEERAJ (TGT-SCI) KVAURANGABAD CANTT
• MR. VIJAY MORE, KV RHE, PUNE
• MRS. SYED KEHKASHA, KV AFS OJHAR
• MRS. SUNITA, KV2, AFS, PUNE
• MRS. PALLAVI SINHA, KV AMBARNATH SHIFT 1
• MRS. ARCHANA R. BHANDARE (TGT-BIO) KV NO.1 DEVLALI, NASIK
ALL THE TGTs SCIENCE OF KVS, MUMBAI REGION
 CHAPTER: 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
 Chemical Reaction: A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more chemical substances, also called reactants, are converted to
one or more different chemical substances, known as products.

Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling Take lead nitrate solution in a test tube; Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask,
white flame (reaction between magnesium add potassium iodide solution to this, and add dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric
and oxygen present in the air) and changes then we observed that lead (II) iodide and acid to this, and then we observed that
into a white powder of magnesium oxide. potassium nitrate is formed. hydrogen gas is evolved.

CHANGE IN STATE CHANGE IN COLOR EVOLUTION OF GAS

TEMPERATURE INCREASE

Chemical Equations: Chemical equations are symbolic representations of chemical reactions in which the reactantsand the products are
expressed in terms of their respective chemical formulae.
Rules for writing chemical equation:
1. The reactants written on the left-hand side of the equation and the products of reaction are written on the right-hand side of the equation.
2. If reactants or products are more than one than add A plus (+) sign between more than one reactant and products.
3. In between the reactants and the products an arrow sign (⟶) is inserted to show whichway the reaction is occurring.
A + B ⟶ C + D
Reactants Products
4. In order to describe a reaction that occurs in both forward and backward directions, the symbol ⇄ is used.
5. The symbol solid(s), liquid(l), gas(g), aqueous solution(aq) added at bottom of the symbol of chemical compound in brackets.
6. If reactant or a product in the form of a precipitate which is insoluble in the solution Than ↓ symbol is written next to the chemical
compound.
7. The Greek letter delta in its capitalized form (Δ) is used to state that an input of heat energy is required by the reaction.

↓
Balanced Chemical Equations:
The law of conservation of mass that mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. The total mass of the elements
present in the products and reactants has to be equal. There are 7 steps to balance chemical reactions.

Step 1: To balance a chemical equation, first draw boxes around each reactant and product and do not make any changes to it.
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
Step 2: List the number of atoms of each element present in the unbalanced equation.

Step 3: We should always choose a compound with a maximum number of atoms in it, either on reactants side or products
side.
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
Here we select Fe3O4 which contains 4 oxygen atoms on the right-hand side.
As we cannot make H2O to H2O4 in order to increase oxygen atoms, so we make it to 4H2O.
Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
Step 4: Balance other atoms now like Fe and H.
Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
Atoms of H are 8 on L.H.S and 2 ON R.H.S, so multiply H2 on R.H.S with 4, so we get
Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
 Step 5: Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
Pick the last element Fe from the above partly balanced equation. Fe are 3 on R.H.S and 1 on L.H.S, so multiply 3 on L.H.S
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
Step 6:
Check the equation whether it is balanced or not by counting the number of atoms on L.H.S and R.H.S
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
This is the balanced equation.
Step 7: Indicate the physical state of all the reactants and products by writing symbols in brackets as subscripts on the right
corner below the formula.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

1. Combination Reaction: A reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single new substance. Combination reactions
can also be called synthesis reactions.

i. CaO(s) + H2O (l) Ca (OH)2(aq)

z
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
(Calcium hydroxide) (Calcium carbonate)
ii. C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(aq) 6CO2(aq) + 6H2O(l) + energy
(Glucose) (Carbon di oxide)

2. Decomposition Reaction: A reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances. Most decomposition
reactions require an input of energy in the form of heat, light, or electricity.
Heat
i. 2FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s) + SO2 (g) + SO3 (g)
(Ferrous sulphate (Ferric oxide)
ii. CaCO3(s) Heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(Limestone) (Quick lime)
iii. 2AgCl(s Sunlight 2Ag(s) + Cl (g)
2
Silver Chloride (Silver)
iv. 2Pb(NO3)2(s) Heat 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(Lead nitrate) (Lead oxide) (Nitrogen dioxide) (Oxygen)
3. Displacement Reaction: A chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces aless reactive element from its aqueous salt
solution. Examples of single displacement reactions

i. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

(Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate)
ii. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(Copper sulphate) (Zinc sulphate)
iii. Pb(s) + CuCl2(aq) PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
(Copper chloride) (Lead chloride)
4. Double Displacement Reaction: A chemical reaction in which ions gets exchanged betweentwo reactants which form a new compound is
called a double displacement reaction.

• Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

(Sodium sulphate) (Barium chloride) (Barium sulphate) (Sodium chloride)

5. Precipitation reaction: A precipitation reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs in aqueoussolution and form precipitates. The
insoluble salt that falls out of the solution is known as the precipitate. It can occur when two solutions containing different salts are
mixed, and a cation/anion pair in the resulting combined solution forms an insoluble salt. For example,
Aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO3) is added to a solution containing potassium chloride (KCl), andthe precipitation of a white solid, silver
chloride (AgCl), is observed:
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
6. Exothermic chemical reactions: Reactions in which heat is released along withthe formation of products are called exothermic reactions.
For examples:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (aq) 6CO2 (aq) + 6H2O (l) + energy(Glucose)

Endothermic chemical reactions: A reaction that the system absorbs energyfrom its surrounding in the form of heat.
When ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is dissolved in water, an endothermic reaction takes place.The salt dissociates into ammonium (NH4+)
and chloride (Cl–) ions. The chemical equation canbe written as follows:
NH4Cl (s) + H2O (l) + Heat ⟶ NH4Cl (aq)
N2 + O2 2NO
Other Endothermic Processes:
The melting of ice to form water.
Evaporation of liquid water, forming water vapour.
Sublimation of solid CO2.
The baking of bread.
7. REDOX REACTIONS: A reduction-oxidation or redox reaction is a type of chemical reactionin which reduction and oxidation occur
at the same time.
OXIDATION: If substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to, be oxidized. Forexample:
2Cu + O2 2CuO
REDUCTION: If substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it is said to, be reduced. Forexample:
CuO +H2 Cu+H2O
REDOX REACTIONS: If one reactant gets oxidised while other gets reduced during a reaction.Such reactions are called oxidation-
reduction reaction or Redox reaction.

Rancidity: It refers to the bad smell and taste of food, which occurs due to the oxidation of oils or fats. Food becomes unhealthy to eat if
it is rancid in nature. Methods of prevention
 Rancidity can be prevented by mixing some anti-oxidants to the food items.
 Use tight containers to cut the supply of air, in the food packet.
 The leftover food can be kept in the refrigerator
 Nitrogen gas can be flushed in the food packet. Unfit for consumption.
 CHAPTER 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Content
Chemical reactions: Chemical equation, Balanced chemical equation, Implications of a balanced
chemical equation, types of chemical reactions: combination, decomposition, displacement, double
displacement, precipitation, endothermic, exothermic reactions, oxidation and reduction.

Chemical Reaction: The transformation of chemical substance into another chemical

substance is known as chemical reaction in which one or more substances, also called
reactants, are converted to one or more different substances, known as products.
Examples:-
1. Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame and changes into a white powder.
This powder is magnesium oxide. It is formed due to the reaction between magnesium
and oxygen present in the air.
2. Take lead nitrate solution in a test tube; add potassium iodide solution to this, and then
we observed that lead (II) iodide and potassium nitrate is formed.
3. Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask, add dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid
to this, and then we observed that hydrogen gas is evolved.
From the above three activities, any observation as stated below helps us to
determine whether a chemical reaction has taken place-
 Change in state
 Change in color
 Evolution of gas
 Change in temperature.
Chemical Equations:
Chemical equations are symbolic representations of chemical reactions in which the reactants
and the products are expressed in terms of their respective chemical formulae.
Rules for writing chemical equation:
Certain rules have to be followed while writing a chemical equation.

1. The reactants taking part in the reaction are

written in terms of their symbols or molecular
formulae on the left-hand side of the equation.
2. A plus (+) sign is added between the formulae
of the reactants.
3. The products of reaction are written in terms
of their symbols or molecular formulae onthe
right-hand side of the equation.
4. A plus (+) sign is added between the formulae of the products.
5. In between the reactants and the products an arrow sign (⟶) is inserted to show which
way the reaction is occurring.
A + B ⟶ C + D
Reactants Products
In this hypothetical equation, A and B are the reactants, and C and D are the products. The arrow
indicates that the reaction proceeds towards the formation of C and D.
Representing the Direction of the Chemical Reaction
The reactants and the products can be separated by one of the following four symbols:

 In order to describe a net forward reaction, the symbol → is used.

 In order to describe a net backward reaction, the symbol is used.
 In order to describe a reaction that occurs in both forward and backward directions, the
symbol ⇄ is used.
 In order to describe a state of chemical equilibrium, the symbol ⇌ is used.
Multiple entities on either side of the reaction symbols describe above are separated from each
other with the help of the + symbol in a chemical equation. It can be noted that the → symbol,
when used in a chemical equation, is often read as gives rise to or yields.

Representing the Physical States of the Reacting Entities

These symbols may be one of the following:

 The symbol (s) describes an entity in the solid state

 The symbol (l) denotes the liquid state of an entity
 The symbol (g) implies that the entity is in the gaseous state.
 The (aq) symbol corresponding to an entity in a chemical equation denotes an aqueous
solution of that entity.
In some reactions, a reactant or a product may be in the form of a precipitate which is insoluble
in the solution that the reaction is taking place in. The ↓ symbol is written next to the chemical
formula of these entities to describe them as precipitates.

Representing the Input of Energy in a Chemical Equation:

The Greek letter delta in its capitalized form (Δ) is used to state that an input of heat energy is
required by the reaction.
An example for which is represented below:
The reaction between hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (1)
Reactants Products
The reacting entities are written on the left-hand side (2 molecules of hydrogen and one molecule
of oxygen) whereas the products are written on the right-hand side (2 molecules of water is
formed) of the chemical equation.
Equation (1) divided by 2 both sides and we get
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O
Reactant Product
The reacting entities are written on the left-hand side (1 molecules of hydrogen and half
molecule of oxygen) whereas the products are written on the right-hand side (1 molecules of
water) of the chemical equation.
It can also be observed that there are coefficients assigned to each of the symbols of the
corresponding reactants and products. These coefficients of entities in a chemical equation are
the exact value of the stoichiometric number for that entity.
Balanced Chemical Equations:
The law of conservation of mass that mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction. The total mass of the elements present in the products of a chemical reaction has to be
equal to the total mass of the elements present in the reactants.

EXAMPLE 1:
Write the chemical equation for the formation of magnesium oxide.
Step 1: Magnesium burns in oxygen to give magnesium oxide. Here, the reactants are
magnesium and oxygen. The product is magnesium oxide.
Step 2: Thus, the word equation is
Magnesium + Oxygen ⟶ Magnesium oxide
Step 3: Replacing the names with symbols and formulae, we get the chemical equation as
Mg + O2 ⟶ MgO
Reactants Products
Step 4: The numbers of atoms of the elements are
Element Number of atoms in LHS Number of atoms in RHS

Mg 1 1

O 2 1

To balance oxygen on both sides, multiply RHS by 2, i.e.,

Mg + O2 ⟶ 2MgO
Now, the number of oxygen atoms is balanced but the number of magnesium atoms is not.
Therefore, multiply magnesium on the LHS by 2. Thus, the equation becomes
2Mg + O2 ⟶ 2MgO
this is the balanced chemical equation.

EXAMPLE 2:
The word-equation represented as –
Zinc + Sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
The above word-equation may be represented by the following chemical equation –
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2

Let us examine the number of atoms of different elements on both sides of the arrow.
Element Number of atoms in reactants Number of atoms in products (RHS)
(LHS)
Zn 1 1
H 2 2
S 1 1
O 4 4

As the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the arrow is a balanced
chemical equation.
EXAMPLE 3:
Let us try to balance the following chemical equation –
Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2

Step I: To balance a chemical equation, first draw boxes around each formula. Do not change
anything inside the boxes while balancing the equation.
Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2

Step II: List the number of atoms of different elements present in the unbalanced equation.
Element Number of atoms in reactants Number of atoms in products (RHS)
(LHS)
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4

Step III:
Element Number of atoms in reactants Number of atoms in products (RHS)
(LHS)
Fe 1x3 3
H 2x4 2x4
O 1x4 4

Balanced equation:
3Fe + 4 H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2

As the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the arrow is a balanced
chemical equation.

List some Examples of Chemical Equations.

A few examples of chemical equations are listed in bulleted text below.

 PCl5 + H2O → H3PO4 + HCl

 SnO2 + H2 → H2O + Sn
 TiCl4 + H2O → TiO2 + HCl
 H3PO4 + KOH → K3PO4 + H2O
 Na2S + AgI → NaI + Ag2S
 Fe + CuCl2 ⟶ FeCl3 + Cu
 CaCl2 + AgNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + AgCl↓

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

1. Combination Reaction: A reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a

single new substance. Combination reactions can also be called synthesis reactions.
 1. CaO(s) + H2O (l) Ca (OH)2(aq)
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)
2. Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
(Calcium hydroxide) (Calcium carbonate)
3. C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
4. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
5. CH4(g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
6. C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(aq) 6CO2(aq) + 6H2O(l) + energy
(Glucose)

2. Decomposition Reaction: A reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more
simpler substances.

Most decomposition reactions require an input of energy in the form of heat, light, or electricity.

1. 2FeSO4(s) Heat Fe2O3(s) + SO2 (g) + SO3 (g)

(Ferrous sulphate) (Ferric oxide)
2. CaCO3(s) Heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(Limestone) (Quick lime)
3. 2AgCl(s) Sunlight 2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
4. 2Pb(NO3)2(s) Heat 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(Lead nitrate) (Lead oxide) (Nitrogen dioxide) (Oxygen)
5. 2AgBr(s) Sunlight 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)

3. Displacement Reaction: A chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a

less reactive element from its aqueous salt solution.

1. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

(Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate)
2. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(Copper sulphate) (Zinc sulphate)
3. Pb(s) + CuCl2(aq) PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
(Copper chloride) (Lead chloride)
4. Double Displacement Reaction: A chemical reaction in which ions gets exchanged between
two reactants which form a new compound is called a double displacement reaction.

1. Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

(Sodium sulphate) (Barium chloride) (Barium sulphate) (Sodium chloride)

5. Precipitation reaction: A precipitation reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs in aqueous

solution and form precipitates. The insoluble salt that falls out of the solution is known as the
precipitate. It can occur when two solutions containing different salts are mixed, and a
cation/anion pair in the resulting combined solution forms an insoluble salt. For example,
Aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO3) is added to a solution containing potassium chloride (KCl), and
the precipitation of a white solid, silver chloride (AgCl), is observed:
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

EXOTHERMIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS: Reactions in which heat is released along with

the formation of products are called exothermic reactions. For examples:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (aq) 6CO2 (aq) + 6H2O (l) + energy
(Glucose)

ENDOTHERMIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS: A reaction that the system absorbs energy

from its surrounding in the form of heat.
When ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is dissolved in water, an endothermic reaction takes place.
The salt dissociates into ammonium (NH4+) and chloride (Cl–) ions. The chemical equation can
be written as follows:
NH4Cl (s) + H2O (l) + Heat ⟶ NH4Cl (aq)
N2 + O2 2NO
Other Endothermic Processes:
(i) The melting of ice to form water.
(ii) Evaporation of liquid water, forming water vapour.
(iii) Sublimation of solid CO2.
(iv) The baking of bread.

OXIDATION: Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion. If

substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to, be oxidised. Forexample:
2Cu + O2 2CuO
REDUCTION: Reduction refers to the gain of electrons by amolecule, atom, or ion. If
substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it is said to, be reduced. Forexample:
CuO +H2 Cu+H2O

REDOX REACTIONS: A reduction-oxidation or redox reaction is a type of chemical reaction

in which reduction and oxidation occur at the same time, if one reactant gets oxidised while other
gets reduced during a reaction.Such reactions are called oxidation-reduction reaction or Redox
reaction.
OX
Heat
CuO +H2 Cu + H2O

RED

Some other examples of Redox reactions are:

1. ZnO + C Zn + CO

OX

ZnO + C Zn +CO

RED
 CHAPTER - 2

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Content:
 Their definitions in terms of furnishing of H+ and OH– ions
 General properties, examples and uses
 Neutralization
 Concept of pH scale (Definition relating to logarithm not required)
 Importance of pH in everyday life
 Preparation and uses of Sodium Hydroxide, Bleaching powder, Baking soda, Washing
soda and Plaster of Paris.
Acids: Acids are sour in taste, turn blue litmus red, and dissolve in water to release H+ ions.
Example: Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Acetic Acid (CH3COOH), Nitric Acid (HNO3) etc.
Properties of Acids:

 Acids have a sour taste.

 Turns blue litmus red.
 Acid solution conducts electricity.
 Release H+ ions in aqueous solution.

Types of Acids: Acids are divided into two types on the basis of their occurrence i.e., Natural
acids and Mineral acids.
(i) Natural Acids: Acids which are obtained from natural sources are called Natural Acids or
Organic Acids. Methanoic acid (HCOOH), Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Oxalic acid (C2H2O4) etc.
(ii) Mineral Acids: Acids that are prepared from minerals are known as Mineral Acids Example;
Inorganic acids, man-made acids or synthetic acid are also known as Mineral Acids. Hydrochloric
acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3), Carbonic acid (H2CO3) Phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) etc.
Chemical Properties of Acid:
(i) Reaction of acids with metal: Acids give hydrogen gas along with respective salt when they
react with a metal.
Examples: Hydrogen gas and zinc chloride are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc
metal.
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Test for Hydrogen Gas: The gas evolved after reaction of acid with metal can be tested by
bringing a lighted candle near it. If the gas bums with a pop sound, then it confirms the evolution
of hydrogen gas. Burning with pop sound is the characteristic test for hydrogen gas.
(ii) Reaction of acids with metal carbonate: Acids give carbon dioxide gas and respective salts
along with water when they react with metal carbonates.
Examples: Hydrochloric acid gives carbon dioxide gas, sodium chloride along with water when
reacts with sodium carbonate.
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
(iii) Reaction of acid with hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates): Acids give carbon dioxide
gas, respective salt and water when they react with metal hydrogen carbonate.
Example: Sulphuric acid gives sodium sulphate, Carbon dioxide gas and water when it reacts
with sodium bicarbonate.
2NaHCO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
TYPES OF ACIDS:
Strong Acids: An acid which is completely ionized in water and produces (H+) is called Strong
Acid.
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3)

Weak Acids: An acid which is partially ionized in water and thus produces a small amount ofhydrogen
ions (H+) is called a Weak Acid.
Example: Acetic acid (CH3COOH), Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Bases: Bases are bitter in taste, have soapy touch, turn red litmus blue and give hydroxide ions
(OH–) in aqueous solution.
Examples: Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) – NaOH, Calcium hydroxide – Ca (OH)2
Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) – (KOH)
Properties of Bases:

 Have a bitter taste.

 Soapy to touch.
 Turns red litmus blue.
 Conducts electricity in solution.
 Release OH– ions in Aqueous Solution

Types of bases: Bases can be divided in two types – Water soluble and Water-insoluble.
The hydroxide of alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble in water. These are also known as
alkali. For example NaOH, Mg (OH)2, Ca(OH)2

Chemical properties of bases:

(i) Reaction of Base with Metals: Some alkali (base) reacts with metals like aluminium and
zinc, it produces salt and hydrogen gas.

Examples: Sodium hydroxide gives hydrogen gas and sodium zincate when reacts with zinc
metal.
2NaOH (aq) + Zn (s) Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H2 (g)

(ii) Reaction of Base with Oxides of Non-metals: when a base reacts with non-metal oxide,
both neutralize each other resulting respective salt and water.
Examples: Sodium hydroxide gives sodium carbonate and water when it reacts with carbon
dioxide.
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
(iii) Neutralisation Reaction: An acid neutralizes a base when they react with each other and
respective salt and water are formed.
Examples: Sodium chloride and water are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium
hydroxide (a strong base).
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
(iv)Reaction of Acid with Metal Oxides: Metal oxides are basic in nature. Thus, when an acid
reacts with a metal oxide both neutralize each other. In this reaction, the respective salt and water
are formed.
Examples: When an acid, such as hydrochloric acid, reacts with calcium oxide, neutralization
reaction takes place and calcium chloride, along with water is formed.
2HCl (aq) + CaO (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Salts: Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced after the neutralization reaction
between acid and base. Salts are electrically neutral. There are number of salts but sodium
chloride is the most common among them. Sodium chloride is also known as table salt or
common salt. Sodium chloride is used to enhance the taste of food.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Characteristics of salt:
  All salts are crystalline solid.
 Salts may be transparent or opaque.
 Most of the salts are soluble in water.
 Aqueous Solution of the salts conducts electricity. Melted salt also conduct electricity due to presence
of movable ions.
 The salt may be salty, sour, sweet, and bitter.
 Neutral salts are odourless.
 Salts can be colourless or coloured.

Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4), Calcium chloride (CaCl2),
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4), Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4)

Neutral, Acidic and Basic Salts:

(i) Neutral Salt: Salts produced because of reaction between a strong acid and strong base are
neutral in nature. The pH value of such salts solutions is equal to 7, i.e. neutral.
Example: Sodium chloride, Sodium sulphate. Potassium chloride, etc.
Sodium chloride (NaCl): It is formed after the reaction between hydrochloric acid (a strong
acid) and sodium hydroxide (a strong base).
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4): It is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide (a strong
base) and Sulphuric acid (a strong acid).
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Potassium Chloride (KCl): It is formed after the reaction between potassium hydroxide (a
strong base) and hydrochloric acid (a strong acid).
HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) KCl (aq) + H2O (l)
(ii) Acidic Salts: Salts which are formed after the reaction between a strong acid and weak base
are called Acidic salts. The pH value of acidic salt is lower than 7. For example: Ammonium
chloride, Ammonium sulphate etc.
Ammonium chloride is formed after reaction between hydrochloric acid (a strong acid) and
ammonium hydroxide (a weak base).
HCl (aq) + NH4OH (aq) NH4Cl (aq) + H2O (l)

Ammonium sulphate is formed after reaction between ammonium hydroxide (a weak base) and
Sulphuric acid (a strong acid).
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH4OH (aq) [NH4]2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
(iii) Basic Salts: Salts which are formed after the reaction between a weak acid and strong base
are called Basic Salts. For example; Sodium carbonates, Sodium acetate, etc.
Sodium carbonate is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide (a strong base) and
carbonic acid (a weak acid).
H2CO3 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2CO3 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Sodium acetate is formed after the reaction between a strong base, sodium hydroxide (a strong
base) and acetic acid, (a weak acid).
CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) CH3COONa (aq) + H2O (l)
pH Scale:

Strength of Acid and Base: Acids which dissociate completely and give hydrogen ion are called
Strong Acids. Similarly, bases which dissociate completely and give hydroxide ions are called
Strong Bases.
Mineral acids, such as hydrochloric acid, Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, etc. are dissociate
completely and give hydrogen ions hence, they are considered as strong acids. Since
inorganic acids do not dissociate completely, so they are weak acids.

Importance of pH everyday life:

(i) pH in our digestive system: Dilute HCl (Hydrochloric acid) helps in digestion of food
(proteins) in our stomach. Excess acid in stomach causes acidity (indigestion). Antacids like
magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] also known as milk of magnesia and sodium hydrogen
carbonate (baking soda) are used to neutralize excess acid.
(ii) Tooth decay caused by acids: The bacteria present in our mouth converts the sugar into
acids. When the pH of acid formed in the mouth falls below 5.5, tooth-decaying starts. The
excess acid has to be removed by cleaning the teeth with good quality toothpaste because these
kinds of toothpaste are alkaline in nature.
(iii)
(iv) Soil of pH and plant growth: Most of the plants have a healthy growth when the soil has a
specific pH (close to 7) range which should be neither alkaline nor highly acidic.

Some Important Chemical Compounds

1. Common Salt (Sodium Chloride): Sodium chloride (NaCl) is also known as Common or
Table Salt. It is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. It is
a neutral salt. The pH value of sodium chloride is about 7. Sodium chloride is used to enhance
the taste of food. Sodium chloride is used in the manufacturing of many chemicals.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

2. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH): Sodium hydroxide is a strong base. It is also known as caustic
soda. It is obtained by the electrolytic decomposition of solution of sodium chloride (brine). In
the process of electrolytic decomposition of brine (aqueous solution of sodium chloride), brine
decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. In this process, chlorine is obtained at anode and
hydrogen gas is obtained at cathode as by products. This whole process is known as Chloro –
Alkali process.
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g)
3. Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2): Bleaching powder is also known as chloride of lime. It is a
solid and yellowish white in colour. Bleaching powder can be easily identified by the strong
smell of chlorine.
When calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) reacts with chlorine, it gives calcium oxychloride
(bleaching powder) and water is formed.
Ca (OH)2 (aq) + Cl2 (aq) CaOCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Aqueous solution of bleaching powder is basic in nature. The term bleach means removal of
colour. Bleaching powder is often used as bleaching agent. It works because of oxidation.
Chlorine in the bleaching powder is responsible for bleaching effect.

Use of Bleaching Powder:

 Bleaching powder is used as disinfectant to clean water, moss remover, weed killers, etc.
 Bleaching powder is used for bleaching of cotton in textile industry, bleaching of wood
pulp in paper industry.
 Bleaching powder is used as oxidizing agent in many industries, such as textiles industry,
paper industry, etc.

4. Baking Soda (NaHCO3): Baking soda is another important product which can be obtained
using byproducts of chlor – alkali process. The chemical name of baking soda is sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) or sodium bicarbonate.

Preparation Method: Baking soda is obtained by the reaction of brine with carbon dioxide and
ammonia. This is known as Solvay process.
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3

Properties of Sodium Bicarbonate:

 Sodium bicarbonate is white crystalline solid, but it appears as fine powder.
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate is amphoteric in nature.
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate is sparingly soluble in water.
 When baking soda is heated, it decomposes into sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and
water.
2NaHCO3 + heat → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
 Sodium carbonate formed after thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen carbonate
decomposes into sodium oxide and carbon dioxide on further heating.
Na2CO3 → Na2O + CO2

Use of Baking Soda:

 Baking soda is used in making of baking powder, which is used in cooking as it produces
carbon dioxide which makes the batter soft and spongy.
 Baking soda is used as an antacid.
 Baking soda is used in toothpaste which makes the teeth white and plaque free.
 Baking soda is used in cleansing of ornaments made of silver.
 Since sodium hydrogen carbonate gives carbon dioxide and sodium oxide on strong
heating, thus, it is used as a fire extinguisher.
 4. Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate)
Preparation Method: Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the thermal decomposition of
sodium hydrogen carbonate obtained by Solvay process.

NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3

2NaHCO3 + Heat → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

The sodium carbonate obtained in this process is dry. It is called Soda ash or anhydrous sodium
carbonate. Washing soda is obtained by rehydration of anhydrous sodium carbonate.
Na2CO3 + 10H2O → Na2CO3 .10H2O

since there are 10 water molecules in washing soda, hence, it is known as Sodium Bicarbonate
decahydrate.
Sodium carbonate is a crystalline solid and it is soluble in water when most of the carbonates are
insoluble in water.

Use of sodium carbonate:

 It is used in the cleaning of cloths.
 In the making of detergent cake and powder.
 In removing the permanent hardness of water.
 It is used in glass and paper industries.

(v) Plaster of Paris: Calcium sulphate hemihydrate [CaSO4. ½ H2O]

CaSO4.2H2O 373K CaSO4. ½ H2O + 3/2H2O

Plaster of Paris

CaSO4.1/2H2O + 3/2H2O CaSO4.2H2O (Gypsum)

 CHAPTER 3

METALS AND NON-METALS

CONTENT:

 Properties of metals and non-metals

 Reactivity Series
 Formation and properties of ionic compounds
 Basic metallurgic processes
 Corrosion and its prevention

MIND MAP
 PREVENTION OF CORROSION

Refining of Metals
 The metals after extraction are not pure and we have to refine it to obtain pure metal. We
use Electrolytic Refining for this purpose
 Example of metals which are refined using this method are copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver,
gold, etc.
 In this process, the impure metal is made the
anode and a thin strip of pure metal is made the
cathode. A solution of the metal salt is used as
an electrolyte on passing the current down at the
bottom of the anode and are known as anode
mud through the electrolyte, the pure metal from
the anode dissolves into the electrolyte. An
equivalent amount of pure metal from the
electrolyte is deposited on the cathode. The
soluble impurities go into the solution, whereas,
the insoluble impurities settle down known as
punk.
Calcination: In absence of oxygen
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2 (ZnCO3 + O2 → No reaction can take place.)
Roasting of Chalcocite (Cu2S) to obtain Copper Oxide (Cu2O)
2Cu2S + 3O2 → 2Cu2O + 2SO2
Metals: Elements that are electropositive in nature are called metals. It means metals lose
electrons to form positive ions, e.g. copper.

Physical Properties of Metals:

 Hardness: Most of the metals are hard, except alkali metals, such as sodium, potassium;
lithium, etc. are very soft metals. These can be cut by using a knife.
 Strength: Most of the metals are strong and have high tensile strength. Because of this,
big structures are made using metals, such as copper (Cu) and iron (Fe). (Except Sodium
(Na) and potassium (K) which are soft metals).
 State: Metals are solid at room temperature except for mercury (Hg).
 Sound: Metals produce ringing sound, so, metals are called Sonorous. Sound of metals is
also known as Metallic sound. This is the cause that metal wires are used in making
musical instruments.
 Conduction: Metals are a good conductor of heat and electricity. This is the cause that
electric wires are made of metals like copper and aluminium.
 Malleability: Metals are malleable. This means metals can be beaten into a thin sheet.
Because of this property, iron is used in making big ships.
 Ductility: Metals are ductile. This means metals can be drawn into thin wire. Because of
this property, a wire is made of metals.
 Melting and Boiling Point: Metals have generally high melting and boiling points.
(Except sodium and potassium metals which have low melting and boiling point.)
 Density: Most of the metals have a high density.
 Colour: Most of the metals are grey in colour. But gold and copper are exceptions.

Chemical Properties of Metals

1. Reaction with oxygen: Most of the metals form respective metal oxides when reacting with
oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
Examples:
Reaction of Potassium with Oxygen: Potassium metal forms potassium oxide when reacts with
oxygen.
4K + O2 2K2O

Reaction of Sodium with Oxygen: Sodium metal forms sodium oxide when reacts with oxygen.
4Na + O2 2Na2O
Lithium, potassium, sodium, etc. are known as Alkali-metals. Alkali metals react vigorously with
oxygen.

Reaction of Copper metal with Oxygen: Copper does not react with oxygen at room
temperature but when burnt in air, it gives oxide.
2Cu + O2 2CuO
Silver, gold and platinum do not combine with the oxygen of air even at high temperature. They
are the least reactive.

2. Reaction of metals with water: Metals form respective hydroxide and hydrogen gas when
reacting with water.
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
Most of the metals do not react with water. However, alkali metals react vigorously with water.

Reaction of Sodium metal with Water: Sodium metal forms sodium hydroxide and liberates
hydrogen gas along with lot of heat when reacting with water.
Na + 2H2O NaOH + 2H2

Reaction of Calcium metal with Water: Calcium forms calcium hydroxide along with
hydrogen gas and heat when react with water.
Ca + 2H2O Ca (OH) 2 + H2

Reaction of Magnesium metal with Water: Magnesium metal reacts with water slowly and
forms magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Mg + 2H2O Mg (OH) 2 + H2

When steam is passed over magnesium metal, magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas are formed.

Mg + H2O MgO + H2

Reaction of Aluminium metal with Water: Reaction of aluminium metal with cold water is too
slow to come into notice. But when steam is passed over aluminium metal, aluminium oxide and
hydrogen gas are produced.
2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 2H2

Reaction of Zinc metal with Water: Zinc metal produces zinc oxide and hydrogen gas when
steam is passed over it. Zinc does not react with cold water.
Zn +H2O ZnO + H2

Reaction of Iron with Water: Reaction of iron with cold water is very slow and comes intonotice after a
long time. Iron forms rust (iron oxide) when reacts with moisture present in theatmosphere. Iron oxide
and hydrogen gas are formed by passing of steam over iron metal.
2Fe + 3H2O Fe2O3 + 3H2

Both calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are heavier than water but still float over it: Both
calcium and magnesium float over water surface because hydrogen gas is evolved when these
metals react with water. It is in the form of bubbles which stick on the metal surface. Therefore,
they float over it.
Ca + 2H2O Ca (OH)2 + H2

Other metals usually do not react with water or react very slowly. Lead, copper, silver and gold
do not react with steam. Thus, the order of reactivity of different metals towards water may be
written as:
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu > Ag > Au
3. Reaction of metals with dilute acid: Metals form respective salts when reacting with dilute
acid.
Metal + dil. acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen

Reaction of Sodium metal with dilute hydrochloric acid: Sodium metal gives sodium chloride
and hydrogen gas when react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2

Reaction of Magnesium metal with dilute hydrochloric acid: Magnesium chloride and
hydrogen gas are formed when magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

Reaction of Zinc with dilute Sulphuric acid: Zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas are formed when
zinc reacts with dilute Sulphuric acid. This method is used in the laboratory to produce hydrogen
gas.
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2

Hydrogen (H2) gas is not evolved when metal is treated with nitric acid (HNO3):
Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent and it oxidizes the hydrogen gas (H2) liberated into water
(H2O) and itself get reduced to some oxide of nitrogen like nitrous oxide (N2O)3 nitric oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Copper, gold, silver is known as noble metals. These do
not react with water or dilute acids. The order of reactivity of metal towards dilute
hydrochloric acid or Sulphuric acid is in the order;K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Cu >
Hg > Ag

Metal Oxides
Chemical Properties: Metal oxides are basic in nature. The aqueous solution of metal oxides
turns red litmus blue.
Reaction of Metal oxides with Water: Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in water. Alkali
metal oxides are soluble in water. Alkali metal oxides give strong base when dissolved in water.

Reaction of Sodium oxide with Water: Sodium oxide gives sodium hydroxide when reacts
with water.
Na2O + H2O 2NaOH

Reaction of Potassium oxide with Water: Potassium oxide gives potassium hydroxide when
reacts with water.
K2O + H2O 2KOH

Reaction of Zinc oxide and Aluminium oxide: Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide are insoluble
in water. Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide are amphoteric in nature. An amphoteric substance
shows both acidic and basic characters. It reacts with base like acid and reacts with an acid like a
base. When zinc oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide, it behaves like an acid. In this reaction,
sodiumzincate and water are formed.
ZnO + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2O

Zinc oxide behaves like a base when reacts with acid. Zinc oxide gives zinc chloride and water
on reaction with hydrochloric acid.
ZnO + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2O

In a similar way, aluminium oxide behaves like a base when reacts with acid and behaves like
acid when reacts with a base.
Aluminium oxide gives sodium aluminate along with water when reacts with sodium hydroxide.

Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O

Aluminium oxide gives aluminium chloride along with water when it reacts with hydrochloric
acid.
Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2O

Reactivity Series of Metals: The order of intensity or reactivity of metal is known as Reactivity
Series. Reactivity of elements decreases on moving from top to bottom in the given reactivity
series.
In the reactivity series, copper, gold, and silver are at the bottom and hence, least reactive. These
metals are known as Noble metals. Potassium is at the top of the series and hence, most reactive.
Reactivity of some metals is given in descending order:
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu > Hg > Ag > Au

4. Reaction of metals with solution of other metal salts: Reaction of metals with the solution
of other metal salt is displacement reaction. In this reaction, more reactive metal displaces the
less reactive metal from its salt.
Metal A + Salt of metal B → Salt of metal A + Metal B
Examples:
Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.

Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu

Similarly, aluminium and zinc displace copper from the solution of copper sulphate.

2Al + 3CuSO4 Al2 (SO4)3 + 3Cu

Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
In all the above examples, iron, aluminium and zinc are more reactive than copper. This is why
they displace copper from its salt solution.
When copper is dipped in the solution of silver nitrate, it displaces silver and forms copper
nitrate.
Cu + 2AgNO3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2Ag

In the reaction, copper is more reactive than silver and hence, displaces silver from silver nitrate
solution.
Silver metal does not react with copper sulphate solution because silver is less reactive than
copper and not able to displace copper from its salt solution.
Ag + CuSO4 No reaction

Similarly, when gold is dipped in the solution of copper nitrate, no reaction takes place because
copper is more reactive than gold.
Au + Cu (NO3)2 No reaction

In similar way, no reaction takes place when copper is dipped in the solution of aluminium
nitrate because copper is less reactive than aluminium.
Al (NO3)3 + Cu No reaction

Non-Metals: Elements that are electronegative in nature are called non-metals. It means non-
metals gain electrons to form negative ions, e.g. iodine

Physical properties of non-metals

 Hardness: Non-metals are not hard rather they are generally soft. But the diamond is an
exception; it is the hardest naturally occurring substance.
 State: Non-metals may be solid, liquid or gas.
 Luster: Non-metals have a dull appearance. Diamond and iodine are exceptions.
 Sonority: Non-metals are not sonorous, i.e., they do not produce a typical sound on being
hit.
 Conduction: Non-metals are a bad conductor of heat and electricity. Graphite which is
allotrope of carbon is a good conductor of electricity and is an exception.
 Malleability and ductility: Non-metals are brittle.
 Melting and boiling point: Non-metals have generally low melting and boiling points.
 Density: Most of the non-metals have low density.
 Colour: Non-metals are in many colors.

Carbon in the form of graphite is non-metal which conduct electricity.

Carbon in the form of diamond is a non-metal which is extremely hard. Diamond is a non-metal
which has a very high melting point and boiling point. Iodine is non-metal which is lustrous
having a shining surface.
Chemical properties of Non-metals:
1. Reaction of Non-metals with Oxygen: Non-metals form respective oxide when reacting with
oxygen.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic oxide
when carbon reacts with oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed along with the production of heat.

C + O2 CO2 + heat
When carbon is burnt in an insufficient supply of air, it forms carbon monoxide. Carbon
monoxide is a toxic substance. Inhaling of carbon monoxide may prove fatal.
2C + O2 2CO + heat

Sulphur gives sulphur dioxide when reacting with oxygen. Sulphur catches fire when exposed to
air.
S + O2 SO2

When hydrogen reacts with oxygen it gives water.

2H2 + O2 2H2O

Non-metallic Oxide: Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature. The solution of non-metal oxides
turns blue litmus red.
Carbon dioxide gives carbonic acid when dissolved in water.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Sulphur dioxide gives sulphurous acid when dissolved in water.

SO2 + H2O H2SO3

Sulphur dioxide gives Sulphuric acid when reacts with oxygen.

SO2 + 2O2 2SO3

SO3 + H2O H2SO4

2. Reaction of Non-metal with Chlorine: Non-metal gives respective chloride when they react
with chlorine gas.
Non-metal + Chlorine → Non-metal chloride
Hydrogen gives hydrogen chloride and phosphorous gives phosphorous trichloride when reacting
with chlorine.
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
P4 + 6Cl2 4PCl3

3. Reaction of Non-metals with Hydrogen: Non-metals reactive with hydrogen to form

covalent hydrides.
Non-metal + Hydrogen → Covalent Hydride
Sulphur combines with hydrogen to form a covalent hydride is called Hydrogen sulphide.

H2 + S H2S
Nitrogen combines with hydrogen in presence of an iron catalyst to form covalent hydride
ammonia.
N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Non-metals do not react with water (or steam) to evolve Hydrogen gas.

Non-metals do not react with dilute acids.

4. Reaction of Metal and Non-metal: Many metals form ionic bonds when they react with non-
metals. Compounds so formed are known as Ionic Compounds.
Ions: Positive or negative charged atoms are known as ions. Ions are formed because of loss or
gain of electrons. Atoms form ions obtain by the electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas.
Positive ion: A positive ion is formed because of the loss of electrons by an atom.
Following are some examples of positive ions:
Sodium forms sodium ion because of the loss of one electron. Because of the loss of one
electron, one positive charge comes over sodium.
Na Na+ + e-

Magnesium forms positive ion because of the loss of two electrons. Two positive charges come
over magnesium because of loss of two electrons.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e-

Negative ion: A negative ion is formed because of the gain of an electron.

Some examples are given below:
Chlorine gains one electron in order to achieve a stable configuration. After the gain of one
electron, chlorine gets one negative charge over it forming chloride ion.
Cl + e- Cl-
Difference between Metals and Non-metals:
Metals Non-metals
1. Metals generally occur as hard solid 1. Non-metals generally occur in all the three
substances. forms of matter- solid, liquid and gases.
2. Metals are malleable and ductile. 2. Non-metals are not malleable and ductile.
3. Metals produce ringing sound on striking 3. Non-metals do not show this sonorous
which is called their sonorous property. property.
4. Metals are good conductors of heat and 4. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and
electricity. electricity with the exception of graphite which
is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

Reactivity series: The arrangement of metals in a vertical column in the order of decreasing
reactivity is called reactivity series of metals. The most reactive metals are placed at the top and
least reactive metals are placed at the bottom of the reactivity series.
The reactivity series is:

Ionic Compounds: The compounds formed by transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal
are known as Ionic Compounds. Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds are formed because of transfer of electrons from metal to non-metal.
In this course, metals get positive charge because of transfer of electrons and non-metal gets
negative charge because of acceptance of electrons. In other words, bond formed between
positive and negative ion is called Ionic Bond.
Some examples are given below:

Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl): In sodium chloride, sodium is a metal (alkali metal)
and chlorine is a non-metal.
Atomic number of sodium = 11
Electronic configuration of sodium: 2, 8, 1
Number of electrons in outermost orbit = 1
Atomic number of chlorine = 17
Electronic configuration of chlorine: 2, 8, 7
Electrons in outermost orbit = 7
Na Na+ + e-
2, 8, 1 2, 8

Cl + e- Cl-
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)
Na x :Cl. Na+ Cl- NaCl

Sodium has one valence electron and chlorine has seven valence electrons. Sodium requires
losing one electron to obtain stable configuration and chlorine requires gaining one electron in
order to obtain stable electronic configuration. Since, sodium chloride is formed because of ionic
bond, thus, it is called Ionic compound. In similar way, Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is formed.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e-
2, 8, 2 2, 8
2Cl + 2e - 2Cl-
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)
Properties of Ionic Compounds:
Properties of ionic compounds are as follows.

(i) Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solids and hard due to the strong attracting force
between the positive and negative ions. These compounds are generally brittle and break into
pieces on pressure.
(ii) Melting and boiling point: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because
amount of energy can break the strong inter-ionic attraction.
(iii) Solubility: Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in solvents like kerosene,
petrol, etc.
(iv) Conduction of Electricity: Conduction of electricity through a solution is possible when
there is movement of charged particles. Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct
electricity because movement of ions in the solid is not possible due to their rigid structure.
A solution of an ionic compound in water contains ions, which move to the opposite electrodes
when electricity is passed through the solution. Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the
molten state as in the molten state the electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely
charged ions overcome due to the heat. Thus, the ions move freely and conduct electricity.
Corrosion and its prevention:
Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which redox reactions occur between the metal and
water, oxygen and sulphur dioxide, etc. It is a spontaneous and irreversible process in which the
metal changes into chemical compounds such as oxide, sulphide and hydroxides, etc.
For example, due to corrosion or rusting, the iron changes into red iron oxide (rust) in the
presence of moisture and oxygen present in the air. The rusting of iron when it comes in contact
with water and oxygen which leads to the formation of a brown coat over its surface is a type of
corrosion. The chemical reaction involved in rusting is shown below;
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
2Fe2O3 + xH2O → Fe2O3.xH2O (rust)
Methods to prevent corrosion, some of them are described below;
(i) Electroplating:

 In this method, an electric current is used to create a thin layer of metal over another metal.
It is done to make cheaper metals more appealing as well as to protect them from corrosion.

 This method requires two different metals, an electrolytic solution, and two electrodes in
a tank and a battery or source of current that will pass the required current into the solution
to carry out the electrolysis.

 When current is passed one electrode gets a positive charge and another gets the negative
charge. The ions of the positively charged metal shift to the surface ofthe negatively
charged metal to create a thin layer. For example, when we take brass and copper for
electroplating, the copper metal slowly gets deposited or covers the brass and thus a thin
coating of copper covers the surface of the brass. Here, the electrolytic solution must
contain copper sulphide.

(ii) Galvanization: In this method, iron is coated with a layer of zinc. The iron is dipped in the
molten zinc. The layer of zinc protects the iron from corrosion. This method has been in use for
more than 200 years.

(iii) Painting and Greasing: In this method, a layer is created over the metal surface by painting
or greasing. This layer of paint or grease protects the metal from corrosion. Carbon fiber coating
can be used for this purpose.
(iv) Selection of Material: Select the materials that are not affected by corrosion. For example,
stainless steel and aluminium are resistant to corrosion.

(v) Dry and clean: Keep the metal surface dry and clean.
 CHAPTER – 4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

CONTENT:

 Covalent Bonding in Carbon compounds

 Versatile nature of Carbon
 Homologous series
 Nomenclature of carbon compounds functional groups (halogens, alcohol,
ketone, aldehyde, alkenes and alkynes)
 Difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
 Chemical properties of carbon compounds (combustion, oxidation, addition
and substitution)
 Ethanol and Ethanoic acid (only properties and uses)
 Soaps and detergents
Soaps and detergents
a) Soaps: - Soaps are long chain sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids. Eg:-
Sodium stearate – C17H35COONa
b) Structure of soap molecule: - A soap molecule has two parts. A long hydrocarbon
part which is hydrophobic (water repelling) and soluble in oil and grease and a short
ionic part which is hydrophilic (water attracting) and insoluble in oil and grease.

c) Cleansing action of soap: - When soap is dissolved in water it forms spherical

structures called micelles. In each micelle the soap molecules are arranged radially
such that the HC part is towards the centre and the ionic part is towards the outside.
The HC part dissolves the dirt, oil and grease and forms an emulsion at the centre of
the micelles which can be washed away by water

d) Detergents: - Detergents are long chain sodium salts of sulphonic acids. Soaps do
not wash well with hard water because it forms insoluble precipitates of calcium and
magnesium salts in hard water. Detergents wash well with hard water because it does
not form insoluble precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts in hard water.
 CHAPTER – 5

LIFE PROCESSES

Life processes: Living Being, Basic concept of nutrition, Respiration, Transport and Excretion in
Plants and Animals.

LIFE PROCESSES

All the vital processes which are required by an organism to survive is called life processes.
Nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion are
important life process. In multicellular organism life processes occur in various specialized body
parts while in unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell

IMPORTANT LIFE PROCESSES

 Nutrition in plants and animals
 Transportation in animals and plants
 Excretion in animals and plants
NUTRITION

 The process, by which an organism takes food and utilizes it, is called nutrition.
 Nutrition is essential for growth and development of organisms. It also provides energy
todo different work.
 Nutrition obtained by material is called nutrients. Nutrients may macronutrient
(Carbohydrates, proteins and fats) and micronutrients (Minerals and vitamins).
HOW DO LIVING THINGS GET THEIR FOOD?
a- Autotrophic nutrition
b- Heterotrophic nutrition
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called autotrophic nutrition.
Green plants and blue-green algae make their food by a process called photosynthesis.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process by which plants in presence of green pigment, sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide
to form food and release oxygen is known as photosynthesis.

The overall reaction occurring in photosynthesis is as follows:

Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chlorophyll Glucose
EVENTS OCCUR DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

Raw material required in Source

photosynthesis
CO2 and O2 Atmosphere

Radiation Sunlight

H2O Soil

Some facts
 Photosynthesis is a photochemical reaction.
 Photosynthesis is an oxidation- reduction reaction in which carbon dioxide is reduced to
sugar and water is oxidized.
Chloroplast: Contain main photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll and accessory pigments xanthophyll and
carotenoids.

Stomata: Gaseous exchange and transpiration (loss of water as water vapour) takes place through minute
aperture on the surface of leaves called as stomata. Stomata has a pore (stomatal pore) guarded by bean
shaped guard cells (regulate opening and closing of stomata).

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
In this type of nutrition organism obtain
their nutrient from other living organism
(parasite) e.g.Animals or dead and
decaying objects (saprophyte) e.g. Fungi
like bread molds, yeast and mushrooms.

HOW DO HOLOZOIC ORGANISMS OBTAIN THEIR NUTRITION?

 Amoeba captures food with the help of

pseudopodia.

 Food vacuole is formed containing food

particle.

 Food is digested.
 NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEING
Alimentary canal Tube like structure from mouth to anus

Salivary glands 3 pair, Secrete saliva

Enzyme made of proteins (except ribozyme), break the complex foods in to

simpler form
Peristalticmovement Rhythmic movement of food in oesophagus (food pipe) toward stomach

Stomach Large sac like structure below food pipe

Gastric gland Present in the wall of stomach secrete HCl, Pepsin, Mucus

Small Intestine It is longest and coiled tube and site of complete digestion of food.
Villi Small finger like projections on small intestine, increase the surface area for
absorption
Large intestine Small intestine opens into large intestine. Its function is to absorb water.

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Food is crushed and mixed with saliva with the help of teeth and
tongue.
2. Saliva contains salivary amylase that break down starch.
3. By peristaltic movement in oesophagus the food enters stomach.
4. In stomach food is mixed with HCl, Protein digesting enzyme
pepsin and Mucus.
5. HCl kill the germs in food as well as provide acidic medium
essential for pepsin.
6. Mucus protects the inner lining of alimentary canal by HCl.
7. Small intestine receives secretions of liver and pancreas through a
common duct. It issite for complete digestion of food
(carbohydrate, protein and fat)
8. Unabsorbed food enters into large intestine for further absorption
of water.
9. Undigested food is removed from body via anus.

Organ Secretion Role

Liver Bile juice Make medium alkaline for pancreatic juiceBreak

the fat molecules into smaller parts (emulsification)
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Trypsin digest protein and Lipase digest lipid
Wall of small Intestinal juices Proteins to amino acids and Carbohydrates to glucose Fat to
intestine fatty acid and glycerol
RESPIRATION: Process of Breaking down of complex organic material into simpler form with the
help of enzymes is called respiration.

Types of respiration and site

Type Definition Site

Aerobic respiration It occurs in presence of oxygen Cytoplasm and Mitochondria

Anaerobic respiration It occurs in absence of oxygen. Cytoplasm

Fermentation It is a type of anaerobic respirationoccur Cytoplasm

in few microorganisms like Yeast
Key words

Cytoplasm Fluid part with in cell

Mitochondria Site of energy production in plants and animals (power house of cell)
Pyruvate Intermediate product of respiration (Result of glycolysis)
Ethanol A type of alcohol (C2H5OH)
Lactic acid Result of anaerobic respiration in muscle cells
ATP Adenosine tri phosphate, an energy rich compound

PROCESS OF RESPIRATION
1. Glucose is broken down into pyruvate in cytoplasm of cell.
2. In presence of oxygen pyruvate enters into mitochondria and completely oxidizedthere to produce CO2
and energy (ATP).
3. In absence of oxygen pyruvate partially decomposes and forms
a) Ethanol in yeast (fermentation)
b) Lactic acid in muscle cells
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
It consists of nostril, nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli,
diaphragm and ribcage.
1. The inhale of oxygen and exhale of CO2is known
as breathing. Air is taken into body through
nostrils.
2. From nostril air passes through the pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and finally
alveoli.
3. At alveoli exchange of oxygen and CO2 takes
place with blood vessels by the process of
diffusion.
4. Oxygen enters into blood vessels while CO2 enters
into alveolar sac. Both oxygen and CO2 are carried
by iron containing hemoglobin.
TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEING
Important Terms:

Blood A type of connective tissue consists of RBC, WBC, Platelets and plasma.
Plasma Fluid portion of blood
Oxygenated blood Blood carrying oxygen
Deoxygenated blood Blood carrying carbon dioxide
Hemoglobin Iron containing pigment, carry both oxygen and CO2
Heart chambers Atrium and ventricle
Systole Contraction of heart chambers
Diastole Relaxation of heart chambers
Double circulation Blood goes through the heart twice
Arteries Thick walled. elastic, Carry blood away from heart to various organs
Veins Thin walled, carry blood from different organs to the heart
Platelets Helps in blood clotting during injury
Lymph / Tissue fluid Fluid in intercellular space in the tissues. They carry digested and
absorbed fat.
Sphygmomanometer Measures blood pressure

HUMAN HEART
1. Human heart is four chambered – two atria and two ventricles.
2. Amphibians – three chambered heart, Fish – two chambered heart.
3. These chambers are well separated to avoid mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenatedblood.
4. Right atrium and right ventricle contain deoxygenated blood while left atrium andleft ventricle contains
oxygenated blood.
5. Atrium and ventricle are separated by valves-
a- Tricuspid valve
b- Dicuspid valve
6. Oxygenated blood from lungs enters in left atrium via pulmonary veins. When leftatrium
contracts (systole) blood enters to left ventricle. The blood goes outside to different parts
of body via aorta when left ventricle contracts.
7. From different part of body deoxygenated blood is carried out by superior andinferior
vena cava to the right atrium.
8. When right atrium contracts the blood enters into right ventricle. The deoxygenated
blood goes to the lungs through pulmonary arteries when right ventricle contracts.
 TRANSPORTATION IN PLATS
Stomata Gaseous exchange, Transportation (loss of water in form of vapor)
Water conduction channels composed of xylem tissue, vessels and tracheid
Xylem
Transport water and mineral from root to aerial part (unidirectional)
Phloem Transport food from the leaves to other part (multidirectional).

EXCRETION: PLANT and HUMAN

Excretion in Plants:
 Stomata play an important role as it is the site for gaseous exchange and transpiration.
 Some waste products are released in the form of resin, gums.
 Falling of leaves also helps in removal of waste products.

Excretion Removal of harmful metabolic wastes fromthe body
Kidney Excretory organ of human
Nephron Structural and functional unit of kidney
Urinary bladder Store urine
Ureter Connect urinary bladder with kidney
Hemodialysis Artificial kidney, a device to remove nitrogenous
waste products (urea, uric acid)from the blood.

EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEING:

1. Basic filtration unit in kidneys are cluster of thin walled capillaries. These areassociated with cup
like structure which collects the filtered urine.
2. There is reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, salts and water in tubules of nephrons.
The concentrated urine enters into urinary bladder via ureter and finally pass outsidethe body through
urethra.

Dialysis is the process of removal of the excess waste material

from blood. It the artificial process of filtering blood, which is done
to remove the nitrogenous waste products that can result in toxicity
inside the system. Types of Dialysis:
1. Hemodialysis: In this method, the patient’s blood is passed
through the dialysis machine where it is purified and returned to the
patient’s body.
2. Peritoneal dialysis: Peritoneal dialysis is done by surgically
implanting a catheter in the stomach of the patient. A cleaning fluid
(dialysate) is then circulated throughout the catheter that absorbs
the waste materials from the blood vessels in the walls of the
stomach. It is then drawn out and discarded. Peritoneal dialysis is
considered to be more versatile and convenient than hemodialysis.
 CHAPTER – 6
CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION

CONTENTS

 Tropic movements in plants

 Introduction of plant hormones
 Control and co-ordination in animals
 Nervous system; Voluntary
 Involuntary and reflex action
 Chemical co-ordination: animal hormones

Mindmap

ACTION CAUSED BY NERVOUS

TISSUE
TROPIC MOVEMENTS IN PLANTS

Tropic movement is the movement of the plant in response to stimulus present in the
surroundings. Tropic movements can be either toward the stimulus or away from it. The
important tropic movements are listed below-

Phototropism Movement is response to light.

Ex- shoot bending toward the light, root bending away from light, movementof
sunflower
Chemotropism Movement in response to certain chemicals
Ex- Growth of pollen tubes toward ovary
Geotropism The movement of plants in response to the gravity.
Ex- Roots of plant grow downwards, shoots usually grow upward
Hydrotropism Movement of plants in response to water.
Ex- Root grows towards water.
Thigmotropism The reflex of plants response of touch.
Ex- touch-me-not (Mimosa) plant leaves.

Thigmotropism
INTRODUCTION OF PLANT HORMONES

Growth and differentiation in plants depend on few hormones calls as plant growth regulators/
plant growth hormones/ Phytohormones. These are organic substances which are synthesized in
minute quantity in one part of plant body and transported to other part where they show specific
physiological processes.

Phytohormones Growth promoter/ growth Explanation

inhibitor

Auxin Growth promoter Stem elongation

Gibberellins Growth of stem

Cytokinin Cell division

Ethylene Growth inhibitor Wilting of leaves

Abscisic acid Fruit ripening

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS

In animals control and coordination is carried out with the help of -
 Nervous system
 Muscular tissue
 Endocrine system: Hormones
 Nervous system
The nervous system is composed of –
i- CNS (Central nervous system)- Brain + Spinal cord
ii- PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)- all the nerves associated with the CNS
NEURONS: Neurons are composed of cell body, dendrite, axon and nerve ending.

HOW NERVOUS IMPULSE TRAVELS IN

BODY
 Dendritic tips receive stimulus and an
electrical impulse is generated in
neurons.
 This impulse travels from the dendrite to
the cell body and then along the axon to
its end.
 At axon ending some chemicals are
released that cross the synapse and start
a similarelectrical impulse in next neuron.
REFLEX ACTION

1. Reflex action is a sudden and

involuntary response to any
stimuli.
2. It originates in spinal cord.
3. Ex- Drawing hand away from
hot plate, watering of mouth in
response to food etc.
4. The neural pathway that
controls the reflex action is
called as reflex arch. In these
sensory neurons, spinal cord,
relay neuron, motor neuron and effector muscles are involved.
5. Stimulus is received by sensory neuron. The sensory neurons transfer sensory impulse
to the spinal cord (CNS). Spinal cord processes the stimulus. The motor nerve fiber relays
the motor impulses from the nervous system to the effector organs like muscles.
HORMONES IN ANIMALS-
Hormones are the chemical messengers which are secreted by the ductless endocrine gland into
the blood. Hormones control the activity of certain cells and organs. Hormones can be peptide
and steroid hormones. Some of the main endocrine glands are pituitary gland, adrenal gland,
thyroid gland, pancreas, testes, ovary etc.

Endocrine gland Hormone Role

PITUITARY GLAND Growth hormone Regulate growth and development

ADRENAL GLAND Adrenaline Stress hormone (enable the body ready to deal
with stressed condition), Increase heartbeat,
Increase breathing rate
THYROID GLAND Thyroxine Regulate carbohydrate, protein and fat
metabolism
PANCREAS Insulin Regulate blood sugar level
TESTES Testosterone Changes associated with puberty in male
OVARY Estrogen Changes associated with puberty in female

 GOITER- Iodine is necessary for formation of thyroxin hormone. If Iodine is in low

concentration the thyroid gland swells and causes goiter.
 GIGANTISM and DWARFISM- Excess secretion of growth hormone from
pituitarygland causes excess growth of body (gigantism) and less secretion result in
dwarfism.
 CHAPTER – 7
HOW DO ORGANISM REPRODUCE

CONTENTS
 Reproduction in animals and plants (asexual and sexual)
 reproductive health
 need
 and methods of family planning.
 Safe sex vs HIV/AIDS.
 Child bearing and women’s health.

 Reproduction- The production of new organism from the existing organism of the
same species is known as reproduction. It involves copying of DNA, these copies will
be similar to original but not identical.
 Variations- The differences of new organism from the original ones give rise to
variations in a population. These variations help the individuals of a population to
tolerate drastic environmental conditions and thus promote their survival.
Significance of reproduction-
(a) Important for continuation of life.
(b)It helps in transferring genetic material from first generation to the next one.
(c) introduces new variations in population of different Species.
Importance of Variation
(a)Variation helps the individual species to tolerate drastic environmental conditions.
(b)Variation is very useful for the survival of species for a longer a period of time.
(c) also helps in evolution, adaptation and improve varieties in populations.
Types of reproduction
 Asexual reproduction-In this mode of reproduction the offspring arises from a single
parent. The production of a new organism from a single parent without the
involvement of gametes. In this method certain body cells of the parent organism,
undergo repeated cell division to form two or more new
organisms
Modes of Asexual Reproduction-
 Binary fission- Single celled organisms like Bacteria,
amoeba, paramecium, leishmania split into two identical
halves and form new individuals. When amoeba cell reaches
its maximum size of growth, then first the nucleus divides
into two parts and afterwards cytoplasm divides into two
equal parts. Two daughter amoebae (daughter cells) produced
grow to their full size and then divide again to produce four
daughter cells

 Multiple fission-In this process of fission one parent cell divides and splits internally
to form a number of daughter cells

 Budding-It is an asexual mode of reproduction. In this a small part of the body of the
parent organism grows out as a bud which then detach and becomes new organism. It
is observed in Hydra and yeast.
 In Hydra, first a small outgrowth called bud is formed on the side of its body due to
repeated division of cells, this bud then
grows gradually to form a small Hydra
and finally the small Hydra detaches itself
from the body of the parent organism and
lives as a separate organism.
 In yeast cell, fist the bud appears on the
outside of the cell wall. Nucleus of the
parent cell then divides into two parts and
one part of the nucleus moves into the
bud. Finally, the bud separates from the
parent cell and forms a new cell. In yeast
cell budding takes place so fast that the first buds start forming their own buds and
therefore form a chain of yeast cells.
 Spore formation- Spore formation takes
place in plants. The parent plant produces
hundreds of microscopic reproductive units
called spores. When the Spore case of the
plant bursts, then the spores spread into air.
When these spore land on soil, they germinate
and form new plants in wet and warm
conditions. Fungus like Rhizopus (bread
mold), Bacteria and non-flowering plants like
ferns and moss reproduce by this method.

 Regeneration-In some organism, small parts

of the body can grow to form whole new
organism complete in all respects. The process
of getting like a full organism from its body
part is called regeneration. Hydra and
planaria show generation
 Planaria gets cut into a member of pieces in
each body can regenerate into a complete
planaria by growing all the missing parts.

 Fragmentation-Some of the multi cellular organism

can break up easily into smaller pieces and maturing.
These pieces are fragments can grow and form new
organisms complete in all respects. Fragmentation in
spirogyra takes place when it simply breaks into two
or more fragments and into maturation, each fragment
then grows into a new spirogyra.

 Vegetative propagation-It is an asexual mode production which occurs in plants.

New plants are obtained from the parts of old plant like stem, roots, leaves without the
help of any reproductive organ.

 Using stems-If we cut a piece of stem of a money plant in such a way, it contains at
least one leaf. Dip 1 end of the stem in water. After a few days we will find that new
route appears at the point. This piece of stem will finally grow into a new money
plant. (activity 8.6) of NCERT

 Using leaves-Buds are present on the stems as

well as the leaves of Bryophyllum plant which
can develop into new plants when they come in
contact with moist soil.
Importance of Vegetative Propagation
 Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.
 Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by
vegetative propagation.
 All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
 Seedless varieties can be obtained.
 The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing methods
like layering, grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes.

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient
medium under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where it
forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to another nutrient medium
where it differentiates and forms a new plant.

Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction in plants, Sexual reproduction in human beings.

The mode of reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two individuals of two
different sexes i.e. male and female.
During sexual reproduction, male organism having male sex organs produces male gametes
i.e. sperms which are small and motile and the female organism having female sex organs
produces ova which are generally large and store food. Male and female gametes fuse to form
a zygote that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction:

1. Sexual reproduction involves DNA of two different organisms which promotes
diversity of characters in the offspring.
2. Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new
combination of genes which increases the chances of genetic variations.
3. Sexual reproduction results in the origin of new species.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

 The reproductive parts are present in the flower.
 (b)The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens
and carpels.
 (c) Sepals are green structures that protect the inner
parts when the flower is in bud stage.
 (d) Petals are colorful and attract the insects for
pollination.
 (e) Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce
pollen grains that contain male gametes. Each
stamen has two parts—
 (f)Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen top part
which has large number of pollen grains.

The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female gametes.
It has three parts—Stigma which is top sticky part and receives pollen grains during
pollination. Style which is the middle long part and ovary which is the swollen part and
contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete.
The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpels for example; Mustard
China Rose (Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpels for example; Papaya,
Watermelon.

Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the
flower is pollination. Two types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower or another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another
flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally takes place with
the help of some agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male

and female gamete to form a zygote during sexual
reproduction. Pollination is followed by fertilization in plants.
The events are-
a) Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
b) Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel
through the style and reach the ovary.
c) Pollen tube has male germ cells. Ovule has female
gametes.
d) Pollen tube releases male germ cells inside the ovule,
one of them fuses with female germ cell and forms a
zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo.
Post-fertilization changes: After fertilization the following changes takes place in the
flower. Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.
 The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

 Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e.
embryo.
 Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future
plant.
 Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and
radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate
conditions is known as germination.
 Reproduction in Human Being: Human beings become reproductively active from the
onset of puberty. Puberty is the period during adolescence when the rate of general body
growth begins to slow down and reproductive tissues begin to mature. Onset of puberty in
human males is between 11 to 13 yrs. of age, while in human females is between 10 to 12
yrs. of age. Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and
psychological changes in boys and girls which occur slowly over a period of time. These
are called secondary sexual characters. For instance, thick dark hair starts growing in
new parts of the body such as arm pits and genital area between the thighs. Thinner hair
appears on legs, arms and face. Skin becomes oily and pimples may appear on the face.
Individuals become more conscious of their bodies become more independent, more
aggressive etc.
 In case of boy’s beard and mustache start appearing, voice begins to crack,
reproductive organs develop and start producing releasing sperms.
 In case of girls, breast size begins to increase, skin of the nipples darkens,
menstruation starts.

Male Reproductive System: Male reproductive system

consists of the following components one pair of testes,
sperm ducts or vas deferens, epididymis, urethra, a system
of glands-Seminal vesicles and prostate gland.
(a)Testes: A pair of testes is situated in scrotum which lie
outside the abdominal cavity and behind the penis. Testes
produce sperms and hormone, Testosterone hormone.
Testosterone brings about changes in appearance of boys
at the time of puberty.
(b)Vas deferens: From each testis, a duct arises which is
known as vas deferens which unites with a tube coming
from urinary bladder. It brings sperms from testis.
(c)Accessory Glands: Glands like prostate and seminal
vesicles add their secretions which make transport of
sperms easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.
(d)Urethra: Vas deferens tube opens into a common tube
called urethra. It runs through a muscular organ called
Penis. Penis is male copulatory(mating)organ.

Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following

organs:
(a)Ovaries: Paired ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity
near the kidney. Ovaries produce female gamete (ovum or egg)
and secrete female hormones (estrogen and progesterone). One
egg is produced every month alternately by one of the ovaries.
(b)Fallopian Tube: The egg is carried from the ovary to
womb/uterus through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.
(c)Uterus: The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag like
structure known as the uterus.
(d)Vagina: Uterus opens into the vagina. It is a female
copulatory organ.
Sexual Cycle in female: After puberty, only one egg is produced alternately from one ovary
after a period of 28 days. Eggs in fallopian tube encounter sperms which enter through the
vaginal passage during sexual intercourse. This fertilized egg (zygote) gets implanted in the
lining of uterus which later forms embryo. Embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with
the help of special tissue called placenta. If the egg is not fertilized, if lives for about one day
since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus prepares itself every month to receive
the fertilized egg. Thus, its lining becomes thick and spongy. If it does not get zygote, the
developed lining slowly breaks down and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucus.
This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts for
about 2-5 days.

Fertilization-Sperms formed in testes are introduced into the vagina of the woman during
mating. Sperms move up through cervix into the uterus and from uterus they enter into the
oviducts. One of the oviducts contain an ovum or egg cell released by the ovary during
ovulation. Only one sperm cell fuses with the egg cell to form a zygote. Zygote divides
repeatedly to from embryo which gets embedded in the uterine wall, this is called
implantation.
 After implantation, a disc like special tissue develops between the uterus wall and
embryo, called placenta. All the requirements of the developing foetus like nutrition,
respiration and excretion etc. are met from placenta only.
 Time period from the fertilization till the birth of the child is called gestation.

Birth Control methods- Birth control methods are used to prevent unwanted pregnancies in
females and to control size of our population. Prevention of pregnancy in women is called
Contraception. All the birth control methods are broadly divided into three categories.
(a) Barrier methods- In this method, physical devices such as condoms and diaphragm
are used. Condoms are used by males and diaphragms are used by females. They
prevent meeting of sperm and egg by acting as a barrier. Such methods also protect
risk of STDs (sexually transmitted diseases).
(b) Chemical methods- In chemical method, females use two types of pills:
 Oral pills contain hormones which stop the ovaries from releasing egg in oviduct.
This method is effective as long as pills are taken at right time. These pills lead to
side effects due to hormonal imbalance.
 Vaginal pills-The vaginal pills contain chemicals called spermicides which kill the
sperms.
(c) (c)Intra-uterine contraceptive methods- Copper-T is used to prevent pregnancy,
it is inserted inside the uterus by a doctor. This device will prevent the implantation
of fertilized egg in uterus.
(d) (d)Surgical methods- In males, a small portion of the sperm duct is removed by
surgical operation and both cut ends or free ends are tied properly. This prevents
transportation of sperm. This surgical procedure in males is called ‘Vasectomy’.

In females, a small portion of the oviducts or fallopian tubes is removed and free ends are
tied together to prevent transportation of egg into oviducts. This surgical procedure in
females is called ‘Tubectomy’.
 CHAPTER - 8
HEREDITY
Content
Heredity and Evolution: Heredity; Mendel’s contribution- Laws for inheritance of traits: Sex
determination: brief introduction: (topics excluded - evolution; evolution and classification
and evolution should not be equated with progress).

MONOHYBRID CROSS
SEX-DETERMINATION IN HUMAN
VARIATION-
Several characteristics may differ between individuals belonging to the same species. These
differences are termed variation.
HEREDITY-
The mechanism of transmission of characters, resemblances as well as differences, from the
parental generation to the offspring, is called heredity.
MENDEL’S PRINCIPLES-
Gregor Johann Mandel, known as father of genetics, discovered that individual traits are
inherited as discrete factors which retain their physical identity in a hybrid. Later, these
factors came to be known as genes.
A gene is defined as a unit of heredity that may influence the outcome of an organism’s
traits.
MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT
Mendel choose the Garden Pea, Pisum sativum, for his experiment since it had the following
advantages.
1. Well defined discrete characters
2. Bisexual flower
3. Easy hybridization
4. Easy to cultivate and relatively short life cycle
5. Predominant self-fertilization.
ALLELE –
Each gene may exist in alternative forms known as alleles.
Each parent(diploid) has two alleles for a trait- they may be :
1. HOMOZYGOUS – indicating they possess two identical alleles for a trait.
a) Homozygous dominant – genotype possess two dominant alleles for a trait (TT).
b) Homozygous recessive- genotypes possess two recessive alleles for a trait (tt).
2.HETEROZYGOUS- genotype possess one of each allele for a particular trait (Tt).
GENOTYPE & PHENOTYPE –
To distinguish physical appearance from the genetic constitution, two different terms are
used in genetics i.e genotype and phenotype.
Genotype – is defined as the genetic constitution of an individual for any particular character
or trait. The genotype of an individual is usually expressed by a symbol, exp- tt, TT, Tt etc.
Phenotype – is defined as physical appearance of an individual for any particular Trait. The
phenotype of an individual is dependent on its genetic constitution.

MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERETANCE –

On the basis of Hybridization experiment on Pisum sativum, Mendel proposed the principles
of inheritance known as Mendel’s Law.
1. Law of Dominance-
This law states that in a heterozygous condition, the allele whose characters are expressed
over the other allele is called the dominant allele and the characters of this dominant allele
are called dominant characters.
The characters that appear in the F1 generation are called as dominant characters. The
recessive characters appear in the F2 generation.
2. Law of Segregation –
On the basis of monohybrid cross Mendel formulated the Law of segregation.
This law states that each individual possesses two factors (later called genes) for a particular
character.
At the time of formation of gametes each member of the pair of genes separates from each
other so that each gamete carries one factor (gene) i.e. gametes are always pure (Law of
purity of gametes). Applicable only for diploid organisms that forms haploid gamete to
reproduce sexually.
3. Law of Independent Assortment –
The law of independent assortment was deduced from Mendel’s experiment with dihybrid
cross.
A cross involves the analysis of two independent traits is termed as dihybrid cross. That is
each pair of contrasting character behaves independently and bears no association with a
particular character. Because of such an independent assortment of characters, new
combinations of characters are produced in the offspring.
SEX DETERMINATION –
1. The mechanism of determining the sex of an individual is known as sex determination.
2. In some organisms, environmental factors such as temperature determine the sex of the organism
in the egg.
3. Each human cell contains 23 pairs (46 numbers) of chromosomes, out of which 22 pairs are
called autosomes, which are similar in both males and females and are responsible for the various
characteristics of an individual. The last pair is that of the sex chromosomes that determine the sex
of the individual. Sex chromosomes in humans are of two types X and Y.
4.Females have two X chromosomes in their cells while males have one X and one Y in their cells.
5. When the sperm containing the X chromosome fertilises the egg, then the zygote develops into a
female. When the sperm containing the Y chromosome fertilises the egg, then the zygote develops
into a male.
All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother, despite whether they are a boy
or girl. Thus, the sex of the children will be determined by the type of chromosome
inherited from their father. A child who inherits Y chromosome will be a boy and who
inherits X chromosome will be a girl.
 CHAPTER - 9
LIGHT REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

CONTENTS
 Reflection of light by curved surfaces; Images formed by spherical mirrors,
centre of curvature, principal axis, principal focus, focal length, mirror formula
(Derivation not required), magnification.
 Refraction; Laws of refraction, refractive index.
 Refraction of light by spherical lens; Image formed by spherical lenses; Lens
formula (Derivation not required); Magnification. Power of a lens.

Reflection
1. Reflection of Light: The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same medium
by the smooth surface is called reflection.
a. Incident light: Light which falls on the surface is called incident light.
b. Reflected light: Light which goes back after reflection is called reflected light.
c. The angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
d. An angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

e. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
f. Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle if reflection i.e. ∠i = ∠r

Image: If light rays coming from a point after reflection meet at another point or
appear to meet at another point, then second point is called image of the first point.
There are two types of image, i.e.-
 Real image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, actually meet
at a point, then the image formed by these rays is said to be real. Real images
can be obtained on a screen.
 Virtual image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, appear to
meet at a point, then the image formed by these rays is said to be virtual. Virtual
images can’t be obtained on a screen.
Mirror: The surface which can reflect the light is a mirror.
a. Plane Mirror: If the reflecting surface is a plane then the mirror is plane.
b. Spherical Mirror: If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere then the
mirror is a spherical mirror. The spherical mirror is of two types:
 i. Convex mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface
is convex. It diverges the light so it is also called
a diverging mirror.
ii. Concave mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface
is concave. It converges the light so it is also
called converging mirror.

Some definitions related to Spherical Mirror:

 Pole (Vertex): The central point of a mirror is called its
pole.
 Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called
the centre of curvature. It is denoted by C.
 Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called
the radius of curvature. It is denoted by R.
 Principal axis: The straight line passing through the pole and the centre of
curvature of the mirror is called the principal axis.
 Principal focus: It is a point on the principal axis at which the rays parallel to the
principal axis meet after reflection or seem to come from. For a concave mirror, the
focus lies in front of the mirror and for a convex mirror, it lies behind the mirror. In
short, a concave mirror has a real focus while a convex mirror has a virtual focus.
 Focal plane: A plane, drawn perpendicular to the principal axis and passing through
the principal focus.

i. Focal length: The distance between

the pole and the focus is called the
focal length. It is represented by f. The
focal length is half the radius of
curvature.
F = R/2
ii. Reflection by Spherical mirror: A ray
of light which is parallel to the principal
axis of a spherical mirror, after
reflection converges or diverges from
focus.
 A ray of light passing through or appearing from the centre of curvature of spherical
mirror is reflected back along the same path.
 A ray of light passing through or appearing from the focus of spherical mirror
becomes parallel to the principal axis.
 A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a spherical mirror is reflected back making same angle
with principal axis.
 Image formation by Convex mirror

Sign

Conventions of Spherical Mirror

 All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror as the origin. ∙ Distances
measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive.
 Distances measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are taken as
negative.
 Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
positive.
 Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
negative.

Mirror formula: 1/f=1/v+1/u

Where f, v and u are focal

length, image distance, and
object distance

Magnification by Spherical
Mirror:
This is the ratio of the height of
the image to the height of the
object.
Magnification,
m=hi/ho
Where m = magnification, hi =
height of image, ho = height of
object
 REFRACTION:
Refraction of Light: The bending of light at the interface of two different mediums is called
refraction of light.
 If the velocity of light in medium is more, then medium is called optical rarer. Example, air or
vacuum is more optical rarer.
 If the velocity of light in medium is less, then medium is called optical denser. Example, glass
is denser than air.

Laws of refraction: The incident

ray, the refracted ray and the
normal at the point of incidence all
lie in the same plane.

The ratio of the sine of the angle of

incidence to the sine of the angle
of refraction is a constant. Sin i/sin
r = n (constant)
This constant is called the index of
refraction or refractive index.
Refractive Index: If c is the speed
of light in air and v is the speed of
light in medium, then the refractive
index of the medium is-
Refractive index of medium with
respect to air or vacuum is called Absolute Refractive
Index.

Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab:

When light ray enters into a glass slab, then the
emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray. This
perpendicular distance between the emergent ray and
incident ray when the light passes out of a glass slab
is called lateral displacement.
i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction and e =
angle of emergence
Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence, i.e. ∠i = ∠e
 Lens: The transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces in which at least
one surface is curved is called lens. Lenses are mainly two types: Convex lens and
Concave lens.
SPHERICAL LENS
A spherical lens is a transparent material bounded by two surfaces one or both of which
are spherical. Spherical lenses are of two main types. They are convex and concave
lenses.
1. Convex lens: - It is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges. Rays of light
parallel to the principal axis after refraction through a convex lens meet at a point
(converge) on the principal axis.
2. Concave lens: - It is thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges. Rays of light
parallel to the principal axis after refraction get diverged and appear to diverge
from a point on the principal axis on the same side of the lens.

Important Terms Related to Spherical Lenses

1. Optical Centre: The midpoint or the symmetric centre of a spherical lens is
known as its Optical Centre. It is represented by the letter O
2. Aperture: The diameter of a circular lens is called its aperture of the lens.
3. Principal Axis: The line passing through the optical centre and the centre of
curvature.
4. Centre of curvature (C): The centres of the spheres that the spherical lens was
a part of. A spherical lens has two centres of curvatures.
5. Focus (F): It is the point on the axis of a lens to which parallel rays of light
converge or from which they appear to diverge after refraction.
6. Focal length: Distance between optical centre and focus.
Rules to Draw Ray Diagram
1. A ray of light parallel to principal axis passes/appears to pass through the focus.
2. A light ray passing through the focus after refraction passes parallel to the
principal axis.
3. A ray passing through the optical centre undergoes zero deviation.
Image Formation in Convex Lens

Nature of Image Formed by a Convex Lens

Image Formed by a Concave Lens

Lens Formula
The lens formula is given below. The Lens formula can be used to calculate the distance
between the image and the lens. The image and the lens.
V = distance of the image from the lens.
U=distance of an object from the lens.
F=focal length.

The lens formula applies to all situations. If the equation results in negative image distance,
then the image is virtual. If the equation shows a negative focal length then the lens is a
diverging lens.
 Chapter- 10
HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

CONTENTS
 Functioning of a lens in human eye, defects of vision and their corrections,
applications of spherical mirrors and lenses.
 Refraction of light through a prism, dispersion of light, scattering of light,
applications in daily life. (excluding colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset).

The Human Eye: It is a natural optical instrument which

is used to see the objects by humanbeings. It is like a
camera which has a lens and screen system. The various
parts of human eye and their functions:

Retina: It is a light sensitive screen inside the eye on

which image is formed. It contains rods and cones.
Functions: Captures the light rays focused by the lensand
sends
Cornea: It is a thin membrane which covers the eye trail.
It acts like a lens whichrefracts the light entering the eye.
Aqueous humour: It is fluid which fills the space between
cornea and eye lens.
Eye lens: It is a convex lens made of transparent and flexible jelly like material. Itscurvature
can be adjusted with the help of ciliary muscles.
Pupil: It is a hole in the middle of iris through which light enters the eye. It appearsblack
because light falling on it goes into the eye and does not come back. Functions: Opens and
closes in order to regulate and control the amount of light.
Ciliary muscles: These are the muscles which are attached to eye lens and canmodify the shape
of eye lens which leads to the variation in focal length.
Iris: It controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size of thepupil. Functions:
Controls light level similar to the aperture of a camera.
Optical nerve: These are the nerves which take the image to the brain in the form ofelectrical
signals.

How Pupil Works?

We would have observed that when you come out of the cinema hall after watching the movie in the bright
sunlight, your eyes get closed. And when you enter the hallfrom the bright light, you won ‘t be able to see
and after some time you would be able to see.
Here, the pupil of an eye provides a variable aperture, whose size is controlled by iris.
(a) When the light is bright: Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the eye.
(b) When the light is dim: Iris expands the pupil, so that more light enters the eye.
Pupil opens completely when iris is relaxed.
Colour Blindness: A person having defective cone cells is not able to distinguish between the
different colors. This defect is known as Colour Blindness.
Defects of Vision:
Myopia (Short-sightedness): It is a kind of defect in the human eye due to which a person cansee nearby
objects clearly but he cannot see the distant objects clearly. Myopia is due to
(a) Excessive curvature of the cornea.
(b) Elongation of eyeball.
Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness): It is a kind of defect in the human eye due to which, a person can see
distant objects properly but can’t see the nearby objects clear. It happens due to
(a) Decrease in the power of eye lens i.e., increase in focal length of eye lens.
(b) Shortening of eyeball.
Presbyopia: It is a kind of defect in human eye which occurs due to ageing. It happens due tothe following
reasons
(a) Decrease in flexibility of eye lens.
(b) Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles.
In this, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia.
Astigmatism: It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person cannot see (focus)simultaneously
horizontal and vertical lines both.
Cataract: Due to the membrane growth over eye lens, the eye lens becomes hazy or even opaque. This
leads to a decrease or loss of vision. This problem is called a cataract. It can becorrected only by surgery.
Refraction of light through a prism: When a ray of light is
incident on a rectangular glassslab, after refracting through the slab,
it gets displaced laterally. As a result, the emergent ray comes out
parallel to the incident ray. Unlike a rectangular slab, the side of a
glass prism are inclined at an angle called the angle of prism.
Prism: A prism is a transparent refracting medium bounded by two
plane surfaces, inclined toeach other at a certain angle. It has one
triangular base and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
Angle of Prism: Angle between two lateral faces is called angle of
prism.
Angle of Deviation: The angle between the incident ray and
emergent ray. Reflection if light through a triangular glass prism
Dispersion of white light by a glass prism: The phenomenon of
splitting of white light into its seven constituent colors when it passes
through a glass prism is called dispersion of white light. The various
colors seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and
Red. The sequence of colors is remembered as VIBGYOR. The band
of seven colors is called the spectrum.The different component colors
of light bends at a different angle with respect to the incident angle.
The violet light bends the least while the red bends the most. For violet colour, wavelength is minimum and for
red colour wavelength is maximum, i.e. frequency for violet colour is maximum and for red colour frequency is
minimum.
Monochromatic light: Light consisting of single colour or wavelength is called monochromaticlight, example; sodium
light.
Polychromatic light: Light consisting of more than two colors or wavelengths is calledpolychromatic
light, example; white light.
Recombination of white light: Newton found that when an
inverted prism is placed in the pathof dispersed light then
after passing through the prism, they recombine to form white
light.

Rainbow: It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature. It is formed due to the

dispersion of sunlightby the tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. It
occurs at opposite side of sun direction.
Formation of the rainbow: The water droplets act like small prism. They refract
and dispersethe incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it
again when it comes out of the raindrop. Due to the dispersion of light and internal
reflection, different colors reach the observer ‘s eye.
Conditions for the formation of rainbow are:
(a) The formation of rainbow involves a series of physical
phenomena refraction,dispersion and internal reflection
(b) Rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the
sun, i.e. sun is alwaysbehind the observer.
Red colour appears on top and violet at the bottom of rainbow.
i. A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to
that of Sun.
ii. At ‗A‘ – Refraction and dispersion take place.
iii. At ‗B‘ – Internal reflection takes place.
iv. At ‗C‘ – Refraction and dispersion take place.
Atmospheric Refraction: The refraction of light caused by the Earth ‘s
atmosphere (having air layers of varying optical densities) is
called Atmospheric Refraction.
Appearance of Star Position: It is due to atmospheric refraction
of star light. The temperature and density of different layer of
atmosphere keeps varying. Hence, we have different medium. Distant
star act as point source of light. When the starlight enters the Earth ‘s
atmosphere, it undergoes refraction continuously, due to changing
refractive index i.e., from Rarer to denser. It bends towards the normal.
Due to this, the apparent position of the star is different from actual
position. The star appearshigher than its actual position.
Twinkling of Star: It is also due to the atmospheric refraction.
Distant star act like a point source oflight. As the beam of starlight keeps deviating
from its path, the apparent position of star keeps on changing because physical
condition of earth ‘s atmosphere is not stationary.
Hence, the amount of light enters our eyes fluctuate sometimes bright and sometime
dim. This isthe ―Twinkling effect of star‖.
Scattering of light: According to Rayleigh ‘Law of Scattering, the amount of scattered light
𝖺 1/λ4 (λ = wavelength). Scattering of light decreases with increase in wavelength.

Colour of the sky: The sunlight that reaches the earth ‘s atmosphere is scattered in
all directionsby the gases and dust particles present in the atmosphere. Sky appears
blue; this is because the size of the particles in the atmosphere is smaller than the
wavelength of visible light, so they scatter the light of shorter wavelength (blue end
of spectrum). The blue colour is scattered more and hence the sky appears blue.
Red as color of danger symbol: The danger signal or sign is made of red colour
because red colour scatters the most when strikesthe small particle of fog and smoke
because it has the maximum wavelength (visible spectrum). Hence, from large
distance also, we can see the red colour clearly.

At noon sun appears white: At noon, the sun is overhead and sunlight would travel
shorter distance relatively through the atmosphere. Hence, at noon, the sun appears
white as only little ofthe blue and violet colors are scattered.
 CHAPTER-11
ELECTRICITY

CONTENTS
 Electric current, potential difference and electric current. Ohm’s law; Resistance,
Resistivity,
 Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends. Series combination of
resistors, parallel combination of resistors and its applications in daily life.
 Heating effect of electric current and its applications in daily life. Electric power,
Interrelation between P, V, I and R.
Important Definitions-
 Electric Current: The rate of flow of charge is called electric current.
 Potential: The work done require to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a
particular point is called potential of that point
 Potential Difference: The work done require to bring a unit positive charge from one
point to another is called potential between those points.
 Battery: The device which offer potential difference.
 Resistance: The hindrance or obstacle offered by a conductor in the path of electric
current is called resistance.
 Resistor: It is a device that provide resistance in a circuit is resistor.
 Resistivity: The ability of material to offer resistance (resist the path of electric current)
is called resistivity.
 Electric power: The rate of doing work or consuming electrical energy is called
electric power.
 Voltmeter: The device that is used to measure potential difference between two
points.
 Ammeters: the device used to measure electric current in a circuit.
 Circuit: The path taken by electric current. It is always a closed loop
 Circuit diagram: The symbolic representation of a circuit.
 Heating effect of electric current: When electric current is supplied to a purely
resistive conductor, the energy of electric current is dissipated entirely in the form of
heat and as a result, resistor gets heated. The heating of resistor because of dissipation
of electrical energy is commonly known as Heating Effect of Electric Current.
 Galvanometer: It is a device to detect current in an electric circuit.

Conductors and Insulators

A substance which offers comparatively less opposition to the flow of current is known as
conductors. Substances which offer larger opposition to the flow of electric current are
insulators.
Electric Potential and Potential Difference
The electric potential at a point is defined as work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
The potential difference between two points is defined as the difference in electric potentials
between the two given points. It is denoted by the symbol ‘V’
V=W/Q
 SI unit of charge is Volt(V)
 1 Volt is the potential difference between two point when 1J of work done is required
to move a charge of +1C across them.
 A Voltmeter is used to measure potential difference.

Conductors and Insulators

 A cell is a source of potential difference, which is
created inside it due to internal chemical reactions.
 A combination of cells is called a battery.
Electric Current
 The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric
current,
 Electric current is denoted by ’I’
 I=Q/t
 The direction of flow of electric current is from positive terminal to negative
terminal, i.e., opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
 SI Unit of electric current is Ampere(A).
 1 Ampere is the current constituted by the flow of 1C charge in 1s.
 An Ammeter is used to measure electric current.

Electric circuit and circuit diagram

 A closed-loop path which a current
take is called an electric circuit.
 Representation of an electric circuit
through symbols is called a circuit
diagram.

Ohm’s law
If the physical condition remains same, the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the applied potential difference between the two ends of the conductor and
vice a versa. For the current I flowing through a conductor having potential difference V
across its ends, we have:
V∝I
V = IR
 Here R is the constant of proportionality and known as the resistance of the
conductor.
 Value of resistance do not change on changing electric current or potential difference.
Resistance
Resistance is a measure of the opposition offered to the current
flow in an electric circuit. SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
Factors affecting Resistance
Resistance is: directly proportional to the length of the
conductor. R ∝ l
Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
conductor. R ∝ 1/A
Combining the two we have R ∝ l/A
R = ρ l/A
Here ρ is the constant of proportionality and known as resistivity.
Since resistivity depends on temperature and material of the conductor so resistance also
depends on
 Temperature
 Material of the conductor
Resistivity-The electrical resistance offered by a substance of unit length and unit cross-
sectional area is called resistivity.
SI unit of resistivity is ohm meter(Ωm)
Resistivity depends on
 Temperature
 Material of the conductor

Combination of Resistors-
Resistors in series
Two resistors are said to be combined in series if they carry the same current. In this circuit
the following applies.
 I1 = I2 = I3 = I
 Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
 Using ohm’s law V=IR
 IRs=IR1+IR2+IR3
 IRs=I (R1+R2+R3)
 So, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

So, the resultant resistance of the combination of

the resistors in the series is the sum of all resistance
Resistors in parallel
Two resistors are said to be combined in parallel if
the same potential difference is applied to them. In
this circuit,
 I =I1+I2+I3
 Using OHM’s law V=IR => I=V/R
 V/Rp=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3
 V/Rp=V(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)
 1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
Heating Effect of Electric Current
When current passes through a conductor, it produces heat. This phenomenon is called
heating effect of electric current. The amount of heat produced can be given by Joules law.
By definition
 Power P = work done W/time t
 P=W/t
 P=H/t (work done = energy and heat is a form of energy)
 H=PX t
 H=VIt (P=W/t = VQ/t =VI)
 H=I2Rt (V=IR)
Joule’s Law:
 Heat (H) ∝ square of the current (I).
 H ∝ Resistance of the given circuit.
 H ∝ Time (t) for which current flows through the conductor.
 So, H=I2Rt
When a potential difference is established, it causes electrons to move, i.e., flow of current.
Electric Power: The rate of doing work or rate of consumption of electrical energy is
called Electric Power.
• If W is work done in time t, then P=W/t.
 P= VQ/t (V=W/Q => W=VQ)
 P =VI (Q/t= I)
 P= I2R (V=IR)
 P= V2/R (I=V/R)
 S.I unit of power is Watt(W).
One watt of power is consumed when 1 A of current flows at a potential difference of 1 V.

Electrical Energy
 SI unit of energy is Joule(J)
 The commercial unit of electrical energy is a kilowatt-hour (kWh).
 1kWh = 3,600,000J = 3.6×106 J
 One kilowatt-hour is defined as the amount of energy consumed when 1kW of
power is used for 1 hour.
 CHAPTER – 12
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
CONTENT:
 Magnetic effects of current: Magnetic field, field lines
 field due to a current carrying conductor,
 field due to current carrying coil or solenoid;
 Force on current carrying conductor, Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule,
 Direct current. Alternating current: frequency of AC.
 Advantage of AC over DC. Domestic electric circuits.
MIND MAP

MAGIC CARDS
 MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
 Magnet: Magnet is an object that attracts objects made of iron, cobalt and nickel.
Magnet comes to rest in – South direction, when suspended freely.
 Use of Magnets: Magnets are used
In refrigerators.
In radio and stereo speakers.
In audio and video cassette players.
In children ‘s toys.

 Properties of Magnet
i. A free suspended magnet always points towards the north and south
direction.
ii. The pole of a magnet which points toward north direction is called north
pole or north-seeking.
iii. The pole of a magnet which points toward south direction is called
south pole or south seeking.
iv. Like poles of magnets repel each other while unlike poles of magnets
attract each other.
 Magnetic field: The area around a magnet where a magnetic force is experienced
is called the magnetic field. It is a quantity that has both direction and magnitude,
(i.e., Vector quantity).
 Magnetic field and field lines: The influence of force surrounding a magnet is
called magnetic field. In the magnetic field, the force exerted by a magnet can be
detected using a compass or any other magnet.
 The magnetic field is represented by magnetic field lines.
 The imaginary lines of magnetic field around a magnet are called field line or
field line of magnet. When iron fillings are allowed to settle around a bar magnet,
they get arranged in a pattern which mimics the magnetic field lines. Field line
of a magnet can also be detected using a compass. Magnetic field is a vector
quantity, i.e. it has both direction and magnitude.
 Direction of field line: Outside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line
is taken from North Pole to South Pole. Inside the magnet, the direction of
magnetic field line is taken from South Pole to North pole.

 Strength of magnetic field: The closeness of field lines shows the relative
strength of magnetic field, i.e. closer lines show stronger magnetic field and vice
– versa. Crowded field lines near the poles of magnet show more strength.
 Properties of magnetic field lines
i. They do not intersect each other.
ii. It is taken by convention that magnetic field lines emerge from North
pole and merge at the South pole. Inside the magnet, their direction is
from South pole to North pole. Therefore, magnetic field lines are
closed curves.

 Magnetic field lines due to current a current carrying straight conductor

A. A current carrying straight conductor has magnetic field in the form of
concentric circles, around it. Magnetic field of current carrying straight
conductor can be shown by magnetic field lines.
B. The direction of magnetic field through a current carrying conductor depends
upon the direction of flow electric current.

C. Let a current carrying conductor be suspended vertically and the electric

current is flowing from south to north. In this case, the direction of magnetic
field will be anticlockwise. If the current is flowing from north to south, the
direction of magnetic field will be clockwise.
 The direction of magnetic field - In relation to direction of electric current
through a straight conductor can be depicted by using the Right-Hand Thumb
Rule. It is also known as Maxwell ‘s Corkscrew Rule.
 Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule: As per Maxwell ‘s Corkscrew Rule, if the direction
of forward movement of screw shows the direction of the current, then the
direction of rotation of screw shows the direction of magnetic field.
 Right-Hand Thumb Rule: If a current carrying conductor is held by right hand,
keeping the thumb straight and if the direction of electric current is in the
direction of thumb, then the direction of wrapping of other fingers will show the
direction of magnetic field.

 Properties of magnetic field

1. The magnitude of magnetic field increases with increase in electric current and
decreases with decrease in electric current.
2. The magnitude of magnetic field produced by electric current decreases with
increase in distance and vice – versa. The size of concentric circles of magnetic
field lines increases with distance from the conductor, which shows that magnetic
field decreases with distance.
3. Magnetic field lines are always parallel to each other.
4. No two field lines cross each other.
 In case of a circular current carrying conductor, the magnetic field is produced in
the same manner as it is in case of a straight current carrying conductor.
 In case of a circular current carrying conductor, the magnetic field lines would

be in the form of iron concentric circles around every part of the periphery of the
conductor. Since, magnetic field lines tend to remain closer when near to the
conductor, so the magnetic field would be stronger near the periphery of the loop.
On the other hand, the magnetic field lines would be distant from each other when
we move towards the centre of the current carrying loop. Finally, at the centre,
the arcs of big circles would appear as a straight line.

 The direction of the magnetic field can be identified using Right Hand
Thumb ‘s Rule. Let us assume that the current is moving in anti-clockwise
 direction in the loop. In that case, the magnetic field would be in clockwise
direction, at the top of the loop. Moreover, it would be in an anti-clockwise
direction at the bottom of the loop.

 Clock Face Rule: A current carrying loop works like a disc magnet. The polarity
of this magnet can be easily understood with the help of Clock Face Rule. If the
current is flowing in anti – clockwise direction, then the face of the loop shows
north pole. On the other hand, if the current is flowing in clockwise direction,
then the face of the loop shows south pole.

 Magnetic field and number of turns of coil: Magnitude of magnetic field gets
summed up with increase in the number of turns of coil. If there are ‘n‘ turns of
coil, magnitude of magnetic field will be ‘n‘ times of magnetic field in case of a
single turn of coil.
 The strength of the magnetic field at the centre of the loop(coil) depends on -
1. The radius of the coil: The strength of the magnetic field is inversely proportional
to the radius of the coil. If the radius increases, the magnetic strength at the centre
decreases
2. The number of turns in the coil: As the number of turns in the coil increase, the
magnetic strength at the centre increases, because the current in each circular turn
is having the same direction, thus, the field due to each turn adds up.
3. The strength of the current flowing in the coil: As the strength of the current
increases, the strength of three magnetic fields also increases.
4. Magnetic field due to a current in a Solenoid: Solenoid is the coil with many
circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder.
A current carrying solenoid produces similar pattern of magnetic field as a bar
magnet. One end of solenoid behaves as the north pole and another end behaves
as the south pole.
 Magnetic field lines are parallel inside the solenoid, similar to a bar magnet,
which shows that magnetic field is same at all points inside the solenoid.
Magnetic field produced by a solenoid is similar to a bar magnet. The strength of
magnetic field is proportional to the number of turns and magnitude of current.
By producing a strong magnetic field inside the solenoid, magnetic materials can

be magnetized. Magnet formed by producing magnetic field inside a solenoid is

called electromagnet.
 Electromagnet: An electromagnet consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire
wrapped on a soft iron.
 Magnet formed by producing magnetic field inside a solenoid is called
electromagnet.

 Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field: A current carrying

conductor exerts a force when a magnet is placed in its vicinity. Similarly, a
magnet also exerts equal and opposite force on the current carrying conductor.
This was suggested by Marie Ampere, a French Physicist and considered as
founder of science of electromagnetism.

 The direction of force over the conductor gets reversed with the change in
direction of flow of electric current. It is observed that the magnitude of force is
highest when the direction of current is at right angles to the magnetic field.

 Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: If the direction of electric current is perpendicular

to the magnetic field, the direction of force is also perpendicular to both of them.
 The Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule states that if the left hand is
stretched in a way that the index finger, the middle
finger and the thumb are in mutually perpendicular
directions, then the index finger and middle finger of a
stretched left hand show the direction of magnetic field
and direction of electric current respectively and the thumb shows the direction
of motion or force acting on the conductor.
 Many devices, such as electric motor, electric generator, loudspeaker, etc. work
on Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule.
 A.C Current – Alternate Current: Current in which direction is changed
periodically is called Alternate Current. In India, most of the power stations
generate alternate current. The direction of current changes after every 1/100
second in India, i.e., the frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz.
 D.C – Direct Current: Current that flows in one direction only is called Direct
current. Electrochemical cells produce direct current.
Advantages of A.C. over D.C.
1. A.C is transmitted up to a long distance without much loss of energy is advantage
of A.C. over D.C.
2. Cost of generator of A.C is much less than that of D.C.
3. A.C can be easily converted to D.C.
4. A.C can be controlled by the use of choke which involves less loss of power
whereas, D.C can be controlled using resistances which involves high energy
loss.
5. AC can be transmitted over long distances without much loss of energy.
6. AC machines are stout and durable and do not need much maintenance.
 Disadvantages of AC
1. AC cannot be used for the electrolysis process or showing electromagnetism as
it reverses its polarity.
2. AC is more dangerous than DC.

 Domestic Electric Circuits: We receive electric supply through mains supported

through the poles or cables. In our houses, we receive AC electric power of 220
V with a frequency of 50 Hz.
 The 3 wires are as follows
1. Live wire – (Red insulated, Positive)
2. Neutral wire – (Black insulated, Negative)
3. Earth wire – (Green insulated) for safety measure to ensure that any leakage of
current to a metallic body does not give any serious shock to a user.
 Short Circuit: Short-circuiting is caused by the touching of live wires and neutral
wire and sudden a large current flow. It happens due to
1. Damage of insulation in power lines.
2. A fault in an electrical appliance.
3. Overloading of an Electric Circuit: The overheating of electrical wire in any
circuit due to the flow of a large current through it is called overloading of the
electrical circuit.
4. A sudden large number of current flows through the wire, which causes
overheating of wire and may cause fire also.

 Electric Fuse: It is a protective device used for protecting the circuit from short-
circuiting and overloading. It is a piece of thin wire of material having a low
melting point and high resistance.
1. Fuse is always connected to live wire.
2. Fuse is always connected in series to the electric circuit.
3. Fuse is always connected to the beginning of an electric circuit.
4. Fuse works on the heating effect.
 CHAPTER- 13
OUR ENVRONMENT

CONTENT
Eco-system, Environmental problems, Ozone depletion, wastes production and theirsolutions,
Biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.

ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a system consisting of biotic and abiotic components that function together as a
unit.
 Biotic components- all the living things
 Abiotic components - non-living things like water, light, wind, soil etc.
Ecosystem maintains a balance in the nature.
 Natural ecosystem – forest, pond, lake
 Man-made (artificial ecosystem)- crop fields, garden
Producer: autotrophic, perform photosynthesis e.g. green plants, blue green algae
Consumer: consume the food produced
either directly from producer or
indirectly by feeding on other consumers
types of consumers: -
i- Herbivores – deer
ii- Carnivores – lion
iii- Omnivores – cat
iv- Parasites – bacteria
Decomposers: feed on dead and
decomposed products. E.g. fungi, bacteria
Importance of Decomposers –
 Break down dead remains and waste products of organisms.
 Break down the complex organic substance into simple inorganic substances.
 Release minerals into the soil. Thus, helps in maintaining the fertility of soil.
 Clean the environment
 Help in recycling the materials in the biosphere.
FOOD CHAIN
The sequence of living organisms in an ecosystem in which one organism consumes
another organism to transfer food energy, is called a food chain.
For example
i- Grass Goat Tiger
ii- Grass insects frog snake eagle
iii- Planktons insects fish crane
TROPHIC LEVELS:
The various steps in the food chain at which the transfer
of food (or energy) takes place is called trophic levels.
The different trophic levels are – Producers (T1), Primary
consumers (herbivores-T2), Secondary consumers
(primary carnivores -T2), Tertiary consumers (Sec
carnivores -T3), Decomposers

Significance of Food Chains

 The food chain transfer energy from one trophic
level to another.
 Autotrophs Heterotrophs decomposers
 Only 10 % of energy is transferred from one trophic
level to another. Rest of energy is lost as heat, into
doing work, in digestion, growth, reproduction. It is
called 10 % law.
 Help in study of food relationships and interactions
among the various organisms in an ecosystem.

FOOD WEB
It is inter-connected food chains in an ecosystem.
It forms a network of relationship between various species.
In a food web, one organism may occupy a position in more than one food chain.
More stable food chain / food web means more stable ecosystem.
FOOD PYRAMID-
It is graphic representation of food chain.
It may be formed as, depicted as a pyramid having a broad base formed by producers and
tapering to a point formed by end consumers.

BIOMAGNIFICATION

Accumulation of toxic pollutants at successive higher trophic level is called as bio magnification.

OZONE LAYER

 Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.

 Ozone shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun.
 UV radiation is highly damaging to organisms. It may cause even skin cancer in human
beings.
  Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting on
oxygen (O2) molecule.
 The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O2) into free
oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen to form ozone
as shown—
 The ozone layer depletion takes place at higher rate. The major cause is
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.

BIODEGRADABLE AND NON-BIODEGRADABLE WATSES

i- Biodegradable Wastes: These can be broken down by the biological processes.

E.g. Food waste, plant parts, animal wastes, agricultural residue, paper etc.
Decomposers can decompose these without harming ecosystem. Food waste, trees
leaves, urine and fecal matter, sewage agricultural residue, paper, wood, cloth, cow-
dung etc.
ii- Non-biodegradable waste- these can ‘t be broken down by biological processes.
E.g. - Chemical pesticides, DDT, mercury, lead, plastics, polythene bags etc.
These wastes are major pollutants of the environment.

MAINTAININMG THE GARBAGE WE PRODUE

 Change in attitudes toward using only biodegradable items.

 Proper disposal of wastes
 Follow Sewage treatment norms
 3 ‗R ‘principle- reduce, recycle, reuse

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Very Short Answer Type Question
Q1-The flow of energy in the food chain is unidirectional. Why?
Ans . Energy lost as heat from the living organism of a food chain cannot be reused by the plants in
photosynthesis
Q 2- In a food chain, 10,000 joules of energy is available to the producer. How much energy
will be available to the secondary consumer to transfer it to the tertiary consumer?
Ans: 10 J
Q 3- Producers always occupy the first trophic level in any food chain. Why?
Ans: Only producers have the ability to trap solar energy and manufacture organic food through
the process of photosynthesis.
Q 4 - Name any two abiotic components of an environment.
Answer:
(a) Climatic factors (light, temperature, rainfall)
(b) Edaphic factor (Soil)
Q 5- Give any two ways in which biodegradable substance would affect the environment.
Ans: They keep the environment clean as they are easily decomposed.
They can easily go through the geochemical cycle with the help of decomposers.

Short Answer Type Question

Q6-What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
Ans: i- The organisms in specific trophic level will not be able to get the food
ii-It will cause a disturbance in food chain and therefore ecological imbalance will take place.
Q7- Why is a lake considered to be a natural ecosystem?
Ans: In Lake living organisms grow, reproduce and interact with other biotic and abiotic
components. In lake different components carry out all activities in nature by themselves without
any human interference; therefore, it is referred to as a natural ecosystem.
Q 8 - How can we help in reducing the problem of waste disposal? List two ways.
Ans: i-Separation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes
ii-Preparation of compost / vermicomposting from biodegradable waste
iii-Recycling of waste
Q 9- Which gas shield the surface of earth from harmful radiation of the sun. why these
radiations are supposed to be harmful for us?
Answer- Ozone gas
Harmful radiation of the sun like UV radiation may causes skin cancer, cataract, fall in immunity
in infants, decline in photosynthesis rate etc
Q 10- In a certain study conducted on the occurrence of DDT along food chains in an
ecosystem, the concentration of DDT in grass was found to be 0-5 ppm. In sheep, it was 2
ppm and in man it was 10 ppm. Name the phenomenon and define?
Ans: Bio-magnification
Bio-magnification is the increase in the level of a toxic substance with each successive rise in the
trophic level of a food chain.
Long Answer Type Questions

Q11- Why bacteria and fungi are called decomposers? List any two advantages of
decomposers to the environment.

Answer: Decomposers degrade breakdown the complex organic substances into simple inorganic
substances that go into the soil and are used up once more by the plants.
Advantages:
i- Clean environment by decomposing dead bodies of plants/ animals
ii- Replenish nutrients (Inorganic substance) into soil
iii- Helps in Nutrient recycling

Q12- Answer the followings-

i- What is ozone? How is it formed in the atmosphere?

ii- How ozone layer is useful
iii- Name the substances responsible for the depletion of ozone layer.
 Ans:
i- Ozone is triatomic form of oxygen, O3. Ozone is formed in the
upper atmosphereby the action of ultraviolet (UV) radiations over
oxygen (O2)
ii- It protects us from harmful UV radiation of sun.
iii- The important ozone depleting substances chlorofluorocarbons
(CFC), methane,N2O, chlorine.

Q13- (a) Write two harmful effects of using plastic bags on the environment.
Suggestalternatives to the usage of plastic bags.
(b) List any two practices that can be followed to dispose of the waste
produced in ourhomes.
Ans: (a) Harmful effects of using plastic bags:
(i) These are non-biodegradable substances. They cannot be decomposed and
therefore remainsas pollutants in nature for many years.
(ii) The plastic bags choke drains and causes waterlogging.
(iii) The plastic release harmful chemicals in soil, water
slowly over to years.Jute bags and cloth bags are the
alternatives to the polyethene bags.
(b) Practices to dispose of the waste produced in our homes:
(i) Separation of biodegradable and non-
biodegradable wastes.(ii)The biodegradable
waste can be converted to manure.
(iii) Non-biodegradable waste should be disposed of at suitable places from
where municipalauthorities can pick them up and dispose properly and
scientifically.
(iv) Reuse the waste
Q14- Draw a line diagram to show flow of solar energy in ecosystem
Ans:

Q 15- In the following food chain, 100 J of energy is available to the lion. How
much energywas available to the producer?
Ans : simple food chain
Plants ———> Deer ———> Lion.
As per 10 % law only 10 % of energy is transferred to
next trophic level-Energy available to deer = 100J x 10 =
1000 J
Energy available to plants = 1000 x 10 = 10,000 J