Internship Report

FPCL

Muhammad Mohsin Adnan Sartaj

Contents

Preface ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Safety ........................................................................................................................................................... 4
Personnel Protective Equipment’s (PPE’s): .......................................................................................... 4
Safety Trainings and Drills ...................................................................................................................... 5
Environmental Care ................................................................................................................................ 5
Internship Experience............................................................................................................................. 5
Work Permit Procedures ......................................................................................................................... 5
FFBL Power Company Limited:............................................................................................................... 6
CASH ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Coal Handling ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Fly Ash Handling Plant......................................................................................................................... 7
Bottom Ash Handling .......................................................................................................................... 7
Sorbent Handling and Transfer: ........................................................................................................ 8
Boiler: ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
Working Principle ................................................................................................................................ 9
Fuel Burning System ......................................................................................................................... 10
Major Components of Boiler:............................................................................................................ 10
Steam Turbine Generator ..................................................................................................................... 12
For FFBL: ............................................................................................................................................ 12
For National Grid................................................................................................................................ 13
STGs Unit Control Panel:................................................................................................................... 14
Balance of Plant (BoP): ......................................................................................................................... 15
Cooling Tower: ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Types of Cooling Towers................................................................................................................... 18
Key Learnings ........................................................................................................................................... 20
CONTINUOUS PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................ 20
Temperature .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Flow ........................................................................................................................................................ 24
Level: ...................................................................................................................................................... 25
Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................................... 25

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 Preface
As an engineering student it is extremely important to get a feel of what goes on in the industry
before you step foot in it. FPCL proved to be that training ground for me, a place where I learn a lot,
developed my interest about power generation and brushed up my concepts regarding engineering
and gained an insight of what goes on in an industrial working environment.

This report is based on the training and knowledge I gained during this 4-week internship here at
FFBL Power Company Limited. It focuses majorly on the knowledge about electrical,
instrumentations and plant process, that I acquired during this internship program. I visited the
plant site, observed the things being done at different sections, different areas.

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Introduction
Established as a subsidiary of Fauji Fertilizer bin Ǫasim Limited (FFBL) in 2014, FPCL is dedicated
to producing reliable and efficient energy to meet the power requirements of FFBL. FPCL embarked
on a journey to build a coal-fired power plant, commencing commercial operations in May 2017.

FPCL has another distinct feature in the sense that it is generating power at two different
frequencies i.e. 50 Hz and 60 Hz, to meet its client’s power and operational requirements as under:

 K-Electric – 50 Hz
 Fauji Fertilizer bin Ǫasim Limited (FFBL) – 60 Hz

The power plant is located at Eastern Industrial Zone of Port Ǫasim, Karachi in the province of
Sindh, on approximately 100 acres of land adjacent to Fauji Fertilizer bin Ǫasim (FFBL) complex.

The installed capacity of the power-plant is 118 MW. The distribution of power across the generator
is described in the table below:

Generator Power Generated (MW) Frequency (Hz)

STG-1 24 60

STG-2 24 60

STG-3 10 60

STG-4 60 50

FPCL plant is based on state-of-the-art components including

 2 x 250 Metrics ton per hour CFB’s (Circulating Fluidized Bed) boilers

imported from Hyundai Heavy Industries (HHI)- South Korea.

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The mentioned CFB has following prominent features:

1. Environmentally friendly with low NOx and SOx emissions

2. High Thermal efficiency
3. Fuel flexibility i.e. it can burn a wide range of coal quality from imported to local.

FPCL power block has the capability to generate power on both 50Hz and 60 Hz and is based on
Steam Turbine Generators (STG) supplied by General Electric (GE)-Europe. Plant operation is
controlled through the latest Distributed Control System (DCS) and safety systems. Seamless
power supply to K-Electric network is ensured through 132 KV Grid station based on the latest
technology of Alstom-Europe.

FPCL holds generational license No. (SGC/111/2015) from NEPRA and has commenced its
commercial operation since 19th May 2017.

Safety
Safety is the cornerstone of FPCL's operations, underscoring its commitment to protecting its
employees, the community, and the environment. Recognizing the inherent risks associated with
power generation, FPCL has instituted rigorous safety protocols and continuous training programs
to mitigate potential hazards.

The company prioritizes a safety-first culture, ensuring that all procedures and practices adhere to
the highest industry standards. This unwavering dedication to safety not only fosters a secure
working environment but also enhances operational efficiency and reliability.

Personnel Protective Equipment’s (PPE’s):

To keep everyone safe, FPCL provides the following protective gear:

1. Safety Helmets and Shoes: Must be worn at the plant site.

2. Goggles: To protect against liquids and gases.
3. Gloves: To protect against dirt and heat.
4. Respiratory Masks: With filters for safe breathing.
5. Ear Plugs: To protect ears from loud noises.

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Safety Trainings and Drills:
New employees at FPCL undergo comprehensive safety training, which includes handling
emergencies such as ammonia leaks or fires. Regular refresher sessions ensure that all personnel
remain vigilant and well-prepared. Additionally, workers receive basic first aid training. Weekly
emergency drills are integral to FPCL's training regimen, equipping staff to respond effectively to
any crisis. FPCL's commitment to safety is evident in its exemplary safety record, having completed
projects without any Lost Time Injuries.

Environmental Care:
FPCL takes extra care of the environment by ensuring emissions are well below the standards set by
the World Bank, NEǪS Pak, and EPA. The CFB Boiler technology helps in producing lower amounts
of NOx and Sox.

Internship Experience:
On the first day of my internship, I attended a comprehensive safety meeting along with all the other
intern students. The meeting emphasized the importance of safety, and the necessary Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) required before entering the plant site. We were thoroughly briefed on
how to respond in emergency situations and alarm protocols. The meeting covered essential topics
such as:

1. The significance of safety in the workplace.

2. Mandatory PPE requirements for plant site access.
3. Emergency response procedures.
4. Alarm protocols and evacuation procedures

This meeting was a valuable introduction to the importance of safety in the workplace and prepared
us for our internship experience. It emphasized that safety is everyone's responsibility and that we
must always prioritize it and should practice always.

Work Permit Procedures:

The Operations Department manages all work activities. No unauthorized person or department
can carry out work. A work permit, issued in a specific format, is required for any task. Types of
Work Permits:

 Cold Work Permit: Needed for routine repairs and inspections that do not involve flames or
sparks.
 Hot Work Permit: Required for tasks involving open flames, electric arcs, sparks, welding,
and cutting.
 Vessel Entry Permit: Needed for entering confined spaces like towers, vessels, storage
tanks, deep excavations, columns, reactors, and sewer systems.
 Excavation Work Permit: Issued for any excavation work inside the plant.
 Vehicle Entry Permit: Required for any vehicle entering the work area.
 Radiography Work Permit: Needed for any radiographic testing in the plant.

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FFBL Power Company Limited:
FPCL complex is basically divided into two ends

1. Front End
2. Back End

The power plant’s backend handles raw materials, particularly coal, which is prepared and
processed for combustion. This prepared coal is then fed into the frontend, where it’s burned in the
furnace to generate steam. Steam drives turbines to produce electricity. The backend and frontend
are closely connected, with the efficiency of power generation depending on the seamless flow of
materials from the backend to the frontend.

CASH
CASH stands for Coal Ash and Sorbent handling.

At FFBL Power Company Ltd., the efficient handling of coal, ash, and sorbents is crucial for smooth
operations. The process includes coal delivery, weighing, transfer, crushing, and storage, all aimed
at maintaining a consistent and reliable fuel supply for power generation. Additionally, proper ash
management and the use of sorbents play a significant role in reducing the environmental impact
of the power plant.

Coal Handling:
Coal is delivered to the power plant by trucks, primarily from Thar. Upon arrival, the coal is
unloaded onto an underground conveyor belt. To minimize dust, Water Fog Pumps (S7) spray water
on the coal during this process. Level transmitters (LTs) measure the quantity of coal being loaded
onto the conveyor.

The coal is first directed to Transfer Tower TT-1. Here, four belt
weighers measure the amount of coal being transferred. From TT-1,
the coal can take two routes: one conveyor bypasses the stack and
delivers coal directly to Transfer Tower TT-3, while the other conveyor
transports the coal to the Coal Shed via a stacker.

At Transfer Tower TT-2, coal drops into a dumper and is directed either
to the stack conveyor or the bypass conveyor. The stack conveyor
transfers coal to the stacker in the Coal Shed, where it is stored. The
Coal Shed features Solenoid Operating Valves (SOVs) that spray water
to control dust.

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Coal from the shed is reclaimed by a reclaimer, which transfers it to
Transfer Tower TT-4. From TT-5, the coal moves to the crusher house,
passing through Metal Detectors that use electromagnetic fields (EMF)
to detect and trip the conveyor if metal is detected.

In the crusher house, the coal is ground to the required size of 1mm.
Larger particles are sent to a grinder, while smaller particles continue
the conveyor to Transfer Tower TT-6. The processed coal is then
transferred from TT-6 to TT-7. Finally, from TT-7, the coal is conveyed to
the Tripper Car, which drops it into the coal bins for storage.

Fly Ash Handling Plant:

After combustion, the resulting flue gases contain harmful components like NOx and SOx. These
gases are collected by an Induced Draft (ID) fan and directed to a baghouse, where fly ash is
removed through bottom hoppers. The cleaned gases are then safely released through the stack.

To mitigate the harmful effects of NOx and SOx emissions, sorbents are added to the flue gases
within the furnace. This process reduces the reactivity of the gases, making them less harmful to
the environment.

The pipe transferring ash to the main silo is long, requiring multiple density stabilizers to ensure
consistency before reaching the silo. There are two types of ash outputs: dry and wet. Dry ash is
primarily supplied to companies for cement production and is transported in sealed containers.
Wet ash, intended for landfill disposal, is transported in trucks with open ends. The ash is
moistened to prevent it from becoming airborne and to keep it contained.

The silo is equipped with the same sensors as those used in the Sorbent silos, along with heaters
for the air used in the fluidization process. Additionally, there are two chutes for dry and wet ash.
The ash descends through a manually operated flashboard valve, passes through a dome valve, and
then a flow control valve. Wet ash is further treated by spraying it with water, passing it through an
Electro Motion Rotating Feeder, and finally, directing it to the wet ash unloader.

Bottom Ash Handling:

After coal combustion, the resulting bottom ash settles at the bottom of the furnace. This ash is
collected and then passes through a bottom ash cooler. The cooler helps reduce the temperature
of the ash. Finally, the cooled bottom ash is collected for further processing.

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Sorbent Handling and Transfer:
Lime is delivered to the power plant by trucks and unloaded into the
limestone yard. Conveyors then transport the lime from the yard to the
sorbent crusher area, where it is stacked in bins. Since lime often
arrives in a rock-like form, it must be ground into smaller particles to
be more effective. This is done using column mills.

The ground lime is then moved through limestone conveyor

compressors, which generate pressurized air at 7 bars. This
pressurized air aids the flow of the sorbent (lime) through pipes,
eventually depositing it into the sorbent bins located at each boiler.
Each boiler has a dedicated bin for storing both coal and sorbent.

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Boiler:
The primary function of a boiler is to convert water into steam. This process occurs by heating water
within pipes using heat generated from fuel combustion. Combustion takes place continuously in
the combustion chamber, with a steady supply of fuel and air from external sources.

The steam produced is superheated,

characterized by high temperature and
high pressure. The quantity of steam
generated is dependent on factors such
as the heat transfer surface area, flow
rate, and the amount of heat produced
during combustion. The boiler is
constructed as a water tube boiler,
consisting of pipes filled with water.

FPCL uses Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) technology, it is an innovative approach that has
gained importance due to its effectiveness in reducing pollutant emissions.

Key features of CFB technology includes:

 Environmentally Friendly: Low emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx),
which help meet stringent environmental regulations.
 High Thermal Efficiency: Efficient conversion of fuel into energy, reducing waste and
improving overall performance.
 Fuel Flexibility: Ability to burn a wide range of coal qualities, from imported to local, offering
adaptability to various fuel sources.

CFB Boiler Specifications at FPCL:

 Total Steam Generation: 500 Metric Tons per Hour.

 Steam Temperature: Approximately 515°C.
 Steam Pressure: Approximately 92 bar.

Working Principle
The CFB Boiler operates by fluidizing a bed of material with primary air, which enhances
combustion efficiency and heat transfer. The combustion process is staged, with primary and
secondary air admitted at various levels to ensure complete combustion. The system includes a
hot loop comprising the combustor, cyclone separator, and return leg, which facilitates the
circulation and complete combustion of particles.

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The boiler, commonly known as a steam generator, plays a crucial role in the power plant cycle by
converting water into steam. This closed vessel uses heat from fuel combustion to efficiently
produce steam, which is vital for electricity generation and significantly influences the plant's
overall performance and productivity. The boiler's components are organized into three primary
systems:

1. Steam and Water System

2. Air and Gas System

Fuel Burning System

Major Components of Boiler:
Economizer:
An economizer is a mechanical device which is used as a heat exchanger by preheating a fluid to
reduce energy consumption. In a steam boiler, it is a heat ex-changer device that heats up fluids or
recovers residual heat from the combustion product i.e. flue gases in the thermal power plant,
before being released through the chimney. Flue gases are the combustion exhaust gases
produced at power plants that consist of mostly nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, soot carbon
monoxide etc.
Steam Drum:
A steam drum is a standard feature of a water-tube boiler. It is a
reservoir of water/steam at the top end of the water tubes. The drum
stores the steam generated in the water tubes and acts as a phase-
separator for the steam/water mixture. The steam drum separates
steam from the steam/water mixture and keeps the separated steam
dry.

Superheaters
Superheaters are bundles of boiler tubing located in the blow path of the hot gases that are created
by the combustion of fuel in the boiler furnace. Heat is transferred from the combustion gases to
the steam in the superheater tubes. Superheaters are classified as primary and secondary. Steam
passes first through the primary superheater (located in a relatively cool section of the boiler) after
leaving the steam drum. There the steam receives a fraction of its final superheat and then passes
through the secondary superheater for the remainder.
Reheaters:

Reheaters are bundles of boiler tubes that are exposed to combustion gases in the same manner
as superheaters.

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Baghouse
A baghouse is a significant air pollution control device that
filters particulates like dust, ash, soot, and other impurities
from boiler exhaust. Essentially, it's a large enclosure that
contains filter "bags" designed to capture and remove
pollutants. Industrial baghouses occasionally require
personnel to enter for tasks such as cleaning, maintenance,
and replacing the bags.

Stack of Steam Boiler

A stack is a device used to release combustion products at a high elevation to minimize
disturbances from ash, smoke, and soot, and to disperse the gases. For flue gases to flow through
various components of a steam boiler system such as the furnace, superheater, and economizer,
sufficient draft is needed. This draft can be created by fans, like forced draft or induced draft fans,
to overcome pressure losses in the system. Additionally, the stack's height and the temperature
difference between the outside air and the flue gases can also help generate the necessary draft.

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Steam Turbine Generator:
Steam turbines use high-pressure steam to turn electricity generators at incredibly high speeds, so
they rotate much faster than either wind or water turbines. The basic parts of stream turbines are
blades and rotors. A set of blades is known as a stage. They also have steam inlets (usually a set of
nozzles) and outlets. Two independent mechanisms, known as governors, are used to ensure safe
operation of the turbine.

The company shortlisted world-renowned companies and chose General Electric as the potential
supply for the four STGs.

For FFBL:
FPCL was established as an alternative fuel source for steam and power generation due to the
shortage of natural gas. Consequently, three out of four steam turbine generators (STGs) were
designated for this purpose. Since the FFBL plant was imported from the USA, it requires a
frequency of 60 Hz, which is provided by the respective generators. Out of the three, two 24 MW
condensing steam turbine generators are used to provide power to the FFBL plant.

One back pressure turbine which serves a dual purpose.

 It takes steam from the system and reduces its temperature and pressure to meet the
requirements for FFBL’s operation.
 The remaining steam is used to generate an additional 10 MW of power through a
connected generator.

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For National Grid:
The remaining generator having a capacity to produce power of 60 MW operating at 50 Hz is used to
transmit power to K-Electric. The generator produces a voltage of 11 KV which is then transmitted at
a voltage of 132 KV to Dhabeji and BOC substations. During our internship we visited power grid
station and were amazed by looking at the state-of-the-art facilities, the instructor over there gave
us a detailed interview about the components that were placed there and tested our knowledge
regarding power generation.

After our visit to the grid, we proceeded to the control room, where the respective control panels for
Dhabeji and BOC were installed. These panels were equipped with the latest protection systems by
ALSTOM. Additionally, we examined the circuit flow diagram.

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STGs Unit Control Panel:
Each Steam Turbine Generator (STG) is equipped with a dedicated Unit Control Panel (UCP)
designed to monitor and manage its operations. These UCPs are critical for ensuring efficient
performance and safety. This report outlines the configuration of the Unit Control Panel (UCP) for
the Steam Turbine Generator (STG) at FFBL Power Company Ltd. The system integrates various
components to provide effective control and monitoring of turbine operations. Additionally, the STG
setup includes redundancy measures to ensure continuous operation; if one component fails,
another system is ready to take over.

A key element of the STG unit is the Bentley Nevada 3500 system, which offers advanced vibration
monitoring and protection. This system is connected to critical points within the STG to enable early
detection of any mechanical issues, thereby ensuring safe and efficient operation.

In this context, the Unit Control Panel plays a pivotal role in overseeing the operations of the Steam
Turbine Generators (STG).

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Balance of Plant (BoP):
Balance of Plant (BoP) system oversees the entire plant. It is a system designed to regulate and
manage the remaining plant components to ensure reliable and efficient power generation. The
BoP system controls and monitors various devices, valves, gauges, fuel levels, and pumps
electronically through multiple subsystems. It operates by assessing current conditions (such as
the rate of fuel injection), comparing these with preset reference values, and adjusting the system
components (like fuel valves and pumps) to align with these references or within predefined
tolerance levels.

BOP (Balance of Plant) system in a boiler refers to the auxiliary systems and equipment that
support the operation of the boiler. The BOP system includes:

1. Deaerator
2. BFW Pumps
3. Instrument Air Compressor
4. Compressed Air Dryer
5. CO2 Protection System in Bins
6. PRDS System
7. Chemical Dosing
Deaerator:
Removing dissolved gases from boiler feedwater is essential for maintaining steam system
efficiency. Dissolved oxygen can cause rapid corrosion in boiler tubes, while dissolved carbon
dioxide decreases pH levels, forming corrosive carbonic acid. Low pH levels can lead to significant
acid damage throughout the boiler system.

While chemical treatments can manage dissolved gases and pH levels, a more cost-effective and
thermally efficient solution is mechanical gas removal through deaeration. This process takes place
in a deaerator vessel.

Key Benefits of a Deaerator:

 Enhanced boiler efficiency

 Reduced chemical treatment expenses
 Extended boiler lifespan
 Improved steam quality
 Lower operational costs

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Boiler Feed Water Pumps:
Boiler feed water pumps are vital in power plants for transporting high-temperature, non-corrosive
fluids under high pressure. These multi-stage pumps can handle temperatures up to 210°C and
operate at a design pressure of 121 bar, ensuring effective water circulation and replenishment in
the boilers.

The pumps are designed with a robust structure, connecting the inlet and outlet to the central
section via a pull rod system. Their centrifugal mechanism, powered by an impeller's rotation,
generates the necessary pressure for efficient water movement.

Boiler feed water pumps use variable volume operation to perform suction, compression, and
exhaust processes. This design allows them to achieve high vacuum conditions and perform
effectively within the mechanical vacuum pump’s working range.

Key Features of Boiler Feed Water Pumps:

 Capable of handling high temperatures

 Sturdy construction
 Efficient operation
 Vacuum capability

Instrument Air Compressor:

The Instrument Air Compressors are used for several plant operations, where there is need of
Moisture and oil Free air. CIK-1011 Model Instrument Air compressors are used.

The plant utilizes three instrument air compressors, labeled A, B, and

S. These compressors operate on a redundancy basis, meaning one
or two are active at any given time while the third remains on standby.
This setup ensures continuous operation and reliability, minimizing
downtime.

Instrument air is essential for various parts of the plant, including

Solenoid Operated Valves (SOVs).

 It is also used for operating different instruments like grinders

and screwdrivers.
 The air is specifically treated to be moisture-free, which is
crucial for preventing rust and corrosion in sensitive instruments
 The moisture free nature of the instrument air is vital for maintaining the integrity and
longevity of the instruments. Moisture can cause rust and other forms of corrosion, leading
to potential failures and maintenance issues.

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Compressed Air Dryer:
An air dryer is a vital component in systems that use compressed air, tasked with removing
moisture before the air reaches downstream equipment. Ambient air typically has a relative
humidity of 30 to 50%, but when compressed, this moisture concentration can increase to 100%,
leading to condensation and potentially harmful water
droplets that can affect plant operations and equipment
reliability.

Key Benefits of an Air Dryer:

 Removes moisture from compressed air

 Prevents water condensation
 Reduces the risk of scaling
 Maintains high air quality
 Enhances system efficiency

Service Air Instrument Air

Used for machines and processes where air Requires exceptionally clean and dry air for
quality is less critical. powering pneumatic instruments like control
valve positioners.

CO2 protection system:

The CO2 protection system in coal surge bins at boiler power plants is a vital safety measure
designed to mitigate the risk of fire and explosion caused by the spontaneous combustion of coal.
This system ensures that the environment within the coal surge bins remains inert, thereby
preventing the ignition of coal dust and other combustible materials.

Coal storage and handling present significant fire hazards due to the propensity of coal to self-heat
and spontaneously combust when exposed to air. The CO2 protection system addresses this risk by
maintaining a non-combustible atmosphere inside the coal surge bins.

Pressure Reduction De-super heating System:

In a boiler, a pressure reducing de-superheating system
is typically used to reduce the pressure and
temperature of superheated steam before it enters
various equipment or processes that require lower
pressure or temperature steam. This system is crucial
for maintaining the proper operating conditions and
ensuring the safety and efficiency of the boiler.

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Chemical Dosing in Boiler Water Treatment:
Chemical dosing is a crucial aspect of boiler water treatment, aimed at controlling impurities and
maintaining optimal water quality to ensure efficient and safe boiler operation. The system involves
the precise addition of various chemicals to the boiler water, targeting issues such as corrosion,
scaling, and foaming. The primary chemicals used in this process include hydrazine, trisodium
phosphate, and amines.

Cooling Tower:
A cooling tower is a device used to remove
heat from water by transferring the process
waste heat into the atmosphere. In an
industrial setting, like at FFBL Power
Company Limited (FPCL), a cooling tower
operates on the principle of evaporative
cooling. A small portion of water is
evaporated, and the process waste heat is
transferred into the atmosphere. At FPCL, the
cooling tower comprises six cells, each
equipped with a fan powered at 160 kW.

Types of Cooling Towers:

Cooling towers are categorized based on their design and operational methods. The main types
include:
Natural Draft Cooling Towers:
These towers leverage the natural buoyancy of hot air to facilitate air circulation. They are
characterized by their tall, cylindrical structures and operate on the chimney effect,
eliminating the need for mechanical fans. Natural draft cooling towers are commonly used
in large power plants and refineries due to their effectiveness in managing substantial
cooling loads.

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Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers:
These towers employ mechanical fans to circulate air and are divided into two types:
a. Forced Draft Cooling Towers: Fans are positioned at the base of the tower, pushing
air upwards through the fill media. This design enhances the cooling process by
increasing the contact time between air and water.
b. Induced Draft Cooling Towers: Fans are located at the top of the tower, drawing air
upwards through the fill media. This setup can be configured for counterflow or
crossflow, optimizing cooling efficiency.

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Key Learnings
This internship offered me a chance to learn about many key concepts related to the field of
engineering and instrumentation.

The 4 basics of instrumentation One of the primary goals of this internship was to learn about the 4
basic elements of instrumentation namely pressure, flow, temperature, level, vibration and control
valves. This internship provided me with a great opportunity to gain in-depth theoretical knowledge
of the subject and provided me with practical exposure too.

CONTINUOUS PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Pressure is one of the primary variables for process measurement. Many industrial Measurements
such asflow, liquid level, liquid density and weight are inferred from pressure. Hence, pressure is a
veryimportant quantity to measure and measure accurately. A few important pressure measuring
technologiesare described below.

Manometers
A manometer is a simple device for measuring pressure, consisting of a fluid-filled tube where gas
pressure causes a proportional shift in fluid height. This is why pressure is often measured in units
like inches of water or inches of mercury. It is also possible to use manometer as a gauge pressure
instrument,comparing the pressure applied to one side with atmospheric pressure on the other
side.

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Types of manometers:

 U-Shaped Manometers
U-Shaped manometers, commonly used for calibration bench work, are
typically made frommetal cisterns and glass tubes.

1)

 Inclined and Well Manometer

Inclined manometers are used for low pressure application, owing to their
exceptional sensitivity.In addition to it, in case of well manometer the user
only has to read one liquid measurement andnot the difference of two liquid
levels.

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Mechanical Pressure Elements
Mechanical pressure elements consist of bellows, bourdon tubes and diaphragm. The elastic
propertieswill cause a motion proportional to the applied pressure which can be measured.

 Bellows
increasing pressure causes the bellows to expand hence causing proportional
needle deflection tomeasure pressure using gears.

 Diaphragm
A thin disk bows outward when pressure is applied to it. This causes a shaft to rotate
which inturn causes proportional needle deflection that can be used to measure
pressure.

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  Bourdon Tube
Spring-like metal alloys bent into circular shape. When pressure is applied the
material tries tostraighten itself causing a needle deflection, with the help of gears,
proportional to pressure applied. It can be in spiral or helical form for higher ranges.

Temperature:
The degree of heat present in a system. Temperature control is vital for processes like combustion
and chemical reactions. Instruments like RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) and
thermocouples are commonly used to measure temperature of various instruments and plant
operations.
RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) :
RTDs operate on the principle that the electrical resistance of a metal changes with temperature.
The resistance of the RTD element increases with temperature, and this change in resistance is
measured and converted into a temperature reading.

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Thermocouples:
Thermocouples work based on the Seebeck effect, which states that a voltage (Seebeck voltage) is
generated when there is a temperature difference between two dissimilar metals joined at one end.
This voltage is proportional to the temperature difference and can be measured to determine the
temperature. Its Range is around 1400-1500C, and its graph is not so linear, hence Thermocouples
are not so precise. Seebeck Effect: When two different metals are joined at one end and exposed to
different temperatures at the junctions, a voltage is produced due to the movement of electrons
from the hot junction to the cold junction.
Comparison for Plant Operations

• Accuracy: RTDs are generally more accurate and stable over a wide range of
temperatures compared to thermocouples.
• Response Time: Thermocouples typically have a faster response time than RTDs,
making them suitable for applications where rapid temperature changes occur.
• Durability: Thermocouples are more rugged and can withstand higher temperatures
and harsher environments than RTDs.

Flow:
Flow refers to the rate at which a fluid (liquid or gas) moves through a system. Flow Transmitters and
sensors help in monitoring and controlling the flow rate to ensure the process operates within
desired parameters. There are also Flow Control Valve that control the amount of Flow.

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Level:
This indicates the height of a fluid in a container or vessel. Level sensors and transmitters are used
to maintain the correct fluid levels, preventing overflow or dry running of equipment.

Conclusion:
FPCL provided me with an opportunity to learn. Not only that, but the experienced professionals
here helped me understand many theoretical concepts of Instrumentation and Electrical and
guided me throughout the course of my internship.

I would conclude my experience at FPCL as truly once in a lifetime chance and a great learning
opportunity.

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