Spatial Data Models
Data Model
• What is Data Model?
• Specify structure or schema of a data set
• Document description of data
• Facilitates early analysis of some properties, e.g. querying ability,
redundancy, consistency, storage space requirements, etc.
• Why Data Models?
• Data models facilitate
• Early analysis of properties, e.g. storage cost, querying ability, ...
• Reuse of shared data among multiple applications
• Exchange of data across organization
• Conversion of data to new software / environment
• Examples??
GIS organize spatial set as a set of layers
Databases organize dataset as a collection of tables
Types of Data Models
Generic
Spatial
data
models Set of concepts
models Developed for
developed in
business data
Geographic Info.
processing
Science
Support simple
Common spatial
abstract data types
ADTs across
(ADTs), e.g.
different GIS
numbers, strings,
applications
date
Not convenient for
spatial ADTs, e.g.
polygons
Models of Spatial Information
Two common models
Field based
Object based
Field based Model
Three main concepts:
Spatial Framework
Field Functions
Field Operations
Spatial Framework and field function
Spatial Framework is a partitioning of space
e.g., Grid imposed by Latitude and Longitude
Field Functions:
f: Spatial Framework Attribute Domain
Forested area
Agriculture
Raster data
e.g. Satellite data
(Basic unit- pixel/
cell)
Field operations
Field Operations (operations between fields)
Local
Focal
Zonal
Global
Field operations : Local
Local: value of the new field at a given location in the
spatial frame-work depends only on the value of the input
field at that location (e.g., Thresholding)
Field operations : Focal
Focal: value of the resulting field at a given location
depends on the values that the input field assumes in a
small neighborhood of the location(e.g., Gradient)
Field operations : Zonal
Zonal: Zonal operations are naturally associated
with aggregate operators or the integration
function.
An operation that calculates the average height of
the trees for each species is a zonal operation.
Field operations : Global
Global: output at a given location depends on input in
all locations
Example Distance from nearest facility
Object Model
Object model concepts
Objects: distinct identifiable things relevant to an application
Objects have attributes and operations
Attribute: a simple (e.g. numeric, string) property of an object
Operations: function maps object attributes to other objects
Spatial Objects
• Spatial objects are spatial attributes of general objects
• Spatial objects are of many types
• Simple
• 0- dimensional (points), 1 dimensional (curves), 2 dimensional
(surfaces)
• Collections
• Multipoint, multiline and multipolygon collection
Database Structure
Spatial databases are a type of database management
system specifically designed to store, manage, and analyze
spatial data, which is data that has a geographic or spatial
aspect to it, such as points, lines, polygon shapes, and
geographic coordinates.
The structure of a spatial database is typically based on the
Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Simple Feature Access
standard, which defines the structure and content of the
data stored in the database.
Entity Relationship Model
The Entity Relationship (ER) model is a way of modeling and
representing data in a database. In a spatial database
management system, the ER model is used to represent
geographical data, such as maps, land use patterns, and location-
based information.
A spatial database management system extends the traditional ER
model by adding additional features to handle spatial data.
Entity Relationship Model
In spatial database management, the ER model includes additional
features to support the storage and manipulation of geographical data.
Some of these features include:
Spatial Attributes: In spatial databases, entities can have additional
attributes that represent their location in the real world, such as
coordinates or polygon shapes.
Spatial Relationships: Spatial databases can define relationships between
entities based on their spatial proximity or overlap, such as “nearby” or
“within”.
Spatial Indexing: Spatial databases can use specialized indexing
techniques, such as R-trees, to optimize spatial queries and provide fast
access to spatial data.
Spatial Operators: Spatial databases provide a set of operators for
performing spatial queries, such as “within a certain distance from a
point”, or “intersects with a polygon”.
Support for Multiple Coordinate Systems: Spatial databases support
multiple coordinate systems, such as Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
and Projected Coordinate System (PCS), and provide tools for converting
between them.
Entity Relationship Model
3 basic concepts
Entities have an independent conceptual or physical existence.
Examples: Forest, Road, Manager, ...
Entities are characterized by Attributes
Example: Forest has attributes of name, elevation, etc.
An Entity interacts with another Entity through relationships.
Road allow access to Forest interiors.
This relationship may be name “Accesses”
Comparison with Object model of spatial information
Entities are collections of attributes are like objects
However ER model does not permit general user defined
operations
Relationships are not directly supported in Object model
but may be simulated via operations
