Bean-Curd Consumption in Hong Kong

Author(s): Sidney W. Mintz and Chee Beng Tan

Source: Ethnology , Spring, 2001, Vol. 40, No. 2 (Spring, 2001), pp. 113-128
Published by: University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher
Education

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 BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION IN HONG KONG

Sidney W. Mintz
Johns Hopkins University

Chee Beng Tan

Chinese University of Hong Kong

This article examines soybean curd and kindred byproducts in Hong Kong, w
ethnographic survey revealed that traditional forms of soy products ha
supplemented with new consumption practices. Soyfoods have been part of As
systems for millennia. But a century ago, soybeans entered the world market, tak
new nutritional and economic roles. Swiftly changing technology and unexpected
opportunities have since transformed the place of soybeans in the panorama o
food. Hong Kong is now a place where novel soyfood-eating styles are be
fashionable, and these are diffusingto other, more Western societies. (Asia, anthr
of food, globalization)

This essay introduces the role of bean curd (Mandarin doufou, Cantonese
and other soyfoods in the cultural and culinary life of Hong Kong people,
on ethnographic research there that includes retailing stores and markets
factory, and a brief consumer survey. The article also seeks to situate th
the larger context of world food history, particularly as related to
(Glycine max). Soybeans are a domesticated legume of enormous nu
economic, and culinary importance in Asia. During the last century,
many soy byproducts have entered massively into world commerce on a
could scarcely have been imagined 100 or even 50 years ago (Mintz
n.d.).2
The history of soybeans and soyfoods stretches back over three millennia. Huang
(2000:18, 27) assigns the domestication of soybeans to the beginning of the Chou
(Zhou) dynasty. Its cultivation spread widely on the Asian mainland and Japan.
Huang (2000) believes that soybeans may have been eaten in place of cereals in
China after its domestication. That a legume should be eaten like a complex
carbohydrate and as the core of a meal is very unusual. But while soybeans are edible
and can be prepared and consumed like other beans, they eventually proved to be
most useful as human food when processed into bean curd or related products. The
undesirable gastrointestinal effects of eating unprocessed soybeans might help to
explain why more skill must have been invested in producing diversified, digestible,
and delicious byproducts from the soybean than from any other legume so early in
history. In his breathtaking survey of the subject, Huang (2000:293) writes:

lI]n spite of its admirable nutrient content, the soybean is far from being an ideal food. Apart from the
immature beans which can be eaten directly as a vegetable, the raw mature beans as harvested and
stored suffer from several serious defects when used as food. Firstly, the soy proteins are difficult to
digest. The beans contain proteins, such as trypsin inhibitor, which suppress the action of proteases in
113
ETHNOLOGY vol. 40 no. 2, Spring 2001, pp. 113-28.
ETHNOLOGY, c/o Department of Anthropology, The University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA 15260 USA
Copyrighto 2001 The University of Pittsburgh. All rights reserved.

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114 ETHNOLOGY

the human digestive system. Unless they are thoroughly cooked to inactivate t
would be poorly digested resulting in growth inhibitions, pancreatic hype
Secondly, the carbohydrate component contains raffinose and stachyose, tw
not degraded by human digestive enzymes. They pass into the colon where
anaerobic bacteria, leading to the generation of gas and flatulence. To be sur
by other legumes, but the undesirable effects may be more pronounced in
these were eaten as grains in much larger amounts than other legumes,
vegetables. Finally, soybean contains a so-called unpleasant "beany" flavo
major obstacles that had to be overcome before soybean oil could be comme

"To circumvent these problems . . . the Chinese developed

soybeans to produce foods that are wholesome, attractive an
2000:295, 299). Though Huang calls the exact origins of dou
problem in the history of food science and nutrition of China,"
process may have been developed sometime around the end
(Huang 2000:216).
The processing technology associated with bean curd an
subsequently spread. In Japan, Korea, and Indonesia, such p
fresh bean curd, fermented bean curd, and fermented soybeans
elements in local diet. Because Glycine max provides more prot
plant domesticate, it has proved important as a substitute for or
in regions and economies in which animal protein is scarce o
without bones" and "the meat of the field" are ancient phrases t
historic role of soyfoods in the life of the Asian poor. As a sou
calories, and other nutritional benefits, there has probabl
important Asian crop than soybeans.
In spite of this past, developments during the last century h
transform the meaning of soybeans for world consumption than
since their domestication. Moreover, though the consequences of
are now affecting more and more of the earth's population dir
is quite striking that those big changes were not occurring in A
United States. In the course of two world wars, U.S. soybeans c
animal forage and a nitrogen source (or fertilizer) for land to b
of cooking oil and animal feed. The speed of these changes and
the U.S. economy and U.S. agricultural policy can hardly be exa
Du Bois n.d.). At present the most important U.S. agricultur
the most important U.S. cooking oil is soybean oil, and the mos
source for animal food in the United States-more likely, in
soymeal. What is more, the last decade has witnessed the rapid
of soy for human consumption in the West. One aspect of this
development of soybeans as a prime animal feed source, such t
rich protein has been used primarily to fatten animals that are
human food. Another paradox has been the health consequences
of the West, of a systemic overconsumption of animal fat and p
in good measure by feeding food animals high-grade vegetable

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 BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION IN HONG KONG 115

Soyfoods have re-emerged in many different forms, and soy products

receive great attention. But if such foods are eventually to become an impo
feature of the Western diet, then it will prove useful to know more about
continued and patterned use in traditional Asian cuisines. Many people who are n
fully prepared to experiment at home with soyfoods have been learning to eat t
in recent decades as part of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Indonesian,
other Asian fare, for example. In this light, it may be of interest to look at soy
consumption among a population for whom such provender has been a traditional
of the diet.

BEAN CURD

A prosaic, even simple food, bean curd has provided crucial protein fo
poor for millennia. Today, eaten by rich and poor alike, it is consumed world
The migration of soybean-using Asians to all parts of the globe, and the expa
of vegetarianism, health-food eating, Buddhism, Seventh-Day Adventism, an
other religions have contributed to its spread. The production of bean cu
various forms enables a single nonanimal product to be used to mimic milk,
the flesh of fowl, and even various forms of meat. Such adaptability is undo
significant for its popularity in the West and in Asia as an ordinary food and
cuisine.
Though the nutritional significance of bean curd and its mass consumption by the
Chinese and Japanese are well known in the West, thanks especially to Shurtleff and
Aoyagi (1979), there are few serious works on bean curd in relation to Chinese
culture. Hsu and Hsu (1977), Anderson and Anderson (1977), and Simoons
(1991:86-87) have written on the consumption of bean curd in modern China, but
there is no study of present-day bean-curd use among a specific Chinese population.
This article provides information on bean-curd consumption by ordinary Chinese. It
is a pioneer case study of local practice based on a preliminary investigation
conducted in Hong Kong in 1999. Most people in Hong Kong are Cantonese-
speaking Chinese, and bean curd is commonly eaten by them at home and in
restaurants. They also consume soybean milk, bean-curd custard, bean-curd stick and
bean-curd skin, dauh-pok (fluffy fried bean curd), and fermented bean curd. The
various kinds of soybean-based packaged drinks, however, are only briefly dealt with
in this study.
The manufacture of fermented soybean products is a distinctively Asian
technological tradition. Fermented legume products occur outside Asia, but nowhere
else have they been so richly elaborated and diversified. Because of the importance
of these products, informants were asked about the consumption of soybean paste.
Interviewers made sure that the respondents did not confuse fermented bean curd
with soybean paste, which is also fermented. Both are used in Chinese cooking to
add flavor to food. There are two types of bean paste, which shopkeepers clearly
distinguish. But for some who eat bean paste, the distinction is not a familiar one.

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116 ETHNOLOGY

On the one hand there is mihn-si, floured fermented soybean p

dauh-sih, fermented black beans. The basic ingredients in mihn
sauce, flour, and sugar. Depending upon the brand, other ingred
oil may also be added. While mihn-si is yellowish, dauh-sih is da
is made primarily of black beans and salt. Adding to the termin
many Chinese who consume these products know them by o
jeung (literally, fermented soybeans in a sauce).3 But this is
contains solid fermented soybeans. An example is the Huapeng d
jeung) from Puning (in Chaoshan), Guangdong. The ingredients
soybeans, white flour, salt, and mineral water. Such bean pastes
often used in cooking to add flavor to fish and other dishes.
These fermented products differ markedly from bean curd. U
and soft, bean curd is sold in square pieces of two or three
flatter, well-drained, firmer variety (called dauh-gon or dau
common. The soft variety is distinguished from the firm by call
(water bean curd). In fact, both sorts are dauh-fuh, although whe
term generally refers to the softer variety. In the wet mark
public marketplaces of Hong Kong), the soft variety generally c
the thinner around 8 cm x 7 cm x 2.5 cm, and the thicker arou
cm. The firm bean curd is usually around 8 cm x 8.5 cm x 2.5 c
vary.
Soybean milk is curd in liquid form, before gypsum or some o
has been added to the slurry to coagulate the curd. It is rich in pr
milk; but of course, this is vegetarian milk. It is called douj
liquid) and dauh-jeung in Cantonese. Bean-curd custard, the c
added but before it is pressed to become bean curd, is called dau
(literally, bean-curd flower). Both soybean milk and bean-curd c
hot or cold, and are usually sweetened with sugar syrup. Fer
called furu in Mandarin andfuh-yuh in Cantonese. Sold in sealed
small cubes of curd, it is very salty. Depending on the bran
enhanced by the addition of such ingredients as wine, five-spice
or chili pepper. The famed Guilin Furu from Guilin, for examp
(bean curd), Chinese wine, salt, chili, and five-spice powder. Fer
looks like small cubes of cheese, and can be referred to as b
English. Some have even compared its taste to that of overri
flavoring that may be added to rice porridge (congee) to pro
especially if there is no savory dish with which to eat the porr
Dauh-pok comes in cubes of varying size, such as 3 cm x 3 cm
x 4 cm x 4 cm. Fried bean curd is spongy or puffy inside. When
the flavors of other foods. This differs from the firm variety of fri
gypsum is added to precipitate the curds, and before the resultin
make regular bean curd, the foam is skimmed off, and some salt
on top. Then squares of this unpressed product, one or two inch

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 BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION IN HONG KONG 117

fried. Because it is made from curd that has not been pressed, dauh-pok is s
spongy.
Bean-curd sticks and bean-curd skin (or, in English, bean-curd sheet) are
products. The former is called i-juk in Cantonese, the written characters us
those for branch (or twig) and bamboo. It comes in twisted sticks, each abou
long. Bean-curd skin, called fuh-juk (bean-curd bamboo) in Cantonese and
or fupi (literally, bean-curd skin) in Mandarin, comes in thin, brittle, and f
sheets. These labels are also confusing to some people. Both products are yel
or cream colored, though they differ in form. There is also some confusion i
here, for some people use fuh-juk to refer to both items, but ji-juk means on
curd sticks. Because these are dried products, they can be kept for a long tim
is fresh fuh-juk, too, but it is perishable, and requires refrigeration. Fresh f
sold in flat packets.

RETAILING BEAN CURD AND SOYBEAN PRODUCTS

Bean curd and soybean products are sold in wet markets, supermarkets
the case of soybean products) in grocery shops throughout Hong Kong
market has one or two stalls that sell bean curd, bean-curd custard, bean s
fried bean curd, dauh-pok, bottled soybean milk, etc., and each wet marke
a few stalls or shops selling "dried goods," including dried mushrooms, dr
fish, fresh eggs, bottled sauces, and the like. Soybean products such as
stick, bean-curd skin, fermented bean curd, and soybean paste are availabl
the supermarkets, packaged bean curd, both local and imported (such as from
is available. The local bean curd has a plain, nondescript plastic wrapper
imported products are usually attractively packaged. The bean curd produc
Morinaga Milk Co., Ltd., comes in cartons that lock out light, oxygen, and
organisms that can cause early spoilage. The egg bean curd (mixed with
glucose) from mainland China is packaged in tubes about five inches
weighing 140 grams.
Here also are packaged bean-curd custard and bottled soybean drinks. P
Lite Soya Milk (a Nestle product) and San Sui Fresh Soya Milk (a Vitaso
are two common brands that come in pasteurized 946 ml cartons. The ingr
the Pak Fook brand include selected soybeans, water, sugar, emulsifier, an
carbonate. The package label claims that the Chinese have been drinkin
milk for thousands of years. The San Sui ("mountain water") brand enume
ingredients: soybean extract, sugar, vitamins (niacinamide, calcium-D-pant
A, D, B6, B1, and B2), tricalcium phosphate, and salt. An example of
soybean milk is Soya King Beverage (Gold Valley Enterprise, Inc.), whic
one-liter cartons and sells for HK$16.30, whereas Pak Fook's brand costs
HK$11.80.4 That the various brands of packaged soybean milk contain different
additional ingredients (the labels declaring no preservatives, no cholesterol, more
calcium, less sugar, etc.) suggests this to be a marketing strategy.

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118 ETHNOLOGY

Bean-curd custard and soybean milk are also sold at restaur

noodle shops. There are some small shops that specialize in selling
bean-curd custard. Deviating somewhat from the traditional serv
custard with sugar syrup, these shops serve a variety of bean
altering what they add. For example, one such shop in Jordan
fourteen types of cold or hot dauh-fa or bean-curd custard, such
coconut milk dauh-fa, ginger juice dauh-fa, chocolate dauh-fa, mi
etc. In addition to the plain almond soybean milk, this shop also s
soybean milk, chocolate soybean milk, and ginger juice soybea
noodles, rice, and various types of rice porridge (congee), as w
mostly bean curd and soybean products, including dauh-pok. Such
stands for a new kind of retailing-neither restaurant, cafe, or te
to be increasing.
Only since the 1980s and 1990s have packaged bean-curd cus
milk became commonly available in supermarkets, making it easy
home consumption or to use while traveling. Generational differe
young people in particular like the modern packaged bean-curd cu
easily carried and used for snacking. They also seem to be the pri
the specialized soyfood dessert shops just described.
In shops or supermarkets that have a vegetarian food secti
Yuhua Chinese emporium in Jordan, there are many soybean pro
made or imported from mainland China, Taiwan, and Japan.
Taiwan, for example, supplies many types of ready-to-eat packag
products, like shacha dougan (barbecue-flavor dried bean cur
(sesame-flavor dried bean curd), and rouzhi dougan (meat-sauce
curd). Supermarkets carry other brands from Taiwan and mainlan
of the packaged vegetarian products are from Taiwan. Vegetar
mock duck, mock fish, etc. are common. While their origins are
to Buddhist practice, many Hong Kong vegetarians are not motiv
considerations, but simply eat these as snacks.
Plainly, bean curd and soybean products are widely availabl
attesting to their everyday consumption. In Chinese restaurants an
cafeterias, there are various kinds of bean-curd dishes, as well as
in part of soybean products, especially bean-curd sticks. Some of
such as hongshao doufu, or braised bean curd, and spicy mapo
cubed bean curd cooked with minced pork and capsicum), are c
even in canteens. Others, such as xuanxiang doufuli (deep-frie
garlic), steamed bean curd, pipa doufu (fried minced meat with
yinxing xianzhu (braised bean-curd skin with mixed vegetables), an
dishes are available in restaurants. There are hundreds of Chinese
and each restaurant usually serves some specific bean-curd items;
in regional cuisines often have bean-curd dishes identified with th
cuisine.

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 BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION IN HONG KONG 119

In the 1960s, Osgood (1975:396-402) looked at bean curd and so

processing in a small family factory in Hong Kong that employed t
methods: grinding the soybeans in a mortar, straining the curd using a b
special cotton cloth, cooking the slurry, coagulating the curd by adding gy
then making the curd cakes in trays, after which the solidified bean curd c
to a standard size. Today, fresh bean curd is both produced locally and
The authors visited a modern bean-curd factory in Sha Tin, New Territor
1999. This is a family business run by a husband and wife. The woman's f
a bean-curd maker in Hong Kong. The original factory was located a
Tong, where it was in operation for ten years before moving to the presen
factory produces soft and firm bean curd and related products such as
custard, soybean milk, and dauh-pok. These are sent to different par
Kong, including Central, Aberdeen, and a Quarry Bay supermarket.
The factory employs 30 workers who work in shifts. The major task b
around 11 a.m. with grinding beans and continues until 2 or 3 a.m. More t
trays of bean curd are produced daily. Delivery to buyers is done between
a.m. and at 3 p.m. According to the factory owner, the demand for b
higher in winter, when people enjoy eating "fire pot."5 The factory's
making process still closely resembles older methods, but all major tas
done by machine. The process begins with soaking the beans, which takes
in summer but eight hours in winter. Boiling by machine takes only ten
minutes. The final pressing still relies on manual labor. After gypsum is
coagulated curd is put in vertically stacked wooden trays, with weights (w
be any available container) placed on the uppermost tray.
Bean-curd buns (baau-jai) are made before the usual bean curd is pr
stacked wooden trays. A bun is made by putting a ladle of the precipitate
a small cotton cloth, which is then deftly folded to produce the bun-shap
pillow of curd. Several workers do this. Using a small brass bowl or
skillfully scoops up the curd, folds it within a small handkerchief of
rapidly sets it aside. Within an hour or so, several hundred of these buns
The residue from the process is sent to mainland China and used as fish f
residue is never wasted. Osgood (1975:393) reports that the leavings we
feed pigs; at that time there were still people in Hong Kong rearing pigs
The factory owner claimed that his and other Hong Kong factories
purchase American or Canadian soybeans because they are considered
cleaner, and more uniform than those from mainland China. We note
factory uses beans described in Chinese characters on the sacks as "sp
Canadian soybeans." But even when Osgood did his fieldwork in the
bean-curd maker he studied was using soybeans imported from the Un
(Osgood 1975:398).
Bean-curd and soyfood production in Hong Kong has been declining
350 workers staffed 32 bean-curd processing shops or factories. By 1998,
were 221 workers and seventeen factories. Though the figures climbed

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120 ETHNOLOGY

247 workers and 23 factories, imported soyfoods now mak

proportion of the total consumption, and we suspect that local
under pressure. This may be partly a generational matter, as yo
some preference for the imports. The factory owner with whom
that tougher environmental rules might be responsible for the g
number of plants. Whatever the case, the total consumption of s
the last decade, and soyfood imports have particularly benefitt

THE SAMPLE

Three research assistants were hired to interview people whom they kn

were introduced to, in different parts of Hong Kong. In addition to th
questionnaires, the research assistants were trained to explore related issue
the research assistants worked full time, while the other two were underg
students, recruited to ensure that some informants from such places as Yu
and Tuen Mun in the northern part of the New Territories would be includ
these means we developed a sample of convenience consisting of 101 per
As the three research assistants were female, we had access mostly t
informants. Of the 101 interviewees, 84 were female and seventeen were m
occupation, 28 were students and thirteen were housewives, while the rest
various categories: 21 professionals (managers, civil servants, adminis
executives, teachers, etc.), twenty clerical workers (secretaries, clerks,
workers (laborers, servants, receptionists, etc.), four in business, and two r
These were overwhelmingly Cantonese speakers (as are the majority of t
in Hong Kong) who could trace their ancestral origins to Hong Kong an
parts of Guangdong. Most interviewees had incomes of less than HK$20
month, 50 were earning less than HK$10,000 (which places them in the low
category), 36 were earning between HK$10,000-20,000, eight earned b
HK$20,000-30,000; two earned more than HK$30,000; and five had no
income. Thus the sample largely represented low- and middle-income group
Since this is a study of food consumption, some background informatio
respondents' food habits is relevant. An overwhelming majority had no par
dietary rules, only six were vegetarians, while another six said they preferr
"less meat." Three did not eat beef, one reported not eating red meat,
observed vegetarianism on the first and fifteenth days of the Chinese calend
being the significant days for domestic worship. Eighty-one of the in
reported eating dinner at home regularly. The meals at home were cooked m
mothers, who also made the menu decisions. Seventy-one of the 95 respons
question as to how many persons usually ate together at home were four p
less. This gives a rough idea of family size.

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 BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION IN HONG KONG 121

BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION

The general belief is that most Chinese eat bean curd, but we kno
systematic study of actual bean-curd consumption. Since bean curd is sold
forms throughout Hong Kong, and since people there are thought of as be
makers and eaters, we wanted to see whether behavior accords with
opinion. Of the 101 informants, 65 reported eating bean curd at least once
Forty of these ate it more than once a week, and of these latter 21 report
it twice weekly. Thus we assume that most Hong Kong Chinese eat bean cu
once a week. No informants reported not eating bean curd; five reported
"seldom" or "once in a while."
Home is where bean curd is regularly eaten. Most interviewees (66) report
eating bean curd at home, while twenty reported eating it at home and in restaura
ten reported eating it in restaurants, while the remaining five cases reported eat
it in canteens and dormitories. Only one reported eating bean curd at a vegetarian
restaurant. Hence it appears that vegetarianism does not importantly affect
consumption of bean curd among our informants. Dinner is the meal at which m
people (71) eat bean curd, but the number is higher if the fifteen persons w
reported eating it at lunch and dinner are included.
Dinner is when family members are most likely to eat together. Nine persons
reported lunch as the most likely meal for eating bean curd, while the other mea
(breakfast, snack, and late evening supper) were insignificant in this regard.
interviewees reported eating out frequently; sixteen of 99 reported eating out twen
times a month; thirteen, four times a month; fifteen, once or twice a month; an
most of the rest reported more than once a month. Only six persons said, "never
or "sometimes." Lunch is the meal regularly eaten out.
Interestingly, bean curd is seldom cooked as a dish by itself; only eleven out o
221 responses mentioned cooking bean curd without mixing it, as is usually do
with meat or vegetables. Cooking with pork is most popular (48 responses), follow
by cooking it with steamed fish (38 responses), and with various kinds of vegetab
(mostly fresh vegetables, including bean sprouts, potatoes, and tomatoes, but
dried mushrooms) (47 responses). It is also used in soup, either by itself (with som
condiments, such as fresh coriander) or in fish or vegetable soup. In fact, when u
in soup, it is bean-curd soup that is most popular (23 responses), followed by
soup (fourteen responses) and various kinds of vegetable soup (eleven respons
Pork is the main meat eaten by Chinese. Curiously, while chicken is regularly eat
bean curd is very rarely cooked with chicken (only three responses) or with b
(only two responses). In terms of the knowledge of standard Chinese bean-cu
dishes, most people were able to name Mapo Bean Curd (Sichuan-style bean c
cooked with hot red pepper and minced pork) and Hongshao Bean Curd (braised b
curd). These are the most common Chinese bean-curd dishes in Hong Ko
restaurants.

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122 ETHNOLOGY

Most informants (87) buy their bean curd at wet markets. Only
bought it at supermarkets, while twelve reported buying at bot
supermarkets. Only one informant reported making her o
preference to buy at wet markets may have to do with the high r
Indeed, bean curd is generally cooked on the day it is bought (9
bought for one meal only; when buying, customers look for sm
curd as an indication of freshness.6
Bean curd is generally bought from retailers and mostly locally made (74), and
fourteen of the interviewees reported buying "mass-produced" (i.e., packaged) bean
curd, which may be imported or produced locally. Three persons reported buying
both locally produced and mass-produced bean curd, while ten reported, "don't
know." All but ten of the 101 interviewees knew that bean curd is made from
soybeans. Most also had some ideas about how bean curd is made, and six cou
describe the procedure in detail.

SOYBEAN MILK AND SOYBEAN CUSTARD

More than a third (39) of the informants reported drinking soybean mil
once a week, and 25 reported at least once a month. Only six persons repor
drinking soybean milk. While the consumption is much lower than that of
soybean milk is undoubtedly a popular drink in Hong Kong. Unlike bean cu
people (31) buy soybean milk at supermarkets than those (26) who buy at "
shops." Others purchased soybean milk at various kinds of shops and re
seventeen of which were "Shanghai food shops." Ten reported making
soybean milk, and a few others reported drinking both homemade and
soybean milk. The modern packaged soybean milk, in plastic bottles or car
made consumption at home much more convenient. It has also simplified r
supermarkets and shops both for sellers and customers. This is reflected b
to the question on buying packaged/bottled soybean milk. Of the 98 respo
reported buying such packaged soybean milk, in contrast to 27 that repor
and four that reported "seldom."
Asked the reasons for drinking soybean milk, 86 of the 161 responses
health or nutrition reasons. These ranged from soybean milk's low cholester
answers as "good for the skin." The eleven responses that the drink is "coo
can help remove "heat" refer to the hot/cold distinction in traditional Chi
classification (e.g., Simoons 1991; Anderson 1988). Twenty respondents
drink was tasty. Others gave practical reasons such as that it is good for q
thirst, a substitute for milk, inexpensive, and so on.
Soybean custard is about as popular as soybean milk, with 62 reporting
soybean custard at least once a month. Of these, 21 reported eating it at le
a week and one reported eating it daily when she was pregnant. Only two
not eating soybean custard. Most respondents bought it at bean-curd shops
of 136 responses), dessert shops (35), and supermarkets (31). The higher fr

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 BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION IN HONG KONG 123

at bean-curd shops and dessert shops probably indicate greater concern for f
and immediate consumption than is the case for soybean milk. While the m
people buy packaged soybean milk, a slightly lower number said they
packaged soybean custard. Nonetheless, packaged soybean custard has als
popular, as 44 of the 101 interviewees reported buying it, in contrast to 43
they did not. Eleven said they seldom bought packaged soybean custard, and
said they would, if there were a special sale.
Of the 157 responses giving reasons for eating soybean custard, the major
said it was "tasty," followed by answers stressing its healthfulness or becau
"cooling" (41). The emphasis on taste corresponds to the 97 who reporte
soybean custard as a dessert, which may also be read as a snack.

OTHER SOYBEAN PRODUCTS

Four related bean curd and soy products, namely dauh-pok, ji-juk (dried
curd sticks), fuh-juk (dried bean-curd skin), fermented bean curd (or
cheese), and fermented soybean in sauce, are believed to be commonly cons
used in cooking by the Chinese. The cube-shaped dauh-pok is indeed popula
of the 101 interviewees reported eating it at least once a month, and of th
it at least once a week. Only four persons reported not eating it at all. The
on how to eat or cook dauh-pok indicate that dauh-pok is commonly co
fish, and used especially for stuffing with minced fish. It is cooked in veg
dishes, with other vegetables, with pork or chicken, and is even stewed with
It is also used in soup, and stewed with mung bean vermicelli.
The frequency of eating ji-juk and fuh-juk is slightly lower than that of
but it is still regularly cooked. About half (46) of the 97 who responde
question on frequency of consumption reported eating bean-curd sticks at
a month, of whom fifteen persons reported eating it at least once wee
people cook this as a vegetarian dish. When cooked with meat, the preferen
to mutton (35 out of 162 responses), followed by pork (eighteen). Less freq
is cooked with fish, beef sirloin, mung bean vermicelli, bean curd, and so
it is occasionally used in soup. The Cantonese people in Hong Kong gen
vegetarian dishes on the first day of the Chinese New Year, so that bean c
dried bean-curd sticks are frequently cooked then.
Thirty-five of the 101 respondents reported eating dried bean-curd ski
once a month, but only nine reported eating it every week. Unlike bean-cu
bean-curd skin is not often cooked in combination with other foods. It is m
in making the classic sweet-soup dessert called tohng-seui (literally, sugar
Hong Kong, a dinner often ends with a small bowl of tohng-seui such as h
sa, red bean soup (flavored with dried orange skin), or luhk-dau-sa, green
(Fruits may be served as well.) Another popular tohng-seui is fuh-juk
which is bean-curd skin cooked with stirred egg and ginkgo in wate
responses, 86 reported eating bean-curd skin in this way. Fourteen reporte

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124 ETHNOLOGY

it with rice porridge (congee), and it is also used in cooking sou

Dry bean-curd skin becomes soft when soaked in water briefly,
liquid some of it even liquefies. This perhaps explains its u
ingredient. Fresh bean-curd skin is also used to make sweet soup
Seventy-six respondents reported eating the fermented be
thirteen reported seldom eating it, and twelve reported not eat
of the 76 who ate fermented bean curd did so at least once
nineteen ate it at least once a week. Thus, many people do eat fe
even though 81 of the 101 respondents thought that it was not
attraction is as a tasty (if rather salty) relish, adding flavor to fo
with rice (47 of 117 responses) and rice porridge (38 respons
cooked with vegetables (sixteen responses), usually stir-fried with
choi). Using it in meat dishes is not a common practice, since
thought to need this additional flavor.
Other than fermented bean curd, the Chinese often use ferm
sauce (dauh-jeung) to add flavor with cooking. Our research assi
dauh-sih-jeung, which should have made it clear to her informa
mean soybean milk. Of the 101 respondents, 34 reported usin
cooking at least once a month, and ten of these said they used it
It can be cooked with all kinds of food, but respondents mainly r
fish or when steaming pork spareribs. We are not entirely
responses to this part of the interview, however. Although the
asked about dauh-sih-jeung, we are not sure that in every case th
understood the difference from soybean paste, which is also use

BELIEFS

As noted earlier, most people think that bean curd is a healthful food. Sof
easy to eat as well as nutritious, it is considered particularly suitable for child
old people. Beyond these general, widely held views, different individuals hav
own beliefs. Some informants, for example, said that bean curd increases lon
A female informant claimed that bean curd helped her to keep fit and sli
informant mentioned that bean-curd soup cooked with mustard cabbage (gaai
could cure fever. Some of the claims people made about the therapeutic virtu
soybean products they may get from newspapers and magazines, authoritative
For example, the 22 January 1999 issue of the popular Chinese magazine Yi Z
had a special report on bean curd and soybean products that contains inform
how eating soybean products reduces cholesterol intake and prevents cancer.
of the claims are based on scientific research in the West, which is occa
reported in the press. Sources are often misquoted, but the coverage given sc
conferences in Hong Kong may contribute to the acquisition of scientific kno
about soybean products and to the development of more modern beliefs abou
and health.

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 BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION IN HONG KONG 125

Bean curd and soybean milk are considered "cool" in the Chinese hot/co
classification, which is still widely observed in Hong Kong. Thus it is
inadvisable for old people to eat too much bean curd or to drink too much
milk. An informant mentioned that her mother usually served soybean d
piece of ginger (considered "hot") in it to reduce the "coolness." There is a
hint of other beliefs in regard to bean curd. Because fresh, raw bean curd i
white, people believe that eating it or soybean milk or bean-curd custard
the skin, and will result in a smooth, fair complexion.7

CONCLUSIONS

Bean curd is eaten regularly in Hong Kong, most commonly at dinn

home. It is also eaten in restaurants, especially by family groups and t
friends. Bean curd is generally not ordered at banquets or for special gues
it is expressly requested, since it is considered a prosaic and inexpensi
Bean curd forms part of the regular menu, regardless of whether a p
vegetarian. Chinese are aware of the nutritional value of bean curd an
products, but they also have various beliefs about them, especially in regard
and as linked to the traditional hot/cold classification.
Yet the patterns of soyfood consumption have changed significantly in recent
decades, with a decline in local production, a sharp rise in soyfood imports, and the
growing consumption of soyfoods in new forms, alongside traditional practices.
Today, most soyfoods made in Hong Kong are processed from imported soybeans,
especially those from Canada and the United States. Modern packaging technology
and the swift successes of large, heavily stocked supermarkets, drawing on a world
market, have also made the sale of bean curd and related products global. Soybean
milk made in Canada is readily available in Hong Kong; so is fresh bean curd made
in Tokyo. The global nature of the bean-curd business allows more choice, not only
of soybeans but also of final products; and it links their sale and consumption to
global issues. A pertinent example is the matter of genetically modified (GM) food.
The international concern with GM food (Kluger 1999) was an issue in Hong
Kong in 1999, reflected in newspaper reports and calls for the government to label
all GM food. Since soybeans are one of the important U.S. genetically modified
crops, some attention has focused on soybean products. On 8 November 1999, some
Greenpeace activists caused a stir at a Wellcome store in Causeway Bay (Hong Kong
Island). They plastered GM labels marked with a capital X on Pak Fook Fresh Soya
Milk and Pak Fook Beancurd Dessert (bean-curd custard), two major soybean
products made by Nestle. The activists claimed that these Pak Fook-brand soybean
products were made from GM Roundup Ready beans, grown in the United States (Lo
1999). Interestingly, toward the end of April 2000, the two leading supermarkets in
Hong Kong, Wellcome and Park 'n Shop, announced their plan to form a working
group to develop a unified position on the labeling and sale of GM food (Chan 2000).

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126 ETHNOLOGY

Environmental concerns also led to a slightly comical fuss ove

product, the so-called "smelly bean curd" (chou doufu), w
(1977:301) call "molded bean curd." A shop owner who so
prosecuted by the government for failing to comply with an air
notice. In response to a newspaper reader's criticism of the gove
Principal Environmental Protection Officer mentioned that h
received many complaints from the local residents and that the s
prosecuted four times under the air pollution control ordina
objectionable odor. The officer described the processing as havin
pervading stench which spreads for hundreds of meters and can
nauseous" (Cheung 2000). But for people who love fermented
is not unattractive. Chou doufu is sold in many parts of Ma
Taiwan. The production of this traditional food will probably en
roadblocks in a more environmentally conscious society.
But beyond the perpetuation of traditional forms, this s
entrepreneurs in Hong Kong have been introducing and perfecti
products, aiming to cater to changing popular tastes. As we have
longer just one type of bean-curd custard, but a variety of diffe
these are still uncommon in other countries, such as Malaysia an
But in Hong Kong, where bean curd is a dietary staple, proce
safely experiment on a small scale with their clientele. It was w
research that we came across coconut-milk bean-curd custard and
custard-presumably part of the search for a "hit" with bean cur
In some ways, the Hong Kong case seems like a microcosm of
a flood of new products, touted for their convenience, cleanline
wearing away at older foods, consumption patterns, and bel
supplanting them. But Hong Kong is also contrastive with Eu
States in the persistence of the consumption of soyfoods prepar
fashioned ways and, some would say, for old-fashioned reasons.
are specialty foods in Europe and the United States, associate
health, vegetarianism, animal rights, environmentalism, and eth
they are eaten because people have been eating them for millenn
What is happening in the West is that new forces, among them
obesity, vegetarianism, and environmentalism, are moving m
vegetable-protein consumption. This momentum is assisted by e
promotion, especially by pharmaceutical, soybean, and soyfoods
by the U.S. government, in a modest way, through food edu
programs, and institutional feeding, as in the military. Tho
consequences of these trends are unpredictable, no one intereste
system (or U.S. corporate intentions) can afford to ignore them
Nor is the direction of change unilateral, emanating solely an
from the West in order to affect the rest. Just as the spread of
restaurants is influencing local consumption in cities across Asia

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 BEAN-CURD CONSUMPTION IN HONG KONG 127

too Asian mom-and-pop restaurants across the United States are introducing
habits and attitudes to Americans. Indeed, in the long term, those mom
restaurants may make a bigger dent in U.S. food habits than KFC and M
are making in Asia (Mintz n.d.).
Hong Kong has eagerly assimilated new foods and new food behavior
elsewhere. But Hong Kong has also become a center for change in Amer
styles. For example, the vogue for soymilk began in Hong Kong, s
neighboring Asian cities, thence to Japan, and finally to the United States.
has since become an important player in the U.S. beverage market. John
(1992:437) write:

In the 1950s the soymilk market developed on a large scale in Hong Kong. Introduced as a b
drink and with the most popular one being "Vitasoy," such products quickly spread throu
Asia. In the Philippines, a carbonated soymilk was marketed as "Philsoy." The introduction
packaging and the "Tetra-Brick aseptic" carton to soymilk production in the late 1960s led
distribution and consumption. Aseptic packaging could provide up to six months shelf lif
refrigeration. By the 1970s, the soymilk craze spread to Japan. In 1983, the Japanese
"Edensoy" was introduced into North America. By 1987, as much as 650,000 gallons were
into this country.

Selling styles, texturizing, flavoring, and packaging in the soyfoods indus

sure to continue to differ, and a staggering variety of new soyfoods will con
appear each year.8 But the traditional, unflavored, cream-colored tofu, now
by a surprisingly large number of American consumers and chefs as hea
probably has a bright future. On a larger canvas, whether soyfoods w
challenge the primacy of animal protein in the American diet is as yet unans
As animal-protein consumption continues to rise in Asia, and as Americans
to cope with rising obesity and other health problems, the future place of
in the human diet here is as puzzling as it is promising. Present trends sug
soyfood consumption in the United States may rise, even while in Asia anima
consumption also rises. Predicting the correct answers will probably b
anthropologists of food for decades to come.

NOTES

1. In this essay both Mandarin (Putonghua) and Cantonese words are used. Cantonese
hyphens for words containing more than one character. The transcription of Mandarin w
the standard pinyin system. The words for bean curd in various Chinese dialects and the Ja
tofu are variants of doufu. The Cantonese term can also be transcribed as tou-fu.
2. The authors are grateful to the Research Board of the Chinese University of Hong Kong for a grant
enabling them to initiate this research. Mintz's ongoing soybean research in the United States is funded
by the Center for a Livable Future of the School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University. We thank
Miss Kwok Wai-yee for her intelligent and efficient work on the survey and Dr. Christine Du Bois for
invaluable criticisms and suggestions.
3. This term should not be confused with dauh-jeung, soybean milk. The "jeung" character is
different (in addition to the tone differences), one standing for the sauce, and the other for soymilk.

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 128 ETHNOLOGY

4. At the time of the study, one Hong Kong dollar was equivalent to US$0.
ca. HK$7.79
5. For this dining custom, each person at the table helps him- or herself to well-sliced raw meat,
vegetables, and bean curd, and puts these into a common soup, which is in a distinctive cooking pot at
the center of the table. "Fire pot" is a literal translation of the term huoguo. Such fire pots are a
popular eating fashion in winter, especially in the north of China (Hsu and Hsu 1977:310).
6. This is very different from the practice of co-author Tan, who usually buys sufficient bean curd
for a week and keeps the pieces in a plastic container filled with water in the refrigerator. The price
of the bean curd is around HK$2.00 per piece.
7. Personal knowledge is that this belief also exists among some young Chinese in Malaysia.
8. Co-author Mintz, who attended Soyfoods 2001, a leading annual conference on soy products, can
attest to the startling number of soyfoods being released.

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