lOMoARcPSD|44013624

Human Development Papalia

Developmental Psychology (Bulacan State University)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

Nature (heredity)- Heredity and biological process.

Human Development (Papalia) Internal and driven by heredity. It consists of inborn traits
and characteristics provided by a child’s biological
CHAPTER 1- The Study of Human development parents.

Human Development- a scientific study of systematic Nurture( environment)- Environmental influences.

processes of changes and stability in people. outside the body, starting at conception with the prenatal
environment inside the womb, and continuing throughout
Processes of changes and stability throughout a human life.
lifespan
> Nature and Nurture is fiercely debated and theorists
- Developmental scientists look at the ways in differ in the weight they assign to each other.
which people change from conception through maturity
as well as the characteristics that remain stable. Maturation- the unfolding natural sequence of physical
changes and behavior patterns. For example, a child
Life-span development- from “womb to tomb”, that is learning to talk and walk.
comprising the entire human life span from conception to
death. > According to Sir Benny, wala tayong control sa
maturation.
Concept of human development as a lifelong process
and can be studied scientifically. > As children grow into adolescents and then into adults,
individual indifferences in innate characteristics and life
Goals of human development - D, E, P, I experience lay a greater role. Throughout life,
maturation continues to influences certain biological
Describe (Description)- to describe human processes, such as brain development,
development
Context of development- For infants, the immediate
Explanation (explain)- explaining human development context usually is the family. But the family in turn is the
by using theories/researches subject to wider and ever-changing influencers of
neighborhood, community and society.
Prediction (predict)- to predict future human
development Normative Influences- biological or environmental
events that affect many people or most people in the
Intervention (intervene)- to intervene in the society in similar ways and events that touch only certain
development, like for example using therapy. individuals.

Development is messy. It’s complex and multifaceted - Normative age-graded influences- highly
and shaped by interacting arcs of influences. Thus, similar for people in particular age groups. The
development is best understood with input of a variety of timing of biological events is fairly predictable
theoretical research orientations and is mostly within a normal range. E.g menstruation is
appropriately studied using multiple disciplines. common for girls who are 12 yrs old.
- Normative history- graded influences-
Domains of development - PD, CD, PSD significant events (world war, covid, great
depression) that shape the behavior and
Physical Development- growth of the body and brain, attitudes of historical generation: a group of
sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. people who experience events at a formative
time in their lives.
Cognitive Development- learning, attention, memory, - Cohort- a group of individual bound about the
language, thinking, reasoning and creativity. same time.

Psychosocial Development- emotions, personality, > A historical generation is not the same as cohort: a
and social relationships. group of people born at the same time. A historical
generation may contain one or more cohort, but cohorts
Influences on development
are part of the historical generation only if they
experience major, shaping historical events.
Individual indifferences- study on the differences on
characteristics, influences, and developmental
Non normative influences- unusual events that have a
outcomes.
major impact on individual lives because they disturb
the expected sequence life cycle. They are either typical
events that happen in an atypical time of life.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

Timing of influences: Critical or sensitive periods but the balance between these
influential changes.
Kondrad Lorenz- an Austrian zoologist, shocked that - development occurs within a context or
newly hatched ducklings will instinctively follow the first setting such as schools, families, peers
moving projects they see whenever it is a member of groups, and country etc.
their species or not 6. Development is influenced by the historical
and cultural context (Development is
> This phenomenon is called imprinting. Lorenz co-construction of biology, culture, and the
believed that it was automatic and irreversible. This individual)
instinctive bond is within the mother; when the natural - Each person develops within a multiple
course of events is disturbed, however, other context
attachments such as the one to Lorenz, or none at all - Circumstances or conditions are defined
can form. Imprinting is the result of predisposition in a part by time and place. Human
toward learning: the readiness of an organism’s nervous beings are not only influenced by
system to acquire certain information during a brief maturation but also by their
critical period in early life. historical-cultural context.
- Biological, cultural, and individual
Critical period- a specific time when an event, or its factors working together.
absence has an impact on development. 7. Development involves changing resource
allocation
Plasticity- range of modifiable performance. - Resources of time, energy, money
- Resource may be growth (learning to
Sensitive period- when a developing person is
play instruments)
especially responsive to certain kinds of experiences.
- Resources may be for maintenance or
recovery (practicing to maintain or
Principles of a lifespan developmental approach
regain proficiency)
Paul Baltes and his colleagues have identified the - For dealing with loss( regulation of
following principles for the study of a lifespan loss) when maintenance and recovery
development. is not possible
- The allocation of resources to these
1. Development is lifelong. three functions changes throughout life
- lifelong process of change. as a total available pool resources
decreases.

- Each period of a life span affected by

what happened before will affect what is CHAPTER 2- Theory and Research
to come.
- No period is more or less important than - A scientific theory of development is a set of
any other. logically related concepts or statements that
2. Development is multidimensional. seeks to describe and explain development and
- It occurs along multiple dimensions- to predict the kinds of behavior that might occur
biological, psychological, and social. under certain conditions.
- Each of which may develop at varying - Theory organize and explains data, the
rates. information gathered by the research.
3. Development is multidirectional. - Theory is defined as a set of related
- As people gain in one area (expand), assumptions that allows scientists to use logical
they may lose in another(shrink), deductive reasoning to formulate testable
sometimes at the same time. hypotheses.
4. Development shows plasticity. - Theory and research are interwoven in the
- Plasticity means capacity for change, abilities seamless fabric of scientific study.
and skills can be improved, it is modifiable. - Theories inspire further research and predict its
- Plasticity has some limits that depend in part on results, they do this by generating hypotheses.
the various influences on development. - Hypotheses- explanations or predictions that
5. Development is contextual shift over lifespan can be tested by further research.
(Development is context)
Theory and its relatives
- The process of development is
influenced by both biology and culture,

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

1. Theory and philosophy. In general, philosophy - The driving force for change is internal
means love of wisdom which is obviously related - Environmental influences do not cause
to theory, but the latter (theory) is a much development, though they can slow it
narrower term. - Because human behaviour is viewed as an
2. Theory and speculations. A mere speculation organic whole, it can be predicted by breaking it
is ot considered theory because most of the time down into simple responses to environmental
speculations are single and isolated. stimulation.
3. Theory and hypothesis. Although theory is a - Kung nagiinom ang mga kaibigan mo, sasama
narrower concept than philosophy, it is a ka ba? Syempre hindi. This means that you
broader term than hypothesis have an option to resist.
4. Theory and taxonomy. Mere classification
(taxonomy) does not constitute a theory. Issue 2: Continuous
However, taxonomies can evolve into theories
when they begin to generate testable hypothesis - It is gradual and incremental
and to explain research findings - Quantitative changes: A change in number or
5. Theory and science. Theories are useful tool amount such as height, weight, or vocabulary
employed by scientists to give meaning and size.
organization to observations. In addition, - A primary characteristics of quantitative change
theories provide fertile ground for producing is that you are measuring fundamentally the
testable hypotheses. same thing over time, that might be more or less
of it.
What makes a theory useful? - Cognitive and learning theories (Piaget,
Bandura, Vgotsky)
- It generates research
- Is falsifiable Discontinous
- Organizes data
- Guide action - Abrupt and uneven
- Is internally consistent - Qualitative changes: discontinued changes in
- Is parsimonious kind, structure and organization.
- Marked by the emergence of new phenomena
Two basic issues about development that could easily be predicted n the basis of past
functioning
Issue 1: Is development active or reactive? - Development at different points of lifespan
- In this view, it is fundamentally different in
Issue 2: Whether development is continuous or nature.
discontinuous - Stage theories (Freud)

Issue 1: Reactive (Mechanistic model) Research methods in developmental psychology

- development is shaped by environmental input . Two methodological traditions:

(Passive recipient of environmental
environmental input) Quantitative research- deals with objectively
- Forerunner: John Locke’s Tabula Rasa- blank measurable, is amenable for statistical analysis
slate
- Human behavior is the same with machines, it - Quantitative research on human development is
results from the operation of biological parts in based on scientific method, which has
response to external and internal stimuli. traditionally characterized most scientific injury.
- Mechanistic researchers want to identify the - Its usual steps are:
factors that make people behave as they do. 1. Identification of a problem to be
- Mechanistic theorists see development as studied, often on the basis of a theory or
continuous a previous research
- Mandalas nagpapadala sa mga barkada like 2. Formulation of hypothesis, to be
bisyo ganon. tested in the research
3. Collection of data
Active (organismic model) 4. Statistical analysis of data to whether
they support the hypothesis
- Forerunner: Jean Jacques Rousseau 5. Formation of tentative conclusions
- It sees people as active, growing organisms that 6. Dissemination of findings so others
set their own development in motion. can check, learn from, analyze, repeat,
- They initiate events; they do not just react. and build on the results

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

Qualitative research- focuses on the “how and why of - Freud has a profound effect the field of
behavior” psychology
- Originator of the psychoanalytic perspective na
- It commonly involves non numerical (verbal or believed in the reactive development, as well
pictorial) descriptions of participants’ subjective as qualitative changes over time.
understanding, feelings, or beliefs about their - Humans were born with innate biologically
experiences. based drives such as sex, hunger, and
- Qualitative researchers might study the same aggression. People were motivated to satisfy
subject as quantitative researchers, but their their urges.
perspective informs both how they would collect - Freud believed that early experiences shaped
data and how they interpret it. later functioning and he drew attention to
- The goal of the qualitative research is to childhood as an important precursor of adult
understand the story of the event. behavior.
- It is more flexible and informal, and these - He also promoted the idea that there was a vast,
researchers might be more interested in hidden reserve to our psyche, and what we
gathering and exploring large amounts of data to consciously know about and experience is only
see what hypothesis emerges in running the small tip of the iceberg of who we are.
statistical analysis on numerical data.
Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual development
Sampling- Sample are smaller groups from the
population - Sigmund Freud developed an original theory of
psychosexual development. His daughter, Anna
- To be sure that the result of the quantitative shown here, followed his footsteps and
research are true generally, the sample should constructed her own theories of personality
show relevant characteristics in the same development.
proportions as in the entire population - People are born with biological drives that must
- Oftentimes, quantitative researchers seek to be redirected to make it possible to live in
achieve representativeness through random society.
selection, in which each person in the - Three hypothetical parts of personality: Id, ego,
population has an equal and independent supergo
chance of being chosen. - Id: operates according to the pleasure principle,
- In qualitative research, samples tend to be the drive to seek immediate satisfaction of their
focused rather than random. Particpants may be needs and desires.
chosen from their ability to communicate the - Ego: operates according to the reality principle.
nature of a certain experience, such as how it The ego’s aim is to find realistic ways to gratify
feels to go through puberty or menopause. the id that are acceptable to the superego.
- Superego: develops at the age of 5 or 6. The
Forms of data collection: superego operates according to the moral
principle. It includes the conscience and
- Self-reports (verbal or visual reports to be incorporates socially approved “shoulds” and
studied by the participants) “should nots” into the child’s value system. The
- Observations of the participants in the laboratory superego is highly demanding: if the standards
or natural setting are not met, a child may feel guilty and
- Behavioral and performance evaluation anxious.
- (See tables on the other doc) - The ego mediates between the impulses of the
ids and the demands of the superego.
Theoretical Perspectives in Developmental - Freud proposed that personality forms through
psychology- PA, L, CG, CT E/SC, childhood unconscious conflicts between the
inborn urges of the id and the requirements of
- Psychoanalytic: Freud and Adler
civilized life. These conflicts occur in the five
- Learning theories:Behaviorism (Pavlov, Skinner,
concepts of psychosexual development, in
Bandura)
which sensual pleasures shifts from one body
- Cognitive: Piaget and Vgotsky
zone to another- from the mouth to the anus and
- Contextual: Bronfrenbener
then to the genitals.
- Evolutionary/Sociocultural: Bowlby
- At each stage, the behavior is the chief source
of gratification (or frustrations) changes- from
Perspective 1: Psychoanalytic- view human
feeding to elimination and eventually to sexual
development as shaped by unconscious forces that
activities.
motivate the behavior.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Freud considered the first three stages (oral, - Children eventually resolve their anxiety over
anal, phallic) to be crucial in personality these feelings by identifying with the same-sex
development. If children receive too much or too parent and move into the latency stage of
little gratification in any of these stages, they are middle childhood, a period of relative emotional
at risk of fixation, an arrest in development that calm, and intellectual and social exploration.
can show up in adult personality. They redirect their sexual energies into other
- Babies whose needs are not met during the oral pursuits, such as schoolworks, relationships,
stage, when feeding is not the main source of and hobbies.
pleasure, they may grow up to become
nail-biters, or smokers. Latency: (6 yrs old- puberty). No erogenous
- Oral stage: (birth- 2 yrs old)- oral receptive and zone. The activities include socialization.
oral sadistic. The erogenous zone is the mouth.
Activities include sucking, biting, swallowing. - The genital stage, the final stage, lasts through
adulthood. The sexual urges repressed during
Personality characteristics once fixated: latency snow resurface to flow socially approved
over-eating, excessive drinking, biting pencils, channels, which Freud defined as heterosexual
Putting some objects to their mouth, too much relations with persons outside the family of
talking, pessimism, hostility, aggressiveness origin.

- A person who as toddler, had too-strict toilet Genital: (puberty-onwards) Activities include
training may be fixated at the anal stage, and be sexual intercourse
obsessively clean, rigidly tied to schedules, and
routines, or definitely messy. Erik Erickson’s psychosocial development
- Anal stage: (2-3 yrs old)- Sadistic anal phase.
The erogenous zone is the anus. Activities - The socially and culturally influenced processes
include toilet training. of development.
- He modified and extended Freudian theory by
Anal retentive personalities: orderly, organize, emphasizing the influence of society on the
and tidy, and vein, meticulous/ perfectionist, development of personality. Erikson was also a
stinginess pioneer in taking lifespan perspective
- Both Erikson and Freud have stage theories so
Anal expulsive personalities: messy, untidy, they believe in qualitative changes.
disorganized, stubborn, generous - Each period of life has a unique challenge
(psychosocial crisis) syntonic(harmonious)
- According to Freud, a key event in psychosexual element dystonic (disruptive) elements. that
development is in the phallic stage of early must be managed
childhood. Boys develop sexual attachment to - Resolution of early crises may affect later crises
their mothers, and girls to their fathers, and they - Each stage requires balancing positive and
have aggressive urges toward the same-sex negative tendencies and the positive should
parent, whom they regard as a rival. Freud calls dominate, but some degree of the negative
these developments the oedipus and electra quality is needed as well for optimal
complex. development.
- Phallic stage: (3 to 6 yrs old). The erogenous -
zone is the genital area. Activities include
sexual desire to the opposite parent. Eight stages of psychosocial development of
Erikson
Personality onced fixated: sexual deviances
(overindulging and avoidance), confused or 1. T vs. MT
weak sexual identity. - Es: H
- Cp: W
Simple oedipus complex: young boy is 2. A vs S/D
attracted to the mother; sees father as a rival - Es:Wll
- Cp: Cps
Complete oedipus complex: all of us are 3. INT vs G
bisexual (both masculine and feminine) - Es: Pp
- Cp: Inb
Female oedipus complex: penis envy; hostile 4. INDT vs. INFR
towards the mother and attracted to father - Es: Cp
- Cp: Inr
5. ID vs ID/RC

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Es: F parents are protective, they may develop doubts

- Cp:Rp about their abilities to deal with the environment.
6. ITC vs. IS - It will help you a lot if you develop basic
- Es: L strengths from the previous stages. A hopeful
- Cp: E child will have the ease to become wilful of
7. GNRT vs S doing things (self-control over some things)
- Es: Cr which is helped by the individuals.
- Cp: Rjct - *a withdrawn child will become compulsive (try
8. INGT vs DP to do things on their own since no one has
- Es: W taught them) keeps on repeating over and over
- Cp: Dd again.
-

Initiative vs guilt- 3 to 5 yrs old . (play age)

- It is parallel to Freud’s phallic stage

Trust vs. Mistrust - birth to 18 months (infancy) - Syntonic-initiative, dystonic-guilt
- Ego Character: purpose
- It is parallel to Freud’s oral stage - Core pathology: Malignancy that happens here
- Syntonic- basic trust, dystonic-mistrust is inhibition
- Ego Character: Hope - Genital-locomotor-mode
- Core pathology: Malignancy that happens here - Parents who permitted their children to explore
is withdrawal. their environment are allowing them to develop
- Oral sensory mode initiative. In contrast, parents curtailing the
- If the physical and emotional needs of the child child’s exploration will develop guilt on the part
are met, they learn to trust people and the of the child.
environment in general. In contrast, if the care - For Freud, it focused on urges from the penis.
they received from their parents is inadequate, it - The main focus or significant individuals is the
can result in mistrust and suspicion. family because they have urges to play with
- According to Erikson, both syntonic and dystonic other people
elements are needed for proper adaptation. - Resolution of this crisis is having a purpose.
- If there is a balance between trust and mistrust it - a willful child has a will to do things which also
would lead to basic strength and hope. looks at what their purpose is.
- Significant other is the mother - if you are compulsive then you try and try that
- Babies also need to be carried or played and not you fail more rather than being successful. That
just fed. feeling of failure makes them inhibited. Rather
than doing an action they would not try anymore
Autonomy vs shame and doubt- 18 months to 3 yrs.
(early childhood) Industry vs inferiority- 6 to 12 yrs old . (school age)

- It is parallel to Freud’s anal stage - It is parallel to Freud’s latency stage

- Syntonic-autonomy, dystonic-shame/doubt - Syntonic-industry, dystonic-inferiority
- Ego Character: Will - Ego Character: competence
- Core pathology: Malignancy that happens here - Core pathology: Malignancy that happens here
is compulsion is inertia
- anal-uretheral -muscular - The child is at school and in the neighbourhood.
- At this stage, we are now able to control the Who are the neighbours? The teachers, peers,
sphincter muscle, this is related to our toilet classmates
training (Freud- limitation of his theory) - Teachers play a very important role especially in
- The basic strength is being wilfull/will because competence
someone teaches them what to do and what is - The conflict is industry vs inferiority.
right or wrong. If it is not met then they will - A child who receives encouragement,reward,
develop compulsions and appreciation from significant others will
- Autonomy vs shame/doubt is more focused on develop industry. If a child's effort is rebuffed or
motor rather than urges ignored, the child will develop inferiority.
- Significant individuals are parents because they - an inhibited child that doesn’t try anymore
can tell you what to do. develops inertia as the core pathology. Inertia is
- If the parents encourage the child to do things being too passive/helpless. You just accept what
on their own, it can lead to autonomy. If the is given to you.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- when we say competence that even if you make - Since you are committed, it is easier to create
mistakes, you try to improve yourself. A relationships since you know what you want and
self-direction or things that makes you a better you know your interest.
person that the teachers have an important role. - your identity should have been built, if it is not
This is easier for a person who has purpose. “ah built then you would have a hard time/confused
I have a reason pala on why I am doing this” of who you are and it would be difficult for you to
- “Teachers should be great at the elementary build relationships that are lasting since you
period since they would build that sense of don’t know what you want. Exclusivity is you
competence in children.” being selfish or isolated.
- An inhibited child can still be competent if they - “Type A are competitive, type B people are
are trained well by the teacher. It depends on relaxed or chill”
the people who are surrounding you
Generativity vs stagnation- 31 to 60 yrs old
Identity vs identity/ role confusion- 12 to 18 yrs old (adulthood)
(puberty and adolescence)
- procreativity
- Syntonic-identity, dystonic-identity confusion - Syntonic-generativity, dystonic-stagnation
- Ego Character: Fidelity - Ego Character: care
- Core pathology: Malignancy that happens here - Core pathology: Malignancy that happens here
is role repudiation is rejectivity
- As they seek independence from their parents, - Igenerativtiy is characterized by being
adolescents seek to establish their sense of productive and responsible as parents. These
identity- they strive to find out who they are and parents guide the next generation, their children.
who they are not. During this stage, adolescents Stagnation is the opposite, stagnant parents
may also experience identity confusion which is failing to perform the task expected of them.
characterized by confused self-image, difficulty, - Crisis for this stage is Generativity vs
establishing intimacy and tendency to discard stagnation.
family and societal issues. - Generativity is you helping the next generation.
- A helpless/ meek child is usually a victim of Stagnation is you being lonely or not sharing
bullying. “di to papalag”. Very seldom do they what you have with other people.
have peers. Therefore, development of identity - Significant people here are the household or
would also become difficult. workmates where you try to teach them or help
- Fidelity is commitment to a certain identity. This them.
is the basic strength of this crisis. This also - Being stagnant is not being able to teach a
includes gender. person. If you don’t teach eventually they will
- a competent child develops fidelity and you forget about it. If you are being exclusive then
would know the traits that people have that you try to reject other people (nagiging mapili ka
surround you. They can easily suggest or na).
committed to a certain identity - *guiding other people you become an expert on
- *a helpless child would have a hard time it. The more you share things, you get better at
knowing how they are. Or if you are passive, it, and then that is generativity. A loving adult
they would actually have a certain identity that has it easier to take care of other people
you tend to just follow others tell you. They - *for those who are failures or those who don’t
would undergo identity diffusion have children, usually they teach.
- The role of society here is important - The key to try to reverse the core
pathologies are other individuals. We may
Intimacy vs Isolation- 19 to 30 yrs old (young have failure on other stages but other people
adulthood) can help us get basic strengths.

- Genitality Integrity vs despair- 19 to 30 yrs old (young old age)

- Syntonic-intimacy,dystonic-isolation
- Ego Character: love - Generalized sensuality
- Core pathology: Malignancy that happens here - Syntonic-integrity, dystonic-despair
is exclusivity - Ego Character: wisdom
- Once the young adult achieves a sense of - Core pathology: Malignancy that happens here
identity, they find it easier to develop intimate is disdain
relationships- share and care for others. If they - Integrity refers to a feeling of wholeness, usually
fail to establish intimacy at this stage, it can lead old men/women achieved a sense of integrity
to feelings of isolation. once they received adequate care from the

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

significant others. However, the old men/women found in classical conditioning, in which a
viewed their lives as having a lot of frustration, response (salivation) to a stimulus (the bell) is
anger, and mistakes, they will develop a feeling evoked after repeated association with a
of despair. repeated stimulus that normally elicits the
- It is not if you are a caring elder, you can easily response (Food).
get wisdom. The more that you help the next - John B. Watson, applied such
generation, wisdom builds from your mistakes stimulus-response theories to children, claiming
and success. they could mold any infant in any way he chose.
- *if you are a rejecting elder you are full of In one of the earliest and most famous
disdain or even regrets. demonstrations of classical conditioning in
- *they can be helped by mankind/society. I.e. human beings.
geriatric wards or even home for the aged that - He taught an 11 month old baby known as
could help them be enlightened. Little Albert to fear furry objects.
- always succeed in getting wisdom but also your
experiences and mistakes. Little Albert Study:

Perspective 2: Learning - Albert was exposed to loud noise when he

started to stroke a rat. The nose frightened him
- Theorists in the learning perspective argued and began to cry. After repeated pairings of the
that development was a result of learning, a rat with loud noise, Albert whimpered with fear
relatively long lasting change based on when he saw the rat.
experience or adaptation to the environment. - Albert also started showing fear responses to
- Learning theorist was not interested in the inner white rabbits and cats, and beards of elderly
working of the mind because behavior is men. The study, although unethical,
observable and countable and confers great demonstrated that fear could be conditioned.
objectivity, this was the focus.
- Psychologists at that time also believed in a Extinction: weakening conditioned responses
tabula rasa or a blank state of mind. In this view,
everything a person became depended upon the - What happens if the cs repeatedly occurs
experience. without the us? What would happen if PAvlov
- WHile the child rearing strategies proposed by exposed the dog to the bell without the meat
behaviorists eventually fell out of favor, the idea powder? The response would gradually weaken
that people were fundamentally the same held and be eventually eliminated and extinction
powerful moral attraction. would take place.
- Bevhaviorist saw development as continuous
emphasizing incremental quantitative Spontaneous recovery: Recovering conditioned
changes overtime, reactive and continuous, responses.
occurring in response to environmental input.
- Sub theories under learning perspective: - Pavlove observed that after extinction was
behaviorism and social learning theory completed, and the dog was returned to the
experimental chamber, where the cs was
Behaviorism presented again, salivation, which was
previously extinguished, reappeared. Pavlov
- a learning perspective that emphasizes the called this reappearance of conditioned behavior
predictable role of the environment in causing spontaneous recovery and treated it as a
observable behavior. procedure. The phenomenon of spontaneous
- Behavioral research focuses on associative recovery shows that the car was not unlearned
learning, in which a mental link is formed during extinction, but was being actively
between two events. inhibited by the organism.
- Two kinds of associative learning: Classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. Generalization and discrimination

Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) - Pavlov found that crs occur not only when
confronted by the cs during training, but also in
- Learning is based on associating stimulus that the face of similar stimuli. This phenomenon is
does not ordinarily elicit a response with another called stimulus generalization. In the
stimulus that does elicit the responses. experiment for instance, the dog generalized his
- Pavlov devised experiments in which dogs response to a similar sound like buzzer.
learned to salivate in the sound of a bell that - If you condition a dog to salivate to a
rang at feeding time. These experiments are conditioned stimulus such as circle, and present

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

another stimulus such a circle, and present - Fixed-ratio- in this schedule, a fixed number of
another stimulus such an ellipse, but never responses must be made before the rewards
reinforce the response in the presence of an are administered. (number/fixed)
ellipse, the dog will respond to the circle but not - Variable-ratio- the number of responses
to the ellipse. This phenomenon is called determines the delivery of reinforcement; but the
stimulus discrimination, the learned tendency ratio changes from reinforcement to
to respond to the stimulus used in training. reinforcement.
- Slot machines are set to pay-off according to
Operant condition (B.F Skinner) variable ratio. Also people coming back to when
the next payoff will be.
- Operant conditioning- is a learning based on - Fixed interval- in this schedule, the
the association of behavior with its reinforcement will be delivered after specific
consequences passage of time. (Time)
- Learn from the consequences of “operating” on - Variable Interval- the length of time is varied or
the environment. unspecified before the delivery of the stimulus.
- Unlike the classical conditioning, operant
conditioning involves voluntary behavior. Social learning theory/ social cognitive theory
- Skinner argued that an organism- animal or (Albert Bandura)
human- will tend to repeat its response that has
been reinforced by desirable consequences and - The outstanding characteristics of humans is
it will suppress a response that has been plasticity
punished. - People have the capacity to regulate their lives
- Reinforcement is the process by which a through the triadic reciprocal causation mode
behavior is strengthen, increasing the likelihood - Cognitive processes are at work as people
that the behavior will be repeated. observe behavior and learn chunks of behavior.
- Self-efficacy- confidence in their abilities. Sense
Four procedures of operant conditioning, PR, NR, of one’s capability to master challenging and
PP, NP achieve goals.
- Social cognitive theory takes an agentic
1. Positive reinforcement- occurs when the perspective
behavior is followed by a favorable stimulus - People regulate their conduct through both
2. Negative reinforcement- occurs when the external and internal factors
behavior is followed by the removal of aversive - People regulate their behavior through moral
stimulus/unfavorable stimulus agency.
3. Positive reinforcement- occurs when the - Theory that behaviours are learned by observing
behavior is followed by the and imitating models. Also called as social
unfavorable/aversive stimulus. cognitive theory
4. Negative punishment- occurs when the - Observational learning (modelling)- learning
behavior is followed by the favorable stimulus. by observing the behaviour of others. Modelling
is the heart of observational learning
Schedules of reinforcement - Reciprocal determinism- Bandura’s term for
bidirectional forces that affect development. The
- A reinforcement schedule is simply a rule that person reacts to the world, as how the world
states under what conditions a reinforcer will be react to people
delivered. There are two major schedules of - Classic social learning theory maintains that
reinforcement. people learn appropriate behavior chiefly by
A. Continuous (CRF)- occurs when watching other
reinforcement is given after every single
desired behavior Three principles influence modelling:
B. Intermittent (INT)- occurs when
reinforcement is given after some 1. People are most likely to model high-status
behavior but never after each one. The people
following are the schedules of 2. People who lack skill or status are most likely to
reinforcement under INT. model
3. People tend to model behavior that they see
Schedules of reinforcement under the intermittent being rewarding to the model
FR, VR,FI,VI - To illustrate observational learning,
Bandura conducted the Bobo doll
experiment.

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

Four processes that govern observational learning: - Piaget suggest that cognitive development
begin with an inborn ability to adapt in the
1. Attention processes- the learner must pay environment
attention to the appropriate features of the - Children's intelligence undergoes changes as
mode’s behavior for learning to occur they grow
2. Retentional/Representation processes- the - This theory is regarded as cornerstone in the
individual must retain some information gained field of developmental psychology
through observation if imitation is to occur at a
later time. It is a stage that rehearsal may be Cognitive growth occurs in 3 interrelated process:
important
3. Motor reproductive/reproduction processes- - Organization- is the tendency to create
the learner must know cognitively and roughly categories such as birds, by observing the
what is to be done, but maybe able to translate characteristics that individual members of a
some general knowledge into a coordinated category, such as sparrows and cardinals have
pattern of muscle movements. When a learner in common.
already possess the required motor skills, the
translation of knowledge into action poses no According to Piaget, people create increasingly
problem. complex cognitive structures called schemes,
4. Incentive and motivational processes- the ways of organizing information about the world
first three are the only ones necessary for an that govern the way the child thinks and
individual to acquire the capability to perform behaves in a particular situation. As children
some new behaviour. Without the appropriate acquire more information, their schemes
incentive, however, the behavior may not occur. become more and more complex.
According to Bandura, the individual must have
an expectation that the performance of the new - Adaptation- Piaget’s term for how children
behavior will result in some type. handle new information in light of what they
already know
Perspective 3: Cognitive 1. Assimilation- taking new information
and incorporating it into existing
- Focuses on the cognitive thoughts and cognitive structures
processes and the behavior that reflects those 2. Accommodation- adjusting one’s
processes. cognitive structures to fit the new
- This perspective encompasses both information.
organismic mechanistically theories. - Piaget argued that children strive for
- It includes the theory of piaget, vygotsky, and equilibrium between their cognitive structures
the information processing approach and experiences.

Jean Piaget’s cognitive-stage theory

- Both cognitive psychology and developmental Stages of cognitive development- SM,

psychology owe an enormous debt to the work PO,CO,FO
of Piaget.
- Piaget developed the cognitive-stage theory 1. Sensory motor
that re-introduced the concept of scientific - Birth to 2 years old
inquiry into mental states. - Coordination of of sensory input
- Cognitive perspective- view that thought or information and motor activity
processes are central to development - Characterized by simple
- Cognitive-stage theory- children’s cognitive reflexes such as startle,
development advances in a series of four stages grasping, sucking etc.
involving qualitatively distinct types of mental - Child develops object
operation permanence: the idea or notion
- Piaget viewed organismically as the product of that object still exist even it is
children’s attempts to understand and act upon out of sight
the world. He also believed in qualitative 2. Pre-operational
changes and thus his theory delineates a series - 2- to 7 yrs old
of stages characterizing development at - Child develops a representation
different ages. system and uses symbols to
represent people, places, and
events.

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

-
Imitation, symbolic play, and - Scaffolding: temporary support to help a child
mental imagery. master a task. The supportive assistance of
- Animism: belief that inanimate parents, teachers, or others given to a child.
objects have human feelings
and intentions Information processing approach:
- Artificialism: brief that
environmental characteristics - Seeks to explain cognitive development by
can be attributed to human analyzing the process involved in making sense
actions or interventions of incoming information and performing tasks
- Egocentrism: inability to see effectively: attention, memory, panning strategy,
situation from another person’s decision making, goal setting.
point of view - Approach to the study of cognitive development
3. Concrete operational by observing and analyzing mental processes
- 7-11 yrs old involved in perceiving and handling information.
- Child can solve problems - The information processing approach is not a
logically about concrete events single theory but a framework that supports a
- Conservation: the principle wide range of theories and research.
that irrelevant external
appearance of objects have no Perspective 4: Contextual
effect on the object’s quantity - According to contextual theory, view
- Child can also perform basic development that sees the individuals
mathematical operations inseparable for the social context.
4. Formal operational - Development can be understood only in its
- 11 yrs old to adulthood social context . Contextualist see the individual,
- Person can think abstractly, not as a separate entity interacting with the
deal with hypothetical environment, but as an inseparable part of it.
situations, and think about Bioecological theory (Urie Bronfrenbener)
possibilities - Understanding processes of contexts of human
- Symbolic abstractions of development that identifies five levels of
algebra environmental influence
- Literary ccrticism 1. Microsystem- consists of everyday
- Use of metaphor in literature environment of home, work, school, or
neighborhood. It includes face to face with
Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory siblings, parents, friends, classmates, or later in
life, spouses, work, colleagues, or employers.
- Focused on social and cultural processes that 2. Mesosystem- is the interlocking influence of
guide children’s cognitive growth as a microsystems. It may include linkages between
collaborative process. home and school (such as parent-teacher
- People learn through social interaction conference) or between the family and the peer
- They acquire cognitive skills as part of their group (such as the relationship that develop
induction to a way of life. among families in a neighborhood peer group)
- SHared activities help children internalize their - Because of mesosystem interactions,
society’s modes of thinking and behaving. environments in which a child does not
- Vygotsky emphasize language not merely as an directly participate may nonetheless
expression of knowledge and thoughts but as an influence her.
essential tool for learning and thinking about the 3. Exosystem-consists of the interactions between
world a microsystem and outside system or institution.
- According to Vygotsky, adults or more advanced Although ,the effects are indirect, they can still
peers must help direct and organise a child’s have a profound impact on a child
learning before the child masters and internalize 4. Macrosystem- consist of overarching cultural
it. This guide is most effective in helping children patterns, such as dominant beliefs, ideologies,
cross the Zone of proximal development and economic and political systems.
- ZPD is the gap between what they are already - People are affected by the type of
able to do by themselves and what they can political system that they live in, and
accomplish with assistance. they might reasonably have different
- Sensitive and effective instruction then should experiences if raised in an open
be aimed at the ZPD and increasing complexity democratic society versus an
as a child's abilities to improve. authoritarian regime with limited
freedoms.
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

5. Chronosystem- the last addition to the Wala na pakialam si bunso

bioecological theory
- Represents the dimensions of time Ainsworth’s attachment styles
- Time marches on and as it does, - The strange situation study- this is a seven
change occurs. These can include phase study designed to reflect naturalistic
changes in family composition (as when observations . Ainsworth has made of
a new child is born or a divorce occurs), parent-child interaction
place of residence or parents - Avoidant: few or no signs of missing the parent;
employment, as well as larger events actively ignores and avoids her upon reunion
such as wars, ideological shifts, or - Secure: shows signs of missing the mother
economic cycles. when she left ; child made efforts to reunite with
the mother when she returned
Perspective 5: Evolutionary/Sociobiological - Ambivalent: infant become distressed when the
- evolutionary / sociobiological proposed by mother cannot be settled by the parent upon
wilson their reunion
- View development that focuses on the
evolutionary biological bases of behavior Moral development theory (Lawrence Kohlberg)
- Critical/sensitive periods: specific time - Focuses on how the children develops morality
frames, during which the presence or absence, and moral reasoning
of certain experiences has a long lasting - He used the story of Heinz Dilemma to gather
influence individuals information about the moral reasoning of
- See Kondrad Lorenz and imprinting in chap children
1 - According to Kohlberg, moral development has
- Darwin’s natural selection is one of the most three levels and 6 identifiable stages
important theoretical advances of modern - Heinz Dilemma used to determine of moral
science development reasoning of children
- Darwin’s theory can be broken down into a few Level 1: Preconventional morality (0-9 yrs old)
major postulates. First, organisms vary. Second, - No personal code of morality
there are never enough resources for all - Stage 1: obedience and punishment
organisms to survive. Third, individual The obey because they want to avoid
differences are heritable. punishments
- Natural selection is defined as the differential Stage 2: Individualism and exchange
survival and reproduction of different variants, of They obey because of the reward that they
number of species, and is the tool the natural receive after performing behavior
world uses to shape evolutionary processes. Level 2: Conventional morality (9-20 yrs)
While it is commonly described “as survival of - Acceptance of social rules
fittest” the key feature is in actuality reproduction - Stage 3: Good boy-good girl
success. Characterized by others
Stage 4: Law and order
Attachment theory (John Bowlby)- extended They obey because it is a policy
ethological from animals to people Rules on schools
- Attachment to caregiver over the first year of life Level 3: Post conventional morality (20 yrs old and
has important consequence throughout the above)
lifespan - Develop an understanding of abstract principles
- Childhood attachments are crucial to later of morality
development - Stage 5: social contract and individual rights
Bowlby’s three stages of separation anxiety There is a law but I have an individual rights
1. Protest- when the caregiver is first out of sight, (dress codes for the lgbtq+)
infants will cry, resist soothing by other people, - Stage 6: universal ethical principles
and search for their caregivers. - Self chosen principles even if it is conflict with
Kapag nawala yung caregiver the child will cry the norms
and resisting soothing sa ibang caregiver.
2. Despair- as separation continues infants CHAPTER 3: Forming a new life
become quiet, sad, passive, listless, and
apathetic. How fertilization takes place
Seldom looking for caregiver - Fertilization or conception is the process by
3. Detachment- infants become emotionally which sperm and ovum-the male and and
detached from other people, including their female gametes, or sex cell- combine to create
caregiver. a single cell called zyygote.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Zygote: one-celled organism resulting from - Moreover, environmental differences add up

fertilization over time. The difference between identical
- Fertilization occurs in te fallopian tube. If twins generally magnifies as twins grow older.
fertilization does not occur, the ovum an - These differences may result from chemical
- Which then duplicates itself again and again by modifications in a person’s genome shortly after
cell division to produce all the cells that make up conception or may be due to later experiences
a baby. or environmental factors, such as exposure to
- But conception is not as simple as it sounds. smoke, or higher pollutants. This process is
- Several independent events need to coincide to called epigenesis.
conceive a child, and not all conceptions end in
birth Mechanisms of heredity
- The “fertile window”, or the time during which - The science of genetics is the study of heredity,
conception is possible can be highly the genetic transmission of heritage
unpredictable. characteristics from parents to offspring. When
- At birth, a girl is believed to have about 2 million ovum and sperm unite, they endow the baby to
immature ova in her two ovaries, each ovum in be with a genetic make up that influences a wide
its own follicle or small sac. Ina sexually mature range of characteristics from color of eyes, hair,
woman, ovulation - rupture of a mature follicle in to health, intellect, and personality
either ovary and expulsion of its ovum- occurs
about once every 28 days until menopause. Genetic code
- The ovum is swept along through one of the - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): chemicals that
fallopian tubes by cilia, tiny hair cells towards carry inherited instructions of development of all
the uterus or womb. cellular forms of life. A genetic material in all
- Sperm are produced in the testicles (testes) or living cells. It consists of 4 chemical units called
reproductive glands of a mature male at a rate bases:
of seven hundred millions a day and are 1. Adenine (A)
ejaculated in the semen at sexual climax. 2. Thymine (T)
- Deposited in the vagina, they try to swim in 3. Cytosine( C)
through the cervix, the opening of the uterus and 4. Guanine (G)
into the fallopian tubes but only a tiny fraction - Double helix structure
make it that far. -
- Fertilization normally occurs while the ovum is - Genetic code: sequence of bases within the
passing through the fallopian tube. If fertilization DNA molecule; governs the formation of
does not occur, the ovum and any sperm cells in proteins that determine the structure and
the woman’s body will die. The sperm is functions of living cells.
absorbed by the woman’s white blood cells, and - Chromosomes: coils of DNA that consist of
the ovum passes through the uterus and exits smaller segments called genes, the functional
through the vagina. unit of heredity. Genes small segments of DNA
in definite positions on particular chromosomes,
What causes multiple births? functional units of heredity
1. Dizygotic twins (fraternal twins) - Each gene is located in a definite position on its
- Twins conceived by the union of two different chromosomes and contains thousand of bases.
ova (or a single ovum that has split with two - The sequence of bases in a gene tells the cells
different sperm cells. They are no more alike how to make the proteins that enable it to carry
genetically than any other siblings. out specific functions.
- Dizygotic twins tend to run in the families and - The complete sequence of genes in the human
are the result of multiple eggs being released at body is called the human genome.
one time. This tendency may have a genetic - Mutation permanent alterations in genes are
basis. chromosomes that they produce harmful
2. Monozygotic twins are the result of a far characteristics
different process. - Human genome is not meant to be a recipe for
- Twins resulting from the division of a single making a particular human. The human genome
zygote after fertilization; also called as identical is the reference point or representative genome
twins; they are genetically similar. that shows the location of all human genes
- They can still differ outwardly, however, because - Autosomes in humans, the 22 pairs of
people are the result of the interaction between chromosomes not related to sexual
genes and environmental influences. characteristics
- One twin receives a smaller share of nutrients - Sex chromosomes pair of chromosomes that
than the other. determines the sex: XX for female XY for male.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

23 pairs of chromosomes- 46 in all. Through a - Every person receives one

type f cell division called meiosis, which the sex maternal and one paternal allele
cell undergo when they are developing, each for any given trait. When both
sex cell ends up with 23 pairs of chromosomes - alleles are the same, the person
one for each pair. is homozygous, which is the
- Mitosis a process by which the non-sex cells processing of two identical
divide in half over and over again, the DNA alleles for a trait.
replicates itself. - Heterozygous when they are
- Sometimes, a mistake copying is made and a different. Possessing different
mutation may result. alleles in a trait.
- In the dominance inheritance,
What determines sex? the dominant allele is always
- Body cells of men and women contains 23 pairs expressed, or shows up as a
of chromosomes, 22 pairs are autosomes. trait in that person. Pattern of
The 23rd pair of chromosomes one from the inheritance in which, when a
mother, and one from the father- that govern the child receives different alleles
sex of the baby. only one dominant one is
- X chromosome for the mother and Y expressed.
chromosome from the fater, the Y chromosome - For the trait to be expressed in
from the father contains SRY gene. a recessive inheritance,
- Sexual differentiation is a more complex pattern of inheritance in which a
process than simple determination. Early in child receives identical alleles
development, the embryo’s rudimentary resulting in expression of a non
reproductive system appears more identical in dominant trait.
males and females. Surprisingly, sexual - Most traits result from
differentiation is automatic. polygenic inheritance, the
- At 6 to 8 weeks after conception, the testes start interaction of several alleles. It
to produce male hormone testosterone. is a pattern of inheritance in
Exposure of a genetically male embryo to which genes at different sites on
steady, high levels of testosterone ordinarily chromosomes affect a complex
results in the development of a male body with trait.
sexual organs. 2. Genotype and Phenotypes
- Without this hormonal influence, a genetically multifactorial transmission:
male mouse will develop genitals that appear - Genotype: genetic makeup of a
female rather than male. person, containing both
- The development of female reproductive system expressed and unexpressed
is equally complex and depends on the number characteristics
of the genetic variants. The variants promote - Phenotype: observable
ovarian development and inhibit testicular characteristics of a person.
development. This includes HOX genes and a Product of a genotype and any
signalling molecule called Wnt-4, a variant form relevant environmental
of which can masculinize a genetically female influences.
fetus. - The difference between the
- Thus, Sexual differentiation is not a matter of genotype and the phenotype
merely receiving a particular component of sex helps explain what a clone ( a
chromosomes. genetic copy of an individual)
or even an identical twin can
Patterns of genetic inheritance never be an exact duplicate of
1. Dominant and recessive inheritance another person.
- Genes that produce alternative - Environmental experience
expressions of characteristics modifies the expression of a
(such as the presence or genotype for most traits- a
absence of dimples) are called phenomenon called
allele multifactorial transmission,
- Allele, two or more alternative which illustrates the interaction
forms of a gene that occupy the of nature and nurture and how
same position on the paired they affect outcomes.
chromosomes and affect the 3. Epigenesis: Environmental influence
same trait. on gene expression
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Genes are turned off or on as - It occurs because of errors in cell

they are needed by the division , resulting in extra or missing
developing body or when chromosomes.
triggered by the environment. - Klinefelter syndrome, caused by an
This process is called extra female chromosome. (XXY)
epigenesis or epigenetics. - Turner syndrome, caused by a result
- Far from being fixed once and of missing sex chromosome (XO)
for all, epigenetic activity is - Down syndrome, chromosomal
affected by a continual disorder characterized by
bidirectional interplay with moderate-to-severe mental retardation
non-genetic influence when and and by such physical signs as a
which genes turn on and off. downward-sloping skin fold at the inner
- Epigenesis (meaning “o, or corners of the eyes. Also called
above, the genome.”) refers to trisomy-21. The brains of the children
chemical molecules (or “tags”) with down syndrome appears nearly
attached to a gene that alter the normal at birth but shrink in volume by
way a cell “reads” the gene’s young adulthood, particularly in the
DNA. hippocampal area and prefrontal cortex,
Genetics and chromosomal abnormalities resulting in cognitive dysfunction, and in
1. Dominant or recessive inheritance of defects the cerebellum, leading to problems with
- Most of the time “good” genes are motor coordination and balance.
dominant over those carrying abnormal Genetic counseling and testing
traits, but sometimes the gene for an - Clinical service that advises prospective parents
abnormal trait is dominant. When one of their probable risk of having children with
parent has one dominant abnormal hereditary defects.
gene and one recessive “good” gene - People who have already had a child with with a
and the other parent has two recessive genetic defect, who have a family history of of
“good” genes, each of their children has hereditary illness, who suffer from conditions
a 50-50 chance of inheriting the known or suspected, to be inherited, or who
abnormal gene. came from an ethnic groups at higher risk of
- Defects transmitted by dominant passing on genes for certain diseases can get
inheritance are less likely to be lethal at information about the likelihood their children
an early age than those transmitted by being affected.
recessive inheritance because any - Laboratory investigations of blood, skin, urine
affected children would be likely to die and fingerprints may be performed.
before reproducing. Chromosomes from body tissues may be
- Recessive defects are expressed only analyzed and photographed, and photographs
if a child is homozygous for that gene; in may be enlarged and arranged according to size
other words, a child must inherit a copy and structure on a chart called karyotype.
of recessive gene from each parent.
- In incomplete dominance, a trait is not Nature and nurture: Influences of heredity and
fully expressed. Normally the presence environment
of a dominant/ recessive gene pair 1. Studying heredity and environment
results in full expression of the dominant - One approach to the study of heredity
gene and the masking of the recessive and environment is quantitative. It
gene. seeks to measure how much heredity
- Sex linked inheritance of defects, and environment influence a particular
certain recessive disorders affect the trait. This is the traditional goal of the
male and female children differently. science of behavioral genetics.
This is due to the fact that males are XY - Measuring heritability- behavioral
and females are XX. In humans, the Y geneticists have developed a means of
chromosome is smaller and carries far estimating how much of a trait is due to
fewer genes than the X chromosome genetics and how much is the result of
- Sex link recessive disorders are more the environmental influences by using a
common than males rather than concept known heritability, statistical
females. estimate of contribution of heredity to
2. Chromosomal abnormalities individual differences in a specific trait
within a given population.

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

-Every trait is a consequence of genes - The first two ways are common among younger
and environment. children, the third among children, adolescents,
- By looking at groups of people with and adults.
known genetic relationship, assessing - Passive correlation: parents who provide the
whether or not they are concordant, genes that predispose a child toward a trait, also
meaning the same on a given trait, tend to provide an environment that encourages
behavioural geneticists can estimate the the development of that trait.
relative influence of genes and - Reactive or evocative correlation; children with
environment. differing genetic makeups evoke different
- Concordant- the term describing the reactions from others.
tendency of twins to share the same - Active correlation: as children gets older, and
trait or disorder. have more freedom to choose their own
- Heritability cannot be measured directly. activities and environments, they actively select
The researchers in behavioral genetics or create experiences consistent with their
have developed indirect methods for genetic tendencies.
assessing the relationship between the - Niche-picking: tendency of a person,especially
expression of traits and the genetic and after early childhood, to seek out environments
environmental factors influencing them. compatible with his or her genotype.
How heredity and environment work together What makes siblings so different is the nonshared
- Today many developmental scientists have environment.
come to regard solely quantitative approaches - Although children in the same family may bear a
to the study of heredity and environment as striking physical resemblance, siblings can differ
simplicity. They see two forces as fundamentally greatly in intellect and especially in personality.
intertwined. Instead of looking at genes and - One reason may be genetic differences, which
experience as operating directly on an lead children to need different kinds of
organism, they see both as part of a complex stimulation or to respond differently to a similar
developmental system. environment.
- Reaction range- many characteristics vary - Nonshared environmental effects, the unique
within limits under varying hereditary or environment in which each child grows up,
environmental conditions. The concept of consisting of distinctive influences or influences
reaction range can help us visualize how this that affect one child differently than another.
happens. Some characteristics influenced by heredity and
- Reaction range refers to a range of potential environment
expressions of a hereditary trait. Body size, for - Obesity. It is measured by the BMI or body
example, depends largely on biological mass index.
processes, which are genetically regulated. - In fact, there is not “a” gene for obesity , rather
Even so, a range of size is possible, depending it is a multifactorial condition
on environmental opportunities and constraints - However, this increased risk is not solely
and a person’s behavior. Reaction range, genetic, environmental experiences also
potential variability , depending on the contribute to obesity. The kind of food eaten in a
environmental conditions, and the expression of particular home and the amount of exercise that
hereditary traits. this encourages can increase or decrease the
- Canalization- some traits have an extremely likelihood that a child will become obese.
narrow range of reaction. The metaphor of - Intelligence. Heredity exerts a strong influence
canalization illustrates how heredity restricts in general intelligence, as measured by
the range of development for some traits. intelligence tests, and a moderate effect on
- Cognitive and personality are not canalized. specific abilities such a memory, verbal ability,
They are more subject to variations in and spatial ability.
experience. - Temperament and personality. When babies
- Genotype-environment interaction usually are exposed to a new experience, some infants
refers to the effect of similar environmental respond with interest, nad excitement while
conditions on genetically different individuals , others with apprehension and withdrawal. Some
and a discussion of these instructions is a way babies are active, others are less so.
to conceptualize and talk about the different - Temperament. Characteristic disposition, or
ways nature and nurture interact. style of approaching and reacting to situations.
- Genotype-environment correlation also called - Schizophrenia. Illustrates interaction of heredity
as genotype-environment covariance, this works and genetics. It is a neurological disorder
in three ways to strengthen the phenotypic characterized by loss of contact with reality;
expression of a genotypic tendency
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

hallucinations and delusions; loss of coherent; hte nervous system including the brain
logical thought; and inappropriate emotionality. and spinal cord.
- The endoderm, the inner layer, will
Prenatal development become the digestive system liver,
- During gestation, the period between pancreas, slalivary glands, and
conception and birth, an unborn child undergoes respiratory systems
dramatic processes of development. The normal - The mesoderm the middle layer, will
range of gestation is 37 weeks to 41 weeks. develop and differentiate into the inne
- Gestational age is usually dated from the first rlayer of the skin, muscle, skeleton, nad
day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual excretory and circulatory systems.
cycle. - Other parts of the blastocyst begin to
- Cephalocaudal principle- the upper parts of develop into organs that will nurture and
the body develop before the lower parts of the protect development in the womb: the
trunk. From the latin meaning “head to tail” amniotic activity, or amniotic sac,, with
- Proximodistal principle- from the latin its outer layer: the amnion and charion,
meaning “near to far” development proceeds the placenta, and the ambilica chord.
from parts near the center of the body to outer - The amniotic sac is a fluid-filled
ones. membrane that encases the developing
- The embryo’s head and trunk develop before embryo, protecting it and giving it room
the limbs, and the arms and legs before the to move and grow.
finger and toes. - The placenta allow oxygen,
Stages of prenatal development G, E, F nourishment and waste to pass between
1. Germinal stage (fertilization to 2 weeks) the mother and embryo. It is connected
- During the germinal stage, from to the embryo though the umbilical
fertilization to about 2 weeks of chord.
gestational age, the zygote divides, 2. Embryonic stage (2 to 8 weeks)
becomes more complex and is - The organs and major body parts-
implanted into the wall of the uterus. respiratory, digestive, nad nervous
- After 36 hours of fertilization, the zygote develop rapidly. This process is known
enters a period of rapid cell division and as organogenesis.
duplicate (mitosis). 72 hours after - This is a critical period, when the
fertilization, it is divided first into 16 and embryo is most vulnerable to destructive
into 32 cells; a day later it has 64. While influences in tht prenatal environment
the fertilized egg is dividing, it is also - Any organ system or structure that is
making its way through the fallopian still developing at the tme of exposure a
tube to the uterus, a journey of 3 to 4 most likely to be affected. Because of
days. this, defects that occurs later in
- Its form changes in blastocyst, a pregnanacy are less like to be serious
fluid-filled sphere,which floats freely in as the major organ systems and
the uterus until the 6th day of physical structures of the body are
fertilization. When it begins to implant complete. Brain growth and
itself to the wall of the uterus. development begins during the
- Only 10 to 20 percent of the fertilized embryonic stage and continues after
ova complete the task of implantation birth and beyond.
and continue to develop. - The most severely affected embryos
- Where the eggs implants will determine usually do not survive beyond the first
the placement of placenta, a source of trimester or 3 months period of
nutrients and oxygen. pregnancy. A spontaneous abortion
- Before implantation, as cell commonly called as miscarriage is the
differentiation begins, some cells around expulsion of the uterus of an embryo or
the edge of the balstocyst cluster on fetus that is unable to survive outside
one side to form embryonic disk, a the womb.
thickened cell mass for mthe embryo - A miscarriage that occurs after 20
begins to develop. This mass wil weeks of gestation is called stillbirth.
differentiate into 3 layers. Males are morley likely than females to
- The ectoderm, the upper layer, will be sopontaneously aborted or to be still
become the outer layer of the skin, hte born.
nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, nad 3. Fetal stage (8 weeks- birth)

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- The appearance of the first bone cell a - Marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamine

tabout 8 weeks signals the beginning of Maternal illness
the fetal stage, the final stage of - Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome AIDS,
gestation. is a diseased caused by the human
- During this period, the fetus grows immunodeficiency (HIV) which undermines
rapidly to about 20 times its previous functioning of the immune system. If an
length, and organs and body systems expectant mother has a virus in her blood,
become more complex. perinatal transmission may occur; the virus may
- Right up to birth, “finishing touches” cross over the fetus’ bloodstream through the
such as fingernails, toenails, eyelids placenta during pregnancy, labor, delivery, after
continue to develop. birth through breast milk.
- Ultrasound, prenatal medical - Toxoplasmosis caused by parasite harbored in
procedure using high-frequency sound the bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs and in the
waves to detect the outline of fetus and intestinal tracts of cats, typically produces either
its movement, soa s to determine no symptoms or symptoms like those common
whether a pregnancy is progressively colds.
normal. Other instruments can monitor - Maternal anxiety, stress and depression
heart rate., changes in activity level, - Maternal age
state of sleep, and wakefulness, and - Outside environmental hazard
cardiac activity. - Environmental Influence: Paternal factors
- Beginning on the 12 week of gestation, Monitoring and promoting prenatal development
the fetus swallows and inhales some of - Progress is being made in the use of
the amniotic acid in which it floats. noninvasive procedures, such as ultrasound,
Because the amniotic fluid contains and blood tests to detect chromosomal
substances that cross the placenta from abnormalities.
the mother’s bloodstream, swallowing it - Prenatal cell-free DNA scans, the fetal DNA is
may stimulate the budding senses of extracted from the mother’s blood and tested.
tastes and smell. This test has been shown to be useful for early
- Mature taste cells appear about 14 detection of genetic problems.
weeks of gestation. The olfactory - Amniocentesis is a procedure in which a
system, which controls the sense of sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn for
smell, also is developed before birth. analysis
Environmental influences: maternal factors - Chorionic villus sampling, tissue from the
- Because prenatal development is the mother’s membrane surrounding the fetus is removed
body, virtually everything that influences her and analyzed.
well-being, from diet to her moods, may alter the - Embryoscopy the insertion of tiny viewing
child’s environment and affect its growth. scope into the mother’s uterus through the
- Teratogen, an environment agent, such as abdominal wall for a direct look at the embryo,
virus, drug, or radiation, that can interfere with can help diagnose non chromosomal disorders,
normal prenatal development. - Umbilical cord sampling allows direct access
- Nutritional weight to fetal DNA in the blood vessels of the umbilical
- Malnutrition cord for diagnosis.
- Physical activity
- Drug intake. Medical drugs- it was once taught ChAPTER 4- Birth and Physical development during
that the placenta protect the fetus against drugs the first 3 years
the mother took during pregnancy
- Thalidomide, a tranquilizer which was banned The birth process
after it was found to have caused stunted or - Labor is an apt term for the process of giving
missing limbs, several facial deformities, and birth.
defective organs, in some 12,000 babies. - Birth is hard for both the mother and the baby
- Opioid. - What brings on labor is a series of urine,
- Alcohol. Most common cause of intellectual cervical and other changes called parturition,
disability and the leading preventable cause of or the act of giving birth; and it typically begins
birth, FAS or fetal alcohol syndrome, is about 2 weeks before the delivery
characterized by a combination of retarded - The uterine contractions that expel the fetus
growth, face and body malformations, and begin-typically about 266 days after conception-
disorders of the central nervous system. as a tightening the uterus.
- Nicotine - A woman may have felt contractions known as
- Caffeine Braxton-Hicks contractions, at times during

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

the final months of pregnancy, or even as early personnel of the potentially problematic
as the second trimester, when the muscles of changes.
the uterus tightened up to 2 minutes. - However electronic monitoring has smoke
- In comparison with the relatively mild and drawbacks if it is used routinely in low-risk
irregular braxton-hicks contractions, real labor pregnancy; it is costly; it restricts the mother’s
contractions are more frequent, rhythmic, and movements during labor and most importantly, it
painful,and they increase the frequency and has extremely high false-positive rate,
intensity. suggesting that foetuses are in trouble even
when they are not.
Stage of birth DOTC, DAEOTB, EOTP, Vaginal vs cesarean delivery
1. Dilation of the cervix - The usual method of childbirth, previously
- The first stage, dilation of the cervix, is described as vaginal delivery. Alternatively,
the longest, typically lasting 12 to 14 cesarean delivery can be used surgically to
hours for a woman having her first child. remove the baby from the uterus through an
- In subsequent births, the first stage incision in the mother’s abdomen.
tends to become shorter. - Cesarean delivery carries risk of serious
- During this stage, regular and complications for the mother, such as
increasingly frequent uterine bleeding,infection, damage to pelvic organs,
contractions- 15 to 20 minutes apart postoperative pain, and heightened risks of
from first- cause the cervix to shorten problems to future pregnancies.
and dilate , or widen in preparation for Medicated vs non medicated delivery
the delivery. - Natural childbirth- seeks to prevent pain by
- Towards the end of the first stage, eliminating the mother’s fear through education
contractions occur every 2 minutes to about the physiology of reproduction training in
5 minutes. This stage lasts until the breathing and relaxation during delivery
cervix is fully open (10 cm, or about 4 - Prepared childbirth- method of childbirth that
inches, so the baby can descend into uses instruction, breathing exercises, and social
the birth canal. support to induced controlled physical
2. Descent and emergence of the baby responses to uterine contractions and reduce
- The second stage pain and fear
- The descent and emergence of the - During the 20th century several alternative
baby typically lasts for up to an hour or methods of natural childbirth or prepared
two. It begins when the baby’s head childbirth were developed. These methods
begins to move through the cervix into minimize or eliminate the use of drugs that may
the vagina canal, and it ends when the pose risks for the babies and enable both
baby emerges completely from the parents to participate fully in a natural,
mother’s body. At the end of this stage, empowering experience.
the baby is born, but is still attached to - Lamaze method by Fernand Lamaze.
the placenta in the mother’s placenta by acknowledges that labor is painful and teaches
the umbilical cord., which must be cut expectant mothers to work actively with their
and clumped. bodies through controlled breathing. The woman
3. Expulsion of the placenta learns to relax her muscles as a conditioned
- The third stage, expulsion of the response to the voice of her coach (usually the
placenta, lasts between 10 minutes and prospective father or a friend), who attends
1 hour. classes with her, takes part in the delivery, and
- During this stage, the placenta and the helps with the exercise.
remainder of the umbilical cord are - Leboyer method introduced in the 1970s, a
expelled from the mother. woman gives birth, in a quiet room under low
lights to reduce stress, and the newborn is
Electronic fetal monitoring gently massaged to ease crying.
- Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during - Another technique developed by Michael
labor and delivery Odent is submersion of a laboring mother in
- Can be used to track fetus’s heartbeat during soothing pool water. Other methods use mental
labor and delivery to indicate how the fetal is imagery, massage, gentle pushing, and deep
responding to the stress of uterine contraction. breathing.
Monitoring is most commonly done with the use - Perhaps the most extreme is the Bradley
of sensors attached to the woman’s midsection method, which rejects all obstetrical procedures
and held in place with an electric belt. The and other medical interventions.
sensors monitor the heart rate and alert medical

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Today, improvements in medication delivery -“Witch milk” , a secretion that

have led many mothers to choose pain sometimes leaks from the swollen
relief,sometimes swelling with natural methods. breasts of newborn boys and girls
A woman may be given local (vaginal) around the 3rd day of life, was believed
anaesthesia, called pudendal block, usually during the middle ages to have special
during the second stage of labor or she can healing powers. Like the whitish or
receive analgesic (painkiller) which reduces the blood-tinged vaginal discharge of some
perception of pain by depressing the activity of new born girls, this fluid emission results
the central nervous system. in high levels of hormone estrogen,
- Another form of pain reliefs is the regional which is secreted to the placenta just
anesthesia or an epidural, which can be before birth and goes away within a few
injected into a space in the spinal cord between days or weeks.
the vertebrae in the lumbar (lower region.) 2. Body system
- In many traditional cultures, childbearing women - Before birth, blood circulation,
are attended by a doula, an experienced nourishment, elimination of waste, and
mentor, coach, helper, who can furnish temperature regulation are
emotional support and information and can stay accomplished through the mother’s
at a woman’s bedside throughout labor. body.
- All these systems, except for the lungs,
The new born baby are functioning to some degree by the
1. SIze and appearance time a full-term birth occurs, but the
- An average neonate or newborn in the mother’s own body systems are still
US is about 20 inch long, and weighs involved and the fetus is not yet an
about 7 ½ pounds independent entity.
- Boys tend to be heavier than girls, and - A newborn baby needs more oxygen
first born child is likely to weigh less at than before. Most babies start to
birth than later borns breathe as soon as they are exposed to
- In the first few days, neonates lose as air. The heartbeat at first is irregular and
much as 10 percent of their body fast, and blood pressure does not
weight. Primarily because of a loss of a stabilise until about 10 days after birth. If
fluid, They begin to gain wieght again at a neonate does not begin breathing
about the 5th day and are generally within about 5 minutes, the baby may
back to birth weight by the 10th to t14th suffer from permanent brain injury
day. caused by anoxia, or lack of oxygen
- New babies have distinctive features and hypoxia, a reduced oxygen supply.
including a large head (one-fourth the - During the first few days infants excrete
body length) and are receding chin meconium , a stringy greenish-black
(which makes it easier for nurse) waste matter formed in a fetal intestinal
- Newborn infants also have areas on tract.
their head known as fontanels where - Neonatal jaundice, a condition in many
the bones of the skull do not meet. newborn babies , caused by immaturity
Fontanels are covered by a tough of the liver and evidenced yellowish
membrane that allows for flexibility in appearance; can cause brain damage if
shape, which eases the passage of the not treated promptly. Three to four days
neonate through the vaginal canal. after birth, about half of the babies (and
- In the first 18 months of life, the plates a larger proportion of babies born
of the skull gradually fuse together. prematurely) develop neonatal jaundice;
- Many newborns have pinkish cast; their their skin and eyeballs look yellow.
skin is so thin that it barely covers the
capillaries through which blood flows; Medical and behavioral assessment
during the first few days, some 1. APGAR scale
neonates are very hairy because of the - One minute after delivery, then again
lanugo. after 5 minutes after birth.
- Lanugo is a fuzzy prenatal hair that has - Based on the name of D.r Virgnia
not yet fallen off. Almost all new babies Apgar.
are covered with vernix caseosa - Appearance (color), Pulse(heart rate) ,
“cheesy varnish”, an oily protection Grimace(reflex irritability), Activity
against infection that dries within the (muscle tone), Respiration (breathing)
first few days.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- The newborn is rated 0,1,2, in each around their due dates but are smaller than
measure for a maximum number of 10. would be expected.
- A score of 5-7 achieved by 98.4 percent Risk factors for low birth weight
of the babies born in the US- the baby is 1. Demographic and socioeconomic factors
in good condition 2. Medical factors predating the pregnancy
- A score of below 4 means the baby 3. Prenatal behavioral and and environmental
needs immediate lifesaving treatment. If factors
resuscitation is successful, bringing the 4. Medical conditions associated with the
baby ‘s score to 4 or more at 10 mins, pregnancy
no long term damage is likely to result. Kangaroo care- a method of skin to skin contact in
- Scores of 0 to 3 at 10,15,20 minutes which a newborn is laid face down between the mother’s
after birth are inceasingly associated breasts for an hour or so at a time after birth. Has been
with cerebral palsy (muscular theorized to help preemies- full term infants make the
impairment due to brain damage adjustments from fetal life to jumble sensory stimuli in
prenatally or during birth.) or any other the outside world.
neurological problems Postmature- a fetus not yet born as of 2 weeks after the
2. Assessing neurological status: The due date or 42 weeks after the mother’s last menstrual
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment period. Postmature babies tend to be long and thin
Scale because they kept growing in the womb but had an
- Is a neurological and behavioral test to insufficient blood supply toward the end of gestation.
measure a neonate's responses to the Possibly because the placenta has aged and become
environment. less efficient, it may provide less oxygen
- It assesses motor-organization as Stillbirth- death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of
shown by such behaviors as activity gestation. The sudden death of a fetus or after the 20th
level and the ability to bring a hand to week of gestation, is a tragic union of opposite- birth and
the mouth: reflexes, state changes, death. Sometimes fetal death is diagnosed prenatally; in
such as irritability,excitability, and ability other cases, the baby’s death is discovered during labor
to quiet down after being upset, or delivery.
attention and interactive capacity as Infant mortality rate- proportion of the babies born alive
shown by general alertness and who died within the first year.
response to visual and auditory stimuli; Sudden infant syndrome (SIDS) - sometimes called
and indications of central nervous crib death of an infant under age 1, in which the cause of
system instability , such as tremors and death remains unexplained after a thorough
changes in skin color. The NBAS takes investigation that includes an autopsy.
about 30 minutes and scores are based
on a baby’s best performance. Early physical development- cephalocaudal and
3. Neonatal screening for medical conditions proximodistal principle.
- Children who inherit the enzyme - According to the cephalocaudal principle-,
disorder phenylketonuria PKU, will growth occurs from top to down. Because the
develop permanent intellectual disability brain grows rapidly before birth, a newborn
unless they are fed a special diet baby’s head is disproportionately large. The
beginning at the first 3 to 6 weeks of life. head becomes proportionately smaller as the
State of arousal child grows in height and the lower parts of the
- An infant’s physiological and behavioral status body develop
at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of - According to the proximodistal principle (inner to
wakefulness, sleep and activity. outer), growth and motor development proceed
from the center of the body outward. In the
Complications of childbirth womb, the head and the trunk develop before
the arms and the legs, then the hands and the
- Low birth- weight babies are those neonates feet, and then the fingers, and toes. During
weighing less than 2,500 grams (5 pounds) at infancy, and early childhood, the limbs continue
birth. to grow faster than the hands and feet.
- Typical gestation is 40 weeks and babies born
before the 37th week of gestation are called The brain and reflex behavior
preterm (premature) infants. Being born early - Central nervous system- the brain and the
is closely associated as might be expected, than spinal cord (a bundle of nerves running through
a full term infant. the backbone) and of a growing peripheral
- Some babies known as small-for-date network of nerves extending to every part of the
(small-for-gestational-age) infants, are born at body. Through this network, sensory messages

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

travel to the brain, and motor commands travel - The temporal lobe helps us to interpret smells
back. and sounds and is involved in memory.
- Fetal nervous system development begins at - The frontal lobe is the newest region of the
about 3 weeks. At 1 month, major regions of the brain, and is involved with a variety of high order
brain appear; the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain. processes, such as goal setting, inhibition,
As the brain grows, the front part expands to reasoning, planning, and problem solving.
form the cerebrum, the seat of conscious brain - The regions of cerebral cortex (the outer
activity . The cerebellum grows more rapidly surface of the cerebrum) that governs vision,
during the first year of life. hearing, and other sensory information grow
Building the brain. rapidly in the first few months after birth and are
- The growth of the brain is a lifelong process mature by age of 6 months but the areas of the
fundamental to physical, cognitive, and frontal cortex responsible for abstract thought,
emotional development. Through various brain mental associations.
imaging tools, researchers are gaining a clearer Brain cells.
picture of how brain growth occurs. - The brain is composed of neurons and glial
- The brain at birth is only about ¼ to ⅓ of its cells. Neuron is a nerve cell, sends and
eventual adult volume. By age 6, it is almost an receives information. Glia or glial cells nourish
adult size, but specific parts of the brain and protect the neurons. They are the support
continue to grow and develop functionally into system for our neurons.
adulthood. The brain’s growth occurs in its fits - Originally, the neurons are simply cell bodies
and starts called brain growth spurts. Different within a nucleus, or center, composed of
parts of the brain grow more rapidly at different deoxyribonucleic acid which contains the cell’s
times. genetic programming.
Major parts of the brain. - Once in place, the neurons sprout axons and
- Beginning about 3 weeks after conception, the dendrites- narrow, branching, fiberlike
brain gradually develops from a long hollow extensions. Axons send signals to the other
tube into a spherical mass of cells. By birth, the neurons, and dendrites receive incoming
growth spurt of the spinal cord and brainstem( messages from them, through synapses , tiny
the part of the brain responsible for such basic gaps, which are bridged with the help of
bodily functions such as breathing, heart rate, chemicals called neurotransmitters that are
body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle) released by neurons.
has nearly run its course. - Complementary process: integration and
- The cerebellum (the part of the brain that differentiation
maintains the balance and motor coordination) - Integration: the neurons that control various
grows faster during the first year of life. groups of muscles coordinate their activities.
- The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain - DIfferentiation: each neuron takes on specific,
and it is divided into right and left halves or specialized, structure and function.
hemispheres and called laterization- the - Cell death: the brain development, normal
tendency of each brain’s hemisphere to have elimination of excess brain cells to achieve more
specialized functions. efficient functioning.
- The left hemisphere is mainly concerned with - Myelination: much of the credit for efficiency of
language and logical thinking neural communication goes to glia that coat the
- The right hemisphere is with visual and spatial neural pathways with a fatty substance called
functions such as map reading and drawing. myelin. This process of myelination enables
Joining the two hemispheres is a tough band of signals to travel faster and more smoothly.
tissue called corpus callosum, which allows Myelination begins about halfway through
them to share information and coordinate gestation, peak during the 1st year of life,
commands. Corpus callosum grows dramatically continues to develop in adolescence
during childhood and reaches adult size by Early reflexes.
about the age of 10. Each Cerebral hemisphere - When your pupils contract you as you turn
has four lobes occipital, frontal, temporal, toward a bright light., they are acting
parietal. involuntarily. Such an automatic, innate
- The occipital lobe is the smallest of the four response to stimulation is called reflex
lobes, and is primarily concerned with visual behavior.
processing. - Primitive reflexes: sucking and rooting of
- The parietal lobe is involved with integrating nipples
sensory information from the body. It helps us - Moro reflex: a response to being startled or
move our body through space and manipulate beginning to fall., are related to instinctive needs
objects in our load.
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

for survival and protection or may support the CHAPTER 5: Cognitive development during the first
early connection to the caregiver. three years
- Grasping reflex: tightly grasp any objects
places in their palm, a holdover from our Studying cognitive development
ancestral past. 1. Behaviorist approach: studies the basic
- Postural reflexes: reactions to changes in mechanics of learning. Behaviorists concerned
position and balance with how behavior changes in response to
- Locomotor reflexes: such as walking, and experience
swimming, reflexes, resemble voluntary 2. The psychometric approach: measures
movements that do not appear until months quantitative differences in abilities that make up
after the reflexes have disappeared. intelligence by using tests that indicate or predict
- Plasticity: modifiability or “molding” of the brain these abilities.
through experience.\ 3. The piagetian approach: looks at change, or
Motor development: stages in quality of cognitive functioning. It is
- Systems of action: increasingly complex concerned with how the mind structures its
combinations of motor skills, which permit a activities and adapts to its environment.
wider or more precise range of movement and 4. Information processing approach: focuses on
more control of the environment perception, learning, memory and problem
- Pincer grasp: which thumb and index finger solving. It aims to discover how children process
closing against the palm. information from the time they encounter it until
- Denver developmental screening test: is used they use it.
to chart progress between ages 1 month and 6 5. The cognitive neuroscience approach: Seeks
years and to identify children who are not to identify what brain structures are involved in
developing normally. The test measures gross specific aspects of cognition.
motor skills using large muscles, such as 6. Social-contextual approach: examines the
rolling over and catching a ball, and fine motor effect of environmental aspects of the learning
skills using small muscles such as grasping a process particularly the role of parents and other
rattle and copying a circle. caregivers.
Motor development and perception Behaviorist approach
- Visual guidance: the use of eyes to guide - Babies are born with the ability to see, hear,
movements of the hands or other parts of the smell, taste and touch and then they have some
body ability to remember what they learn. Learning
- Depth perception: the ability to perceive theorists are interested in mechanisms of
objects and surfaces in three dimensions, learning.
depends on several kinds of cues that affect the - Classical conditioning: learning based on
image of an object on the retina of the eye. associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily
These cues involve not only binocular elicit a response with another stimulus that does
coordination but also motor control. elicit the response. In which a person learns to
- Kinetic control: are produced by movement of make a reflex or involuntary response
the object or the observer or both. - Operant conditioning: focuses on the
- Haptic perception: involves ability to acquire consequences of behaviors and how they affect
information by handling objects rather than just the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
by looking at them. Psychometric approach
Eleanor and James Gibson ecological theory of - Intelligence enables people to acquire,
perception remember, and use knowledge; to understand
- Visual cliff- a steep drop down to the floor. Walk concepts and relationships; and to solve
and Gibson wanted to know if babies would everyday problems.
willingly crawl over a deep end of the visual cliff - Intelligent behavior is presumed to be goal
when urged to do so by their mothers. oriented, meaning it exists for the purpose of
- Eleanor and james Gibson's ecological attaining a goal. It is also presumed to be
theory of perception describes motor and adaptive in that it helps organisms adjust to the
perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a varying circumstances of life.
functional system that guides behavior in a - The goal of psychometric testing is to
varying context measure quantitatively the factors that are
- Dynamic systems theory argues that behavior thought to make up intelligence such as
emerges in the moment from the comprehension and from the results of that
self-organization of multiple components. Infants measurement, to predict future performance
and environments for an interconnected, (such as achievement).
dynamic system.
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- IQ intelligence quotient tests: consists of - First substage- (birth to 1 month)- neonates

questions or tasks that are supposed to show practice their reflexes, engaging in behavior
how much of the measured abilities a person even when its normal stimulus is not present.
has by comparing that person’s performance - Second substage- (1 to 4 months old)- babies
with norms established by a large group of test learn to repeat a pleasant bodily sensation first
takers who were in standardization sample. achieved by chance (say, sucking their thumb).
Testing infants and toddler Also, they begin to turn toward sounds, showing
- The bayley scales of infants and toddler the ability to coordinate different kinds of
development- is a developmental test designed sensory information (vision and hearing).
to assess children from 1 month to 3 ½ years - Third substage- (4 to 8 months old) coincides
old. Scores in the Bayley- III indicates a child’s with a new interest with manipulating objects
competencies in each five developmental and learning about their properties.
stages: cognitive, language motor, - Fourth stage- (8 to 12 months old) they have
social-emotional, adaptive behavior. learned to generalized from past experience to
solve new problems. They modify and
Assessing the impact of early home environment coordinate previous schemes, such as schemes
- Home observation for measurement of the for crawling, pushing,
environment (Home)- trained observers - Fifth stage- (12 to 18 months old) babies begin
interview the primary caregiver and rate yes or to experiment with new behavior to see what will
no checklist of the intellectual stimulation and happen. They now engage in tertiary circular
support observed in a child’s home. reactions.
- HOME scores are significantly correlated with - Sixth substage- (18 months to 2 yrs old) is the
measures of cognitive development transition to the preoperational stage early
- One important factor that HOME assesses is the childhood. Representational ability is the
quality of home environment. ability to mentally represent objects and actions
- This scale includes six subscales; the number of in memory, largely through symbols such as
books and appropriate play materials in the words,numbers, and mental pictures- free from
home, the parents' involvement with the child, toddler from immediate experience
parental emotional and verbal responsiveness, - Schema: Piaget’s term for organized pattern of
acceptance of the child’s behavior, organization thought and behavior used in particular
of the environment, and opportunities for daily situations.
and varied stimulations. - Circular reactions: Piaget’s term for processes
Early intervention: is a systematic process of planning by which an infant learns to reproduce desired
and providing therapeutic and educational services for occurrences originally discovered by chance.
families that need help in meeting infants’ toddlers’, and Imitation
preschool children’s developmental needs. - Piaget believed that children under 18 months
could not engage in deferred imitation- a more
Piagetian Approach: complex ability requiring long-term memory.
- The first stage of cognitive development is the Deferred imitation is the reproduction of an
sensorimotor stage. During this stage, (birth observed behavior after the passage of time
approximately up to 2 yrs old), infants learn - As the behavior is no longer happening,
about themselves and their world through their deferred imitation requires that a stored
developing sensory and motor activity. Babies representation of the action be recalled. Piaget
change from creatures who respond primarily argued that young children could not engage in
through reflexes and random behavior into deferred imitation because they lacked the
goal-oriented toddlers. ability to retain mental experiences.
- The sensorimotor stages consists of six Object concept
substages - One aspect of object concept is the object
- During the first five stages, babies learn to permanence- the realization that something
coordinate input from their senses and organize continues to exist even when out of sight. At
their activities in relation to their environment. first, infants appear to have no such concept.
DUring the sixth stage, they progress using Symbolic development, pictorial competence, and
symbols and concepts to solve simple problems. understanding of scale
- Much of this early cognitive growth comes about - Muc of the knowledge acquired about their world
through circular reactions, in which an infant is gained through symbols, intentional
learns to reproduce events originally discovered representation of reality. Learning to interpret
by chance. Initially, an activity such as sucking symbols is a task of childhood. One aspect of
produces an enjoyable sensation that the baby development is the growth of pictorial
wants to repeat.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

competence, and the ability to understand the - Adults can understand that plants and
nature of pictures. animals are both living things.
- Picture books support children ‘s acquisition of Furthermore, they can understand that
information about the world some animals are pets, that among
- Dual representation hypothesis: offers yet those pets are cats and dogs, and that a
another proposed explanation for scale errors. A chihuahua is a type of dog.
chair is such sas toy chair has two potential 2. Causality
representations. The chair is both an object in its - Eight-month-old Aviva accidentally
right, as well as a symbol for a class thing called squeezes her toy duck and it quacks.
“chair”. According to this hypothesis, it is difficult Startled, she drops it, and then, staring
for toddlers to simultaneously mentally represent at it intently, she squeezes it again.
both the actual and symbolic nature for what it Aviva is beginning to understand
stands for. causality—the principle that one event
(squeezing) causes another (quacking).
Information processing approach Piaget believed that at about 4 to 6
- Information-processing researchers analyze the months, as infants become able to
separate parts of a complex task to figure out grasp objects, they begin to recognize
what abilities are necessary for each part of the that they can act on their environment.
task and at what age these abilities develop 3. Object Permanence
- Much information-processing research with - When Piaget investigated object
infants is based on habituation, a type of permanence, he used infants’ motor
learning in which repeated or continuous responses to gauge whether or not
exposure to a stimulus, such as the shaft of infants understood that a hidden object
light, reduces attention to that stimulus. In other still existed. Their failure to reach for the
words, familiarity breeds loss of interest. It is a hidden object was interpreted to mean
type of learning in which familiarity with a they did not. However, it was possible
stimulus reduces, slows, or stops responses. that infants understood object
- Dishabituation Increase in responsiveness permanence but could not demonstrate
after presentation of a new stimulus.If a new this knowledge with motor activity.
sight or sound is presented, the baby’s attention - Violation-of-expectations begins with
is generally captured once again, and the baby a familiarization phase in which infants
will reorient toward the interesting stimulus and see an event happen normally. After the
once again sucking slows. infant becomes bored and has
habituated to this procedure, the event
Tools of infant research is changed in a way that conflicts
- The tendency to spend more time looking at one with—or violates—normal expectation
sight rather than another is known as visual 4. Number
preference. - The violation-of-expectations paradigm
- If the baby spends longer looking at the novel can also be used to ask babies
stimulus, that suggests that the baby recognizes questions about their understanding of
the familiar stimulus. In other words, because number
the novel stimulus is new and babies like new
things, it is more interesting and thus warrants a Cognitive neuroscience approach
better look than the previously seen, more - cognitive neuroscience approach examines the
boring, stimulus. This behavior demonstrates hardware of the central nervous system to
visual recognition memory. identify what brain structures are involved in
- cross-modal transfer, the ability to use specific areas of cognition.
information gained from one sense to guide - Piaget’s assumption that neurological
another—as when a person negotiates a dark maturation is a major factor in cognitive
room by feeling for the location of familiar development
objects - Implicit memory refers to remembering that
- The capacity for joint attention—which is of occurs without effort or even conscious
fundamental importance to social interaction, awareness, for example, knowing how to tie
language acquisition, and the understanding of your shoe or throw a ball. It most commonly
others’ intentions and mental states—develops pertains to habits and skills. Implicit memory
between 10 and 12 months. seems to develop early and is demonstrated by
such actions as an infant’s kicking on seeing a
Information processing approach familiar mobile.
1. Categorization

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Explicit memory, also called declarative - Children show their implicit understanding of the
memory, is conscious or intentional recollection, fundamental rules for putting sentences
usually of facts, names, events, or other things together—or syntax—with the word order they
that can be stated or declared. Delayed imitation use. Syntax is why a sentence like “man bites
of complex behaviors is evidence that dog” differs from “dog bites man,” and it allows
declarative memory has developed. us to understand and produce an infinite number
- Explicit memory, also called declarative of utterances.
memory, is conscious or intentional recollection, - Bilingual children often use elements of both
usually of facts, names, events, or other things languages, sometimes in the same utterance—a
that can be stated or declared. Delayed imitation phenomenon called code mixing
of complex behaviors is evidence that - code switching- Changing one’s speech to
declarative memory has developed. match the situation, as in people who are
- During the second half of the 1st year, the bilingual.
prefrontal cortex and associated circuitry - Chomsky’s view is called nativism. Unlike
develop the capacity for working memory. Skinner’s learning theory, nativism emphasizes
- Working memory is short term storage of the active role of the learner. He proposed that
information the brain is actively processing, or the human brain has an innate capacity for
working on. acquiring language; babies learn to talk as
naturally as they learn to walk. He suggested
Social-context approach that an inborn language acquisition device
- Guided participation refers to mutual (LAD) programs children’s brains to analyze the
interactions with adults that help structure language they hear and to figure out its rules.
children’s activities and bridge the gap between - Child-Directed Speech If, when you talk to an
a child’s understanding and an adult’s. Adult’s infant or toddler, you speak slowly in a singsong,
participation in a child’s activity that helps to high-pitched voice with exaggerated ups and
structure it and bring the child’s understanding downs, simplify your speech, exaggerate vowel
of it closer to the adult’s sounds, and use short words and sentences and
much repetition, you are engaging in
Language Development child-directed speech (CDS), sometimes
- Language is a communication system based on called parentese, motherese, or baby talk.
words and grammar. Once children know words, - literacy—the ability to read and write
they can use them to represent objects and
actions. They can reflect on people, places, and CHAPTER 6: Psychosocial development during the
things; and they can communicate their needs, first 3 years
feelings, and ideas in order to exert more control
over their lives Foundations of psychosocial development
Sequence of early language development - Although babies share common patterns of
- prelinguistic speech- forerunner of linguistic development, each, from the start, shows a
speech; utterance of sounds that are not words. distinct personality: the relatively consistent
Includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and
and deliberate imitation of sounds without behavior that makes each person unique. Such
understanding their meaning characteristic ways of feeling, thinking, and
Early Vocalization- Crying is a newborn’s first means of acting, which reflect both inborn and
communication. Different pitches, patterns, and environmental influences, affect the way
intensities signal hunger, sleepiness, or anger children respond to others and adapt to their
- Between 6 weeks and 3 months, babies start world
cooing when they are happy—squealing, - personality development is intertwined with
gurgling, and making vowel sounds like “ahhh.” social relationships; this combination is called
- ”Babbling—repeating consonant-vowel strings, psychosocial development.
such as “ma-ma-ma-ma”—occurs between ages
6 and 10 months and is often mistaken for a Emotions
baby’s first word - Emotions such as fear are
- holophrase: Single word that conveys a subjective reactions to
complete thought. experience that are associated
First sentence with physiological and
- Children’s use of telegraphic speech, and the behavioral changes.
form it takes, varies, depending on the language - People differ in how often and
being learned how strongly they feel a
particular emotion, in the kinds
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

of events that may produce it, in against what is considered socially appropriate. .
the physical manifestations they Only then can they demonstrate the
show, and in how they act as a self-evaluative emotions of pride, guilt, and
result. shame
- Culture, too, influences the way Altruistic helping and empathy
people feel about a situation - altruistic behavior- Activity intended to help
and the way they show their another person with no expectation of reward.
emotions. Some cultures that Differentiation of emotions during the first 3 years
stress social harmony. - The primary, or basic, emotions emerge during
First signs of emotion the first 6 months or so; the self conscious
- First Signs of Emotion During the 1st month, emotions develop beginning in the 2nd year, as
babies cry when they are unhappy and become a result of the emergence of self-awareness
quiet at the sound of a human voice or when together with accumulation of knowledge about
they are picked up societal standards.
- These early signals or clues to babies’ feelings - Note: There are two kinds of
are important indicators of development. embarrassment. The earlier kind does not
- Crying is the most powerful way, and involve evaluation of behavior and may simply
sometimes the only way, that babies can be a response to being singled out as the object
communicate their needs. Parents may soon of attention. Evaluative embarrassment, which
learn to recognize whether their baby is crying emerges during the 3rd year, is a mild form of
because of hunger, anger, frustration, or pain. shame.
- Smiling and laughing. These early smiles are - empathy Ability to put oneself in another
sometimes known as “windy grins” because they person’s place and feel what the other person
can occur in response to gas. feels.
- The earliest faint smiles occur spontaneously - Research in neurobiology has identified special
soon after birth, apparently as a result of brain cells called mirror neurons: neurons that
subcortical nervous system activity. These fire when a person does something or observes
involuntary smiles frequently appear during someone else doing the same thing
periods of REM sleep. Collaborative Activities and Cultural Transmission
- Social smiling, when newborn infants gaze and - motivation to help and share plus the ability to
smile at their parents, develops in the 2nd understand others’ intentions together contribute
month of life. Babies generally start using a to an important development between 9 and 12
social smile at the same time and in the same months of age—collaboration with caregivers in
way regardless of what culture they are from. joint activities, such as a child passing a pair of
- By 12 to 15 months, infants are intentionally socks to her mother to help while getting
communicating to others about objects. dressed in the morning.
Anticipatory smiling—in which infants smile at
an object and then gaze at an adult while Temperament
continuing to smile—rises sharply between 8 - Characteristic disposition or style of approaching
and 10 months and seems to be among the and reacting to situations.
first types of communication in which the infant - Temperament can be defined as an
refers to an object or experience early-appearing, biologically based tendency to
When do emotions appear? respond to the environment in predictable ways.
- Self-conscious emotions, such as - Temperament affects how children approach
embarrassment, empathy, and envy, arise only and react to the outside world,as well as how
after children have developed self-awareness:. they regulate their mental, emotional, and
- self-awareness: the cognitive understanding behavioral functioning.
that they have a recognizable identity, separate - Temperament is closely linked to emotional
and different from the rest of their world, responses to the environment, and many
emerge between 15 and 24 months responses, such as smiles or cries, are
- Self-awareness is necessary before children emotional in nature.
can be aware of being the focus of attention, - Easy children: Children with a generally happy
identify with what other “selves” are feeling, or temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a
wish they had what someone else has. readiness to accept new experiences
- By about age 3, having acquired self-awareness - Difficult children: Children with irritable
plus a good deal of knowledge about their temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and
society’s accepted standards, rules, and goals, intense emotional responses.
children become better able to evaluate their
own thoughts, plans, desires, and behavior

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Slow-to-warm-up children: Children whose balance between trust (which lets them form
temperament is generally mild but who are intimate relationships) and mistrust (which
hesitant about accepting new experiences. enables them to protect themselves). If trust
- Current conceptions of temperament view predominates, as it should, children develop
genetic influences as being strongest early in hope and the belief that they can fulfill their
life, with greater influence wielded by the needs and obtain their desires (Erikson, 1982).
environment over time. Temperament develops If mistrust predominates, children view the
as various emotions and self-regulatory world as unfriendly and unpredictable and have
capacities appear trouble forming quality relationships.
- Goodness of fit: appropriateness of Developing Attachments
environmental demands and constraints to a - Attachment is a reciprocal, enduring emotional
child’s temperament. The match between a tie between an infant and a caregiver, each of
child’s temperament and the environmental whom contributes to the quality of the
demands and constraints the child must deal relationship.
with. - From an evolutionary point of view, attachments
- Behavioral inhibition: aspect of temperament , have adaptive value for babies, ensuring that
and has to do with how boldly or cautiously a their psychosocial as well as physical needs will
child approaches unfamiliar objects and be met.
situations. Studying Patterns of attachment:
Early social experiences: Family - Strange Situation (Mary Ainsworth): is a
1. The mother’s role classic, laboratory-based technique designed to
- The monkey experimented by: Harlow and team assess attachment patterns between an infant
whereas, there are two kinds of surrogate and an adult. Typically, the adult is the mother
mothers, and it was found out that the monkey (though other adults have taken part as well),
spent more time with the “dummy” mother. and the infant is 10 to 24 months old.
2. The father’s role - The Strange Situation consists of a sequence of
- The fathering role is in many ways a episodes and takes less than half an hour. The
social construction, having different episodes are designed to trigger the emergence
meanings in different cultures. of attachment-related behaviors.
Gender - During that time, the mother twice leaves the
- Identifying as male or female affects how people baby in an unfamiliar room, the first time with a
look, how they move their bodies, and how they stranger. The second time she leaves the baby
work, dress, and play alone, and the stranger comes back before the
- All these characteristics—and more—are mother does. The mother then encourages the
included in the word gender: what it means to be baby to explore and play again and gives
male or female comfort if the baby seems to need it.
- Fathers promoting gender typing: Socialization 1. Secure attachment
process by which children, at an early age, learn - Babies with secure attachment are
appropriate gender roles flexible and resilient in the face of
stress.
Developmental issues in infancy - They sometimes cry when a caregiver
Developing a trust leaves, but they quickly obtain the
- Human babies are dependent on others for comfort they need once the caregiver
food, protection, and nurturance for a far longer returns.
period than the young of most mammals. - Some babies with secure attachment
According to Erikson, this extended period are comfortable being left with a
results in the first stage of psychosocial stranger for a short period of time;
development being centered on forming a however, they clearly indicate they
sense of trust prefer the caregiver to the stranger in
- As babies, our first challenge involves forming a the reunion episode, often smiling at,
basic sense of trust versus mistrust. greeting, or approaching the caregiver.
- If we are successful, we develop a sense of the - secure attachment: pattern in which an
reliability of people and objects in our world. We infant is quickly and effectively able to
feel safe and loved. The risk, however, is that, obtain comfort from an attachment
instead, we develop a sense of mistrust and feel figure in the face of distress.
that those around us cannot be counted on in 2. Avoidant attachment
times of need. - Babies with avoidant attachment, by
- Stage begins in infancy and continues until contrast, are outwardly unaffected by a
about 18 months. Ideally, babies develop a caregiver leaving or returning.
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

-They generally continue to play in the - Stranger anxiety: Wariness of strange people
room, and frequently interact with the and places, shown by some infants during the
stranger. second half of the 1st year.
- However, upon the caregiver’s return, - Separation anxiety: Distress shown by
they ignore or reject the caregiver, someone, typically an infant, when a familiar
sometimes deliberately turning away. caregiver leaves
- Avoidantly attached babies tend to show Mutual regulation
little emotion, either positive or negative - The ability of both infant and caregiver to
- Pattern in which an infant rarely cries respond appropriately and sensitively to each
when separated from the primary other’s mental and emotional states is known as
caregiver and avoids contact on his or mutual regulation.
her return. Social referencing
3. Ambivalent (resistant) attachment - When babies look at their caregivers on
- Pattern in which an infant becomes encountering an ambiguous event, they are
anxious before the primary caregiver engaging in social referencing, seeking
leaves, is extremely upset during his or emotional information to guide behavior.
her absence, and both seeks and - In social referencing, one person forms an
resists contact on his or her return. understanding of how to act in an ambiguous,
- Babies who exhibit ambivalent confusing, or unfamiliar situation by seeking and
(resistant) attachment are generally interpreting another person’s perception of it.
anxious even before the caregiver - Understanding an ambiguous situation by
leaves, sometimes approaching the seeking another person’s perception of it
caregiver for comfort when the stranger
looks at or approaches them for Developmental issues in toddlerhood
interaction. 1. The emerging sense of self
- They are extremely reactive to the - self-concept is our image of
caregiver’s departure from the room and ourselves—our total picture of our
generally become very upset. Upon the abilities and traits. It describes what we
caregiver’s return, these babies tend to know and feel about ourselves and
remain upset for long periods of time, guides our action
kicking, screaming, refusing to be - descriptive and evaluative mental
distracted with toys, and sometimes picture of one’s abilities and traits.
arching back and away from contact. - infants begin to extract consistent
- They show a mix of proximity-seeking patterns that form rudimentary concepts
and angry behaviors and are very of self and other. Depending on what
difficult to settle. kind of care the infant receives and how
4. Disorganized-disoriented attachment she or he responds, pleasant or
- Pattern in which an infant, after unpleasant emotions become
separation from the primary caregiver, connected with experiences that play an
shows contradictory, repetitious, or important part in the growing concept of
misdirected behaviors on his or her the self
return. - By at least 3 months of age, infants
- Other research (Main & Solomon, 1986) pay attention to their mirror image. This
identified a fourth pattern, disorganized early perceptual discrimination may be
disoriented attachment. Babies with the the foundation of the conceptual
disorganized pattern seem to lack a self-awareness that develops between
cohesive strategy to deal with the stress 15 and 18 months.
of the Strange Situation. - Between 4 and 10 months, when
- Instead, they show contradictory, infants learn to reach, grasp, and make
repetitive, or misdirected behaviors things happen, they experience a sense
(such as seeking closeness to the of personal agency, the realization that
stranger instead of the mother or they can control external events.
showing a fear response upon the - At about this time infants develop
caregiver’s entry). self-coherence, the sense of being a
- They seem confused and afraid physical whole with boundaries
separate from the rest of the world.
Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety - The emergence of
self-awareness—conscious knowledge
of the self as a distinct, identifiable
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

being—builds on this dawning of - Kochanska’s term for wholehearted obedience

perceptual distinction between self and of a parent’s orders without reminders or lapses
others. - Tther children seemed to have internalized their
Development of autonomy parents’ requests more fully. These children
- Erikson (1950) identified the period from about showed committed compliance—that is, they
18 months to 3 years as the second stage in were committed to following requests and could
personality development, autonomy versus do so without their parents’ direct intervention
shame and doubt, which is marked by a shift Receptive cooperation
from external control to self-control. - goes beyond committed compliance. It is a
- In which children achieve a balance between child’s eager willingness to cooperate
self-determination and control by others. harmoniously with a parent, not only in
- The virtue that emerges during this stage is will. disciplinary situations, but also in a variety of
Toilet training is an important step toward daily interactions, including routines, chores,
autonomy and self-control; so is language. As hygiene, and play.
children are better able to make their wishes - Kochanska’s term for eager willingness to
known, they become more powerful. cooperate harmoniously with a parent in daily
2. Developing Self-Regulation interactions, including routines, chores, hygiene,
- A child’s independent control of and play.
behavior to conform to understood - Children who had mutually responsive
social expectations relationships with their mothers at the age of 2
- control of her behavior to conform to a tended in early school age to show moral
caregiver’s demands or expectations of emotions such as guilt and empathy; moral
her, even when the caregiver is not conduct in the face of strong temptation to
present. break rules; and moral cognition, as judged by
- Self-regulation is the foundation of their response to hypothetical, age-appropriate
socialization, and it links all domains of moral dilemmas.
development—physical, cognitive,
emotional, and social CHAPTER 7: physical and cognitive development in
- The growth of self-regulation parallels early childhood.
the development of the self-conscious 1. Bodily growth and change
and evaluative emotions, such as - Children grow rapidly between ages 3
empathy, shame, and guilt and 6, but less quickly than before. At
- It requires the ability to wait for about 3, children normally begin to lose
gratification. It is correlated with their babyish roundness and take on the
measures of conscience development, slender, athletic appearance of
such as resisting temptation and making childhood.
amends for wrongdoing - As abdominal muscles develop, the
Conscience toddler potbelly tightens. The trunk,
- The eventual goal is development of a arms, and legs grow longer. The head is
conscience, which involves both the ability to still relatively large, but the other parts
refrain from certain acts as well as to feel of the body continue to catch up as
emotional discomfort if they fail to do so. body proportions steadily become more
- Internal standards of behavior, which usually adultlike
control one’s conduct and produce emotional - The “average” 3-year-old now weighs
discomfort when violated about 34 pounds. Both boys and girls
Situational compliance typically grow about 2 to 3 inches a year
- Kochanska’s term for obedience of a parent’s during early childhood and gain
orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing approximately 4 to 6 pounds annually
parental control. - Muscular and skeletal growth
- Some children could put the toys away as long progresses, making children stronger.
as their parents were there to remind them. Cartilage turns to bone at a faster rate
These children showed what is called than before, and bones become harder,
situational compliance. They needed the giving the child a firmer shape and
home children to put the toys away as long as protecting the internal organs
their parents were there to remind them. These Brain development
children showed what is called situational - During the first few years of life, brain
compliance. They needed the development is rapid and profound. From ages
Committed compliance 3 to 6, the most rapid brain growth occurs in the
frontal areas that regulate planning and goal

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

setting, and the density of synapses in the - Prevention of obesity in the early years, when
prefrontal cortex peaks at age 4. excessive weight gain usually begins, is critical;
- This “exuberant connectivity” will gradually be the long-term success of treatment, especially
pruned over time as a result of experience, a when it is delayed, is limited
process that underlies the great plasticity of the - Data suggest that three factors are important in
human brain the prevention of obesity: (1) regularly eating an
- The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve evening meal as a family, (2) getting adequate
fibers that connects both hemispheres of the sleep, and (3) watching less than 2 hours of
brain and allows them to communicate more television a day
rapidly and effectively with each other. Cognitive development Piaget Approach: The
Motor skills preoperational child
- Development of the sensory and motor areas of - In Jean Piaget’s theory, infants learn about the
the cerebral cortex permits better coordination world via their senses and motor activity during
between what children want to do and what they the sensorimotor stage.Now, we turn our
can do. Preschool children make great attention to Piaget’s second stage, the
advances in gross motor skills, such as preoperational stage.
running and jumping, which involve the large - Lasting from approximately ages 2 to 7, it is
muscles characterized by an expansion in the use of
- Children vary in adeptness depending on their symbolic thought.
genetic endowment and their opportunities to - In Piaget’s theory, the second major stage of
learn and practice motor skills. Motor cognitive development, in which symbolic
coordination in childhood tends to be a relatively thought expands but children cannot yet use
stable trait over time logic effectively
- Children make significant advances in motor - Being able to think about something in the
skills during the preschool years. As they absence of sensory or motor cues characterizes
develop physically, they are better able to make the symbolic function. Children who have
their bodies do what they want. Large-muscle attained symbolic function can use symbols, or
development lets them ride a tricycle or use a mental representations, such as words,
swing; increasing eye-hand coordination helps numbers, or images to which a person has
them use scissors effectively. attached meaning.
- Fine motor skills, such as buttoning shirts and - This is a vital achievement because without
drawing pictures, involve eye-hand and symbols people could not communicate verbally,
small-muscle coordination. Physical skills that make change, read maps, or treasure photos of
involve the small muscles and eye-hand distant loved ones.
coordination. - Preschool children show symbolic function in
- As they develop motor skills, preschoolers a variety of ways. For example, deferred
continually merge abilities they already have imitation, in which children imitate an action at
with those they are acquiring to produce more some point after having observed it, becomes
complex capabilities. Such combinations of skills more robust after 18 months.
are known as systems of action - Deferred imitation is related to symbolic
- Increasingly complex combinations of skills, function because it requires the child to have
which permit a wider or more precise range of kept a mental representation of an observed
movement and more control of the environment. action. A child must pull a representation out of
- Handedness, the preference for using one hand memory in order to repeat it.
over the other, is usually evident by about age 3. - Another marker of symbolic function is pretend
Because the left hemisphere of the brain, which play. In pretend play, also called fantasy play,
controls the right side of the body, is usually dramatic play, or imaginary play, children use an
dominant, 90 percent of people favor their right object to represent something else
side. Transduction
Health and safety - Piaget’s term for a preoperational child’s
- Because of widespread immunization, many of tendency to mentally link particular phenomena,
what once were the major diseases of childhood whether or not there is logically a causal
are much less common in Western industrialized relationship.
countries. - Piaget maintained that preoperational children
- Obesity cannot yet reason logically about cause and
- Obesity is a serious problem among U.S. effect. Instead, he said, they reason by
preschoolers.A tendency toward obesity can be transduction. They mentally link two events,
hereditary, but the main factors driving the especially events close in time, whether or not
obesity epidemic are environmental there is logically a causal relationship

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- The world becomes more orderly and have their own distinctive beliefs, desires, and
predictable as preschool children develop a intentions
better understanding of identities: the concept - Magical thinking in children ages 3 and older
that people and many things are basically the does not seem to stem from confusion between
same even if they change in outward form, size, fantasy and reality. Often magical thinking is a
or appearance way to explain events that do not seem to have
- Categorization, or classification, requires a obvious realistic explanations (usually because
child to identify similarities and differences. children lack knowledge about them), or simply
Animism to indulge in the pleasures of pretending—as
- Tendency to attribute life to objects that are not with a belief in imaginary companions.
alive
- One type of categorization is the ability to Information-processing approach Memory
distinguish living from nonliving things. When
Piaget asked young children whether the wind Basic Processes and capacities
and the clouds were alive, their answers led him - Information-processing theorists focus on the
to think they were confused. The tendency to processes that affect cognition. According to this
attribute life to objects that are not alive is called view, memory can be described as a filing
animism. system that has three steps, or processes:
Immature aspects of preoperational thought encoding, storage, and retrieval.
- One of the main characteristics of - Encoding is like putting information in a folder
preoperational thought is centration: the to be filed in memory; it attaches a “code” or
tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation “label” to the information so it will be easier to
and neglect others. find when needed.
- According to Piaget, preschoolers come to - Process by which information is prepared for
illogical conclusions because they cannot long-term storage and later retrieval.
decenter—think about several aspects of a - Storage is putting the folder away in the filing
situation at one time. Centration can limit young cabinet. It is where the information is
children’s thinking about both social and kept.Retention of information in memory for
physical relationships future use.
- Egocentrism is a form of centration. According - Retrieval is the process by which information is
to Piaget, young children center so much on accessed or recalled from memory storage.
their own point of view that they cannot take in When the information is needed, you access
another’s. storage, and through the process of retrieval,
- Egocentrism may help explain why young you search for the file and take it out.
children sometimes have trouble separating - Information-processing models depict the brain
reality from what goes on inside their own heads as containing three types of storage: sensory
and why they may show confusion about what memory, working memory, and long-term
causes what. memory.
- conservation: Piaget’s term for awareness that - Sensory memory is a temporary storehouse for
two objects that are equal according to a certain incoming sensory information. Initial, brief,
measure remain equal in the face of perceptual temporary storage of sensory information
alteration so long as nothing has been added to - However, without processing (encoding),
or taken away from either object sensory memories fade quickly
- Why do children make this error? Their - Working memory short-term storage of
responses are influenced by two immature information being actively processed.Information
aspects of thought: centration and being encoded or retrieved is kept in working
irreversibility. Centration involves focusing on memory, a short-term storehouse for information
one dimension while ignoring the other. a person is actively working on, trying to
Preoperational children cannot consider height understand, remember, or think about.
and width at the same time as they cannot - According to a widely used model, a central
decenter, or consider multiple attributes of an executive controls processing operations in
object or situation. working memory
- In addition, children are limited by - Long-term memory storage of virtually
irreversibility: failure to understand that an unlimited capacity that holds information for long
action can go in two or more directions. periods.
Theory of mind - The central executive orders information
- is the awareness of the broad range of human encoded for transfer to long-term memory, a
mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, dreams, storehouse of virtually unlimited capacity that
and so forth—and the understanding that others holds information for long periods of time.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- The central executive also retrieves temporary. Long-term memory of specific

information from long-term memory for further experiences or events, linked to time and place.
processing. It is assisted by two subsystems: - Autobiographical memory, a type of episodic
the phonological loop, which aids in the memory, refers to memories of distinctive
processing of verbal information, and the experiences that form a person’s life history. Not
visuospatial sketchpad, which maintains and everything in episodic memory becomes part of
manipulates visual information. autobiographical memory—only those
- Functions controlled by the phonological memories that have a special, personal
loop are found in the left hemisphere in the meaning to the child.
inferior parietal areas and anterior temporal - Autobiographical memory generally emerges
frontal areas, including Broca’s area, the between ages 3 and 4
premotor cortex, and the sensory motor The social interaction model,
association cortex. - based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach,
- Functions controlled by the visuospatial provides a rationale.
sketchpad are found in the right hemisphere in - Theorists argue that children collaboratively
the occipital and inferior frontal areas construct autobiographical memories with
- Functions controlled by the central executive parents or other adults as they talk about
are found in a variety of regions in the frontal events, such as might occur when a mother and
lobes and in some posterior, primarily parietal, child leaf through a photo album and talk about
area past events.
- Central executive: In Baddeley’s model, an
element of working memory that controls the Intelligence: Psychometric and Vygotskian
processing of information. Approaches
- Executive function: Conscious control of - Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales- Individual
thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish intelligence tests for ages 2 and up used to
goals or solve problems measure fluid reasoning, knowledge,
- Executive function: The growth of working quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing,
memory permits the development of executive and working memory
function, the conscious control of thoughts, - ages 2 and up and take 45 to 60 minutes. The
emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or to child is asked to define words, string beads,
solve problem build with blocks, identify the missing parts of a
- Executive function enables children to plan and picture, trace mazes, and show an
carry out goal-directed mental activity understanding of numbers.
- The child’s score is supposed to measure fluid
Recognition and recall reasoning (the ability to solve abstract or novel
- Placing material in memory is not enough; it problems), knowledge, quantitative reasoning,
must also be retrieved to be used. Recognition visual-spatial processing, and working memory
and recall are types of retrieval - Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
- Recognition is the ability to identify something Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-IV)- Individual
encountered before; for example, picking out a intelligence test for children ages 2½ to 7 that
missing mitten from a lost-and-found box. Ability yields verbal and performance scores as well as
to identify a previously encountered stimulus. a combined score.
- Recall: Ability to reproduce material from - is an individual test taking 30 to 60 minutes. It
memory. has separate levels for ages 2½ to 4 and 4 to 7
and yields verbal, performance, and combined
Forming and retaining childhood memories scores. It includes subtests designed to
- Generic memory, which begins at about age 2, measure both verbal and nonverbal fluid
produces a script, or general outline of a reasoning, receptive versus expressive
familiar, repeated event, such as riding the bus vocabulary, and processing speed
to preschool or having lunch at Grandma’s
house. It helps a child know what to expect and Testing and teaching based on Vgotsky’s theory
how to act. Memory that produces scripts of - According to Vygotsky, children learn by
familiar routines to guide behavior internalizing the results of interactions with
- Script: General remembered outline of a adults.
familiar, repeated event, used to guide behavior. - This interactive learning is most effective in
- Episodic memory refers to awareness of helping children cross the zone of proximal
having experienced a particular event at a development (ZPD), the imaginary
specific time and place. Given a young child’s psychological space between what children can
limited memory capacity, episodic memories are
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

do or know by themselves and what they could - Piaget (1962) saw private speech—what he
do or know with help called egocentric speech— as a sign of
- The ZPD can be assessed by dynamic tests cognitive immaturity. Vygotsky (1962) viewed
that, according to Vygotskyan theory, provide a private speech as a special form of
better measure of children’s intellectual potential communication: conversation with the self. He
than do traditional psychometric tests that believed private speech was part of the learning
measure what children have already mastered. process
- Dynamic tests emphasize potential rather than Preparation for literacy
present achievement - Preschoolers’ development of skills, knowledge,
- The ZPD, in combination with the related and attitudes that underlie reading and writing
concept of scaffolding, can help parents and - To understand what is on the printed page,
teachers more efficiently guide children’s children first need to master certain pre reading
cognitive progress. Scaffolding is the supportive skills. The development of fundamental skills
assistance that a more sophisticated interaction that eventually lead to being able to read is
partner provides, and ideally it should be aimed known as emergent literacy.
at the ZPD - Pre Reading skills can be divided into two
types: (1) oral language skills, such as
Language development vocabulary, syntax, narrative structure, and the
- At age 3 the average child knows and can use understanding that language is used to
900 to 1,000 words. By age 6, a child typically communicate; and (2) specific phonological
has an expressive (speaking) vocabulary of skills (linking letters with sounds) that help in
2,600 words and understands more than 20,000 decoding the printed word.
- This rapid expansion of vocabulary may occur
through fast mapping, which allows a child to CHAPTER 8: Psychosocial development in early
pick up the approximate meaning of a new word childhood
after hearing it only once or twice in
conversation The self-concept and cognitive development
- Fast mapping: process by which a child - Self-concept is our total picture of our abilities
absorbs the meaning of a new word after and traits. It is “a cognitive construction . . . a
hearing it once or twice in conversation system of descriptive and evaluative
- Syntax is a related concept and involves the representations about the self” that determines
rules for putting together sentences in a how we feel about ourselves and guides our
particular language actions
- At age 3, children typically begin to use plurals, - Children’s self-definition—the way they
possessives, and past tense and know the describe themselves—typically changes
difference between I, you, and we between about ages 5 and 7, reflecting
- Between ages 4 and 5, sentences average four self-concept development and advances in
to five words and may be declarative, negative cognitive abilities. Cluster of characteristics
- By ages 5 to 7, children’s speech has become used to describe oneself.
quite adultlike - Real self- The self one actually is.
Pragmatics and social speech - Ideal self The self one would like to be
- Language is a social process. As children learn Cultural Differences in Self-Definition
vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, they also - One major cultural dimension—individualism
become more competent in pragmatics versus collectivism—impacts the understanding
- Pragmatics is related to theory of mind of the self in relation to others.
because to understand how to use language - In highly individualistic cultures such as the
socially, you have to be able to put yourself in United States, individuals are seen as separate
other people’s shoes. from one another, and independence and
- This includes knowing how to ask for things, self-reliance are highly valued.
how to tell a story or joke, how to begin and - In collectivistic cultures, such as India and
continue a conversation, and how to adjust China, individuals are seen as fundamentally
comments to the listener’s perspective. interrelated, and group harmony and
- These are all aspects of social speech, speech cohesiveness take precedence over individual
intended to be understood by a listener. Most concerns
3-year-olds pay attention to the effect of their Self-esteem
speech on others. - The judgement a person makes about his or her
- Private speech—talking aloud to oneself with self-worth.
no intent to communicate with others—is normal - The self-evaluative part of the self-concept, the
and common in childhood judgement children make about their overall

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

worth. Self-esteem, in part, is based on - if they themselves do not want it, can also affect
children’s growing cognitive ability to describe emotional state
and define themselves - Last, by about 9 years of age, children start to
- Although children do not generally talk about a understand more complex aspects of emotion
concept of self-worth until about age 8, younger Social emotions
children show by their behavior that they have - Social emotions involve a comparison of one’s
one self or one’s actions to social standards. These
- Their self-esteem is not based on reality. One emotions are directed toward the self and
reason for this is that self-esteem is, in part, the include guilt, shame, and pride.
result of feedback received from other people, - They typically develop by the end of the 3rd year
and adults tend to give positive and uncritical after children gain self-awareness and accept
feedback the standards of behavior their parents have set.
- Although there are individual differences in - They require the consideration of others’ points
self-esteem, most young children wildly of view
overestimate their abilities. Their self-esteem is
not based on reality. One reason for this is that Erikson Initiative vs. guilt
self-esteem is, in part, the result of feedback - The need to deal with conflicting feelings about
received from other people, and adults tend to the self is at the heart of the third stage of
give positive and uncritical feedback psychosocial development identified by Erik
- In addition, children’s self-esteem tends to be Erikson
unidimensional. In other words, children believe Initiative versus guilt: Preschool children can do—and
they are either all good or all bad. want to do—more and more. At the same time, they are
- In middle childhood, self-esteem will become learning that some of the things they want to do meet
more realistic as personal evaluations of social approval, whereas others do not
competence based on internalization of parental - This conflict marks a split between two parts of
and societal standards begin to shape and the personality: the part that remains a child, full
maintain self-worth of exuberance and a desire to try new things
- Children with noncontingent self-esteem, in and test new powers, and the part that is
contrast, tend to attribute failure or becoming an adult, constantly examining the
disappointment to factors outside themselves or propriety of motives and actions
to the need to try harder. - Children who learn how to regulate these
Regulation emotions opposing drives develop the virtue of purpose,
- The ability to regulate, or control, one’s feelings the courage to envision and pursue goals
is one of the key advances of early childhood without being unduly inhibited by guilt or fear of
- Emotional self-regulation helps children guide punishment
their behavior and adjust their responses to Gender identity
meet societal expectations. - awareness of one’s femaleness or maleness
Understanding emotions and all it implies in one’s society of origin, is an
- Emotional understanding appears to proceed in important aspect of the developing self-concept.
an ordered and hierarchical manner. First, by - Gender differences are psychological or
about 5 years of age, children understand the behavioral differences between males and
public aspects of emotions females. This is a controversial area of
- In other words, they understand the things that psychology.
cause other people to feel happy or sad, how - Physically, among the larger gender differences
those emotions look on other people, and that are boys’ higher activity level, superior motor
reminding someone of something that happened performance, especially after puberty, and their
can elicit that emotion again greater propensity for physical aggression
- By about 4 to 5 years, most children can
recognize the facial expressions of joy, sadness, Perspective on gender development
fear, anger, surprise, and disgust - Gender roles: are the behaviors, interests,
- By about 7 years of age, children start to attitudes, skills, and personality traits that a
understand that mental states can drive culture considers appropriate for males or
emotions. females.
- For example, they understand that someone can - Historically, in most cultures, women have been
feel one way and look another. expected to devote most of their time to caring
- They also understand that what someone for the household and children, while men were
believes, even if it is not true, can affect providers and protectors.
emotional state and what someone wants, even - Women were expected to be compliant and
nurturing; men to be active, aggressive, and
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

competitive. Today, gender roles have become evolved mating and child-rearing
more diverse and more flexible strategies of adult males and females.
- Gender-typing: the acquisition of a gender role, - According to Darwin’s (1871) theory of
takes place early in childhood. Socialization sexual selection, the selection of
process whereby children, at an early age, learn sexual partners is a response to the
appropriate gender roles. differing reproductive pressures early
- Gender stereotypes: are preconceived men and women confronted in the
generalizations about male or female behavior: struggle for survival.
“All females are passive and dependent; all - Darwin’s theory that gender roles
males are aggressive and independent.” They developed in response to men’s and
appear to some degree in children as young as women’s differing reproductive needs.
2 or 3, increase during the preschool years, and - In humans, females must contribute far
reach a peak at age 5. more to raising children because of the
constraints placed on them by
Perspective on gender development pregnancy and nursing.
1. Biological Approach - Males, however, may contribute as little
- The existence of similar gender roles in as a few teaspoonfuls of semen. While
many cultures suggests that some a child’s survival may be more certain if
gender differences may be biologically a man invests resources in a child, that
based investment is not obligatory
- In fact, if gender differences were purely - This puts into play different reproductive
cultural inventions, we would expect to dynamics for each sex
see more variability in male and female - The more widely a man can engage in
roles and characteristics across cultures sexual activity, the greater his chances
- In this view, differences we see between to pass on his genetic inheritance. Thus,
boys and girls are influenced by brain men tend to prefer more sexual partners
anatomy. than women do
- These differences arise from, among - They value physical prowess because it
others, genes coding for differences in enables them to compete for mates and
anatomy and function between the for control of resources and social
sexes, prenatal hormonal exposure, status, which women value
differing environmental experiences, or - More sexual activity after a pregnancy
the activating effects of puberty in has already been achieved does not
adolescence. result in more children for a woman until
- Across the life span and starting early in after that child has been born and the
development, men, on average, have woman is ready to carry another
larger brain volume than women pregnancy
- One important influence may be what - According to evolutionary theory, male
occurs in the womb, where hormones competitiveness and aggressiveness
affect the developing brain. Analysis of and female nurturance develop during
fetal testosterone levels has shown a childhood as preparation for these adult
link between higher testosterone levels roles
in utero and male-typical play in boys - Critics of evolutionary theory argue that
- Additional clues may be found in society and culture are more important
research focused on girls with a than biology in determining gender
disorder called congenital adrenal roles. But evolutionary theorists have
hyperplasia (CAH) never argued that culture is insignificant
- These girls have high prenatal levels of 3. Psychoanalytic approach
androgens (male sex hormones) - Identification: In Freudian theory, the
- Estrogens (female sex hormones), on process by which a young child adopts
the other hand, seem to have less characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values,
influence on boys’ gender-typed and behaviors of the parent of the same
behavior sex.
2. Evolutionary Approach - Freud considered identification an
- The evolutionary approach sees important personality development of
gendered behavior as biologically early childhood
influenced. - According to Freud, identification will
- From this controversial perspective, occur for Mario when he represses or
children’s gender roles underlie the gives up the wish to possess the parent

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

of the other sex (his mother) and gender-stereotyping does not always become
identifies with the parent of the same stronger with increased gender knowledge
sex (his father)A similar process was - Around ages 4 to 6, when, according to
believed to occur for girls. gender-schema theory, children are constructing
- Although this explanation for gender and consolidating their gender schemas, they
development has been influential, it has tend to notice and remember only information
been difficult to test and has little consistent with these schemas.
research support - Indeed, they tend to misremember information
4. Cognitive approach that challenges gender stereotypes, such as
- Sarah figures out she is a girl because photos of a girl sawing wood or a boy cooking
people call her a girl. As she continues - Cognitive approaches to gender development
to observe and think about her world, have been an important contribution.
she concludes that she will always be a - However, these approaches may not fully
girl. explain the link between knowledge and
- She comes to understand gender by conduct.
actively thinking about and constructing - There is disagreement about precisely what
her own gender-typing. This is the mechanism prompts children to act out gender
heart of Lawrence Kohlberg’s (1966) roles and why some children become more
cognitive developmental theory strongly gender-typed than others
- In Kohlberg’s theory, gender knowledge 5. Social learning approach
(“I am a boy”) precedes gendered - Social cognitive theory- Albert
behavior (“so I like to do boy things”) Bandura’s expansion of social learning
- Children actively search for cues about theory, holds that children learn gender
gender in their social world. roles through socialization.
- The acquisition of gender roles, said - According to Walter Msichel, A
Kohlberg, hinges on gender traditional social learning theorist,
constancy, a child’s realization that his children acquire gender roles by
or her gender will always be the same imitating models and being rewarded for
Gender constancy: Awareness that one will always be gender-appropriate behavior.
male or female; also called sex-category constancy - Behavioral feedback, together with
- Gender identity: awareness of one’s own direct teaching by parents and other
gender and that of others typically occurs adults, reinforces gender-typing
between ages 2 and 3. - According to social cognitive theory,
- Gender stability: awareness that gender does observation enables children to learn
not change. However, children at this stage much about gender-typed behaviors
base judgments about gender on superficial before performing them.
appearances (clothing or hairstyle) and - They can mentally combine
stereotyped behaviors. observations of multiple models and
- Gender consistency: the realization that a girl generate their own behavioral variations
remains a girl even if she has a short haircut - Instead of viewing the environment as a
and plays with trucks, and a boy remains a boy given, social cognitive theory recognizes
even if he has long hair and earrings, typically that children select or even create their
occurs between ages 3 and 7 environments through their choice of
Gender schema theory: playmates and activities
- Theory, proposed by Bem, that children - However, critics say that social cognitive
socialize themselves in their gender roles by theory does not explain how children
developing a mentally organized network of differentiate between boys and girls
information about what it means to be male or before they have a concept of gender,
female in a particular culture. or what initially motivates children to
- It views children as actively extracting acquire gender knowledge
knowledge about gender from their environment - Family influences, peer influences,
before engaging in gender-typed behavior. cultural influences
- However, gender-schema theory places more Play:
emphasis on the influence of culture. - Play is important to healthy development of
- Children then match their behavior to their body and brain. It enables children to engage
culture’s view of what boys and girls are with the world around them, to use their
“supposed” to be and do imagination, to discover flexible ways to use
- Another problem with both gender-schema objects and solve problems, and to prepare for
theory and Kohlberg’s theory is that adult roles.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Play is not what children do to burn off energy 6. Cooperative organized supplementary play-
so they can get to the real business of learning. The child plays in a group organized for some
Play is the context in which much of the most goal- to make something , play a formal game,
important learning occurs or dramatized a situation. One or two children
- Researchers categorize children’s play in direct activities. Children take on different roles
varying ways: cognitive complexity and social and supplement each other’s effort.
dimension of play Gender segregation
- Tendency to select playmates of one’s own
Cognitive levels of play gender
- The simplest level, which begins during infancy, - Girls tend to select other girls as playmates, and
is functional play (sometimes called boys prefer other boys, a phenomenon known
locomotor play), consisting of repeated as gender segregation.
practice in large muscular movements, such as - Boys’ tendency to be more active and physically
rolling a ball aggressive in their play as compared to girls’
- Functional Play: Play involving repetitive large more nurturing play styles are major contributors
muscular movements. Parenting
- The second level, constructive play (also - Parenting can be a complex challenge. Parents
called object play), is the use of objects or must deal with small people who have
materials to make something, such as a house independent minds and wills, but who still have
of blocks or a crayon drawing a lot to learn about what kinds of behavior work
- Constructive play: Play involving use of well in society
objects or materials to make something - Dsicipline: Methods of molding children’s
- The third level, dramatic play (also called character and of teaching them to exercise self
pretend play, fantasy play, or imaginative control and engage in acceptable behavior.
play), involves imaginary objects, actions, or - refers to methods of molding character and of
roles. teaching self-control and acceptable behavior
- More advanced cognitive development affords Reinforcement and Punishment
more sophisticated play, but play also helps - Parents sometimes punish children to stop
strengthen the development of dense undesirable behavior, but children usually learn
connections in the brain and promotes later more from being reinforced for good behavior
capacity for abstract thought - External reinforcements may be tangible
- Formal games with rules—organized games (treats, more playtime) or intangible (a smile, a
with known procedures and penalties, such as word of praise, or a special privilege).
foursquare and freeze tag. However, many - Whatever the reinforcement, the child must see
children continue to engage in pretending well it as rewarding and must receive it fairly
beyond the elementary school years. consistently after showing the desired behavior.
- Eventually, the behavior should provide an
Social dimensions of play (Mildren Parten) internal reinforcement: a sense of pleasure or
1. Unoccupied behavior- the child does not seem accomplishment
to be playing but watches anything of - One of the harshest forms of parenting involves
momentary interest. the use of corporal punishment.
2. Onlooker behavior- The child spends most of - Corporal punishment has been defined as “the
the time watching other children play. The use of physical force with the intention of
onlooker may talk to them but does not enter causing a child to experience pain, but not
into play. injury, for the purpose of correction or control of
3. Solitary independent play- The child plays the child’s behavior”
alone with toys that are different from those Inductive techniques
used by nearby children and makes no effort to - are designed to encourage desirable behavior or
get close to them discourage undesirable behavior by setting
4. Parallel play- the child plays independently limits, demonstrating logical consequences of an
beside rather than with other children, playing action, explaining, discussing, negotiating, and
with similar toys and does not try to influence getting ideas from the child about what is fair.
the other children’s play. - -They also tend to include appeals to consider
5. Associative play- The children talk, borrow, how one’s actions affect how others feel.
and lend toys, follow each other around, and - Rre usually the most effective method of getting
play similarly. There is no division of labor and children to accept parental standards, arouse
no organization around goals. The children empathy for the victims of wrongdoing, elicit
behave as they wish and are more interested in appropriate feelings of guilt on the part of
being around each other than the activity self.

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

wrongdoers, and see the moral wrongness of linked with a variety of behavioral
bad disorders in childhood and adolescence
- Two other broad categories of discipline are - Eleanor Maccoby and john Martin who
power assertion and temporary withdrawal added the fourth style of parenting style
of love (neglectful)
- Power assertion is intended to stop or Criticisms of Baumrind’s model
discourage undesirable behavior through - This is important because identifying and
physical or verbal enforcement of parental promoting positive parenting practices is crucial
control; it includes demands, threats, withdrawal to preventing early-onset problem behavior
of privileges, spanking, and other types of Special behavioral concerns
punishment. - Prosocial behavior: altruism: motivation to
- Withdrawal of love may include ignoring, help another person with no expectation of
isolating, or showing dislike for a child. Neither reward
of these is as effective as inductive reasoning in - Altruism is at the heart of prosocial behavior,
most circumstances, and both may be harmful voluntary, positive actions to help others
Aggression
Parenting styles (Baumrind’s parenting styles) - Instrumental aggression, or aggression used
1. Authoritarian parenting as an instrument to reach a goal—the most
- emphasizes control and unquestioning common type of aggression in early childhood
obedience. Authoritarian parents try to - Between ages 2½ and 5, children frequently
make children conform to a set standard struggle over toys and control of space
of conduct and punish them forcefully - Aggressive behavior is used as a means of
for violating it. achieving a goal.
- They are less warm than other parents. - Overt (direct) aggression, and tend to openly
Their children tend to be more direct aggressive acts at a target.
discontented, withdrawn, and distrustful - Aggression that is openly directed at its target
- Emphasizing control and obedience - Relational aggression Aggression- aimed at
2. Permissive parenting damaging or interfering with another person’s
- emphasizes self-expression and relationships, reputation, or psychological
self-regulation. Permissive parents well-being.
make few demands. They consult with - Girls, by contrast, tend to engage in a form of
children about policy decisions and indirect social aggression known as relational
rarely punish. aggression
- They are warm, noncontrolling, and - This more subtle kind of aggression consists of
undemanding. Their preschool children damaging or interfering with relationships,
tend to be immature—the least reputation, or psychological well-being, often
self-controlled and the least exploratory through teasing, manipulation, ostracism, or bids
- Emphasizing self-expression and self for control.
regulation
3. Authoritative parenting CHAPTER 9: Physical and cognitive development in
- emphasizes a child’s individuality but middle childhood
also stresses limits. Authoritative
parents are loving and accepting but Physical development:
also demand good behavior and are - Growth during middle childhood slows
firm in maintaining standards. considerably
- They impose limited, judicious - Children grow about 2 to 3 inches each year
punishment when necessary, within the between ages 6 and 11 and approximately
context of a warm, supportive double their weight during that period
relationship. - Girls retain somewhat more fatty tissue than
- Preschoolers with authoritative parents boys, a characteristic that will persist through
tend to be the most self-reliant, adulthood
self-controlled, self-assertive, - The recommended calories per day for
exploratory, and content schoolchildren 9 to 13 years of age range from
- Respect for a child’s individuality 1,400 to 2,600, depending on gender and
4. Neglectful, or uninvolved activity level.
- to describe parents who, sometimes - Nutritionists recommend a varied diet, including
because of stress or depression, focus plenty of grains, fruits, and vegetables, and high
on their needs rather than on those of levels of complex carbohydrates such as whole
the child. Neglectful parenting has been grains
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Sleep needs decline from 12.5 hours a day for

3- to 5-year-olds to 10 hours a day for ages 6 to
13.
Brain development
- A number of cognitive advances occur in middle
childhood that can be traced back to changes in
the brain’s structure and functioning.
- In general, these changes can be characterized
as resulting in faster, more efficient information
processing and an increased ability to ignore
distracting information
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
technology shows us that the brain consists of
both gray matter and white matter. Gray
matter is composed of closely packed
neurons in the cerebral cortex. White matter
is made of glial cells, which provide support for
neurons, and of myelinated axons, which
transmit information across neurons.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- The amount of gray matter in the frontal cortex, they can use mental operations, such as
which is strongly influenced by genetics, is likely reasoning, to solve concrete problems.
linked with differences in IQ - Children can think logically because they can
- Changes in the volume of gray matter peak at take multiple aspects of a situation into account.
different times in the different lobes. Beneath the Cognitive advances
cortex, gray matter volume in the caudate—a - In the stage of concrete operations, children
part of the basal ganglia involved in control of have a better understanding than preoperational
movement and muscle tone and in mediating children of spatial concepts, causality,
higher cognitive functions, attention, and categorization, inductive and deductive
emotional states—peaks at age 7 in girls and reasoning, conservation, and number (Table 3).
age 10 in boys - Spatial, Cause and effect, categorization,
Motor development and physical activity seriation, inductive and deductive reasoning,
- Motor skills continue to improve in middle conservation, number and mathematics
childhood (Table 2). By this age, most children in - One such ability is seriation, arranging objects
developing countries go to work, and this leaves in a series according to one or more
them little time and freedom for physical play dimensions. Children become increasingly
- The games children play at recess tend to be better at seriation for dimensions such as time
informal. Most recess activity involves (earliest to latest), length (shortest to longest), or
socializing with peers. color (lightest to darkest)
Rough-and-tumble play - Seriation: Ability to order items along a
- Vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting, and dimension.
chasing, often accompanied by laughing and - Transitive inferences: nderstanding the
screaming. relationship between two objects by knowing the
- Despite the perception that recess takes time relationship of each to a third object.
away from learning, recess is associated with - Class inclusion: understanding of the
improvements in academic performance relationship between a whole and its parts.
- The improvements may stem from the changes - class inclusion Understanding of the relationship
in behavior that occur after children are allowed between a whole and its parts.
free time. - Inductive reasoning: type of logical reasoning
Body image—how one believes one looks—becomes that moves from particular observations about
important early in middle childhood, especially for girls, members of a class to a general conclusion
and may develop into eating disorders in adolescence. about that class.
- Deductive reasoning: type of logical reasoning
Other medical conditions that moves from a general premise about a
- Acute medical conditions—occasional, short class to a conclusion about a particular member
term conditions, such as infections and or members of the class.
warts—are common. - Piaget believed that children in the concrete
- Chronic medical conditions Illnesses or operations stage of cognitive development only
impairments that persist for at least 3 months. used inductive reasoning. Deductive
- Asthma: A chronic respiratory disease reasoning, according to Piaget, did not develop
characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, until adolescence.
wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. - Conservation: In solving various types of
- Diabetes: One of the most common diseases of conservation problems, children in the stage of
childhood. It is characterized by high levels of concrete operations can work out the answers in
glucose in the blood as a result of defective their heads. Three primary achievements allow
insulin production, ineffective insulin action, or them to do this.
both - First, they understand the principle of identity.
- Hypertension, or high blood pressure, once For instance, Michael understands that the clay
was relatively rare in childhood, is still the same clay even though it has a
different shape because nothing was added or
Cognitive development: Piagetian Approach: The taken away from it
Concrete Operational Child - Second, children in the concrete operations
- Concrete operations: Third stage of Piagetian stage understand the principle of reversibility.
cognitive development (approximately ages 7 to Michael can picture what would happen if he
12), during which children develop logical but went backward in time and rolled the snake
not abstract thinking back into a ball
- At about age 7, according to Piaget, children - Third, children at this stage can decenter.
enter the stage of concrete operations when When Camilla looked at the snake, she focused

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

only on its length, ignoring that it was thinner vehicles, and clothing) to make it easier to
and flatter than the ball of clay recall.
- In elaboration, children associate items with
Information-Processing Approach: Planning, something else, such as an imagined scene or
Attention, and Memory story
- As children move through the school years, they - Metamemory can be described as the
make steady progress in the abilities to regulate knowledge of and reflection about memory
and sustain attention, process and retain processes
information, and plan and monitor their behavior
- All of these interrelated developments contribute Psychometric Approach: Assessment of Intelligence
to executive function, the conscious control of - Psychometrics is a branch of psychology
thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish involved in the quantitative measurement of
goals or solve problems. psychological variables, and psychometric
The development of executive functioning techniques have been used extensively in the
- The gradual development of executive function development of ways to measure intelligence.
from infancy through adolescence is the result of - Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
developmental changes in brain structure. (WISC-IV). This test for ages 6 through 16
- The prefrontal cortex, the region that enables measures verbal and performance abilities,
planning, judgment, and decision making, shows yielding separate scores for each as well as a
significant development during this period total score
- As unneeded synapses are pruned away and - A popular group test, the Otis-Lennon
pathways become myelinated, processing School Ability Test (OLSAT8), has levels for
speed—usually measured by reaction time— kindergarten through 12th grade
improves dramatically
- As children develop the ability to mentally juggle Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
more concepts at the same time, they are also - Is a child who is good at analyzing paragraphs
able to develop more complex thinking and and making analogies more intelligent than one
goal-directed planning who can play a challenging violin solo or pitch a
Selective attention curve ball at the right time? The answer is no
- School-age children can concentrate longer than - Gardner’s theory that each person has several
younger children and can focus on the distinct forms of intelligence
information they need and want while screening - . According to Gardner, conventional intelligence
out irrelevant information tests tap only three “intelligences”: linguistic,
- This growth in selective attention—the ability logical-mathematical, and, to some extent,
to deliberately direct one’s attention and shut out spatial. The other five, which are not reflected in
distractions—may hinge on the executive skill of IQ scores, are musical, bodily kinesthetic,
inhibitory control, the voluntary suppression of - Critics of Gardner argue that his multiple
unwanted responses intelligences are actually more accurately
Working memory labeled as talents or abilities and assert that
- Working memory involves the short-term intelligence is more closely associated with skills
storage of information that is being actively that lead to academic
processed, like a mental workspace. achievement.interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
- The efficiency of working memory increases naturalist
greatly in middle childhood, laying the Culture-free tests
foundation for a wide range of cognitive skills. - intelligence tests that, if they were possible to
The development of memory strategy design, would have no culturally linked content.
- A mnemonic device, a strategy to aid memory Culture-fair test
- Common memory strategies are rehearsal, - intelligence tests that deal with experiences
organization, and elaboration. Writing down a common to various cultures, in an attempt to
telephone number, making a list, setting a timer, avoid cultural bias
and putting a library book by the front door are
examples of external memory aids: prompts by Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
something outside the person - In this approach, intelligence consists of three
- Saying a telephone number over and over after elements: componential, experiential, and
looking it up, so as not to forget it before dialing, contextual intelligence
is a form of rehearsal, or conscious repetition - The componential element is the analytic
- Organization is mentally placing information aspect of intelligence: it determines how
into categories (such as animals, furniture, efficiently people process information.

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- It helps people solve problems, monitor Bilingual education

solutions, and evaluate the results. Some - System of teaching non-English Speaking
people are more effective information children in their native language while they learn
processors than others. English, and later switching to all-English
- The experiential element is insightful or instruction
creative; it determines how people approach Bilingual
novel or familiar tasks. - Fluent in two languages
- It enables people to compare new information Two-way (dual-language)
with what they already know and to come up - learning Approach to second-language
with new ways of putting facts together—in other education in which English speakers and
words, to think originally non-English-speakers learn together in their own
- The contextual element is practical; it helps and each other’s languages.
people deal with their environment. It is the Decoding
ability to size up a situation and decide what to - Process of phonetic analysis by which a printed
do. word is converted to spoken form before
- What actions are most appropriate for a given retrieval from long-term memory.
situation depend on the context; a person might Phonetic:
decide to adapt to a situation, change it, or get - In the traditional approach, called the phonetic
out of it (code-emphasis) approach, the child sounds out
- The Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT) the word, translating it from print to speech
(Sternberg, 1993) seeks to measure each of before retrieving it from long-term memory
the three aspects of intelligence through Whole-language approach
multiple-choice and essay questions. - emphasizes visual retrieval and the use of
- Because Sternberg focused on processes rather contextual cues. This approach is based on the
than content, and those processes should belief that children can learn to read and write
predict intelligent behavior across domains of naturally, much as they learn to understand and
knowledge, three domains of intelligence are use speech
assessed: verbal, quantitative, and figural (or Visually based retrieval
spatial) - the child simply looks at the word and then
- Tacit knowledge Sternberg’s term for retrieves it. Whole-language proponents assert
information that is not formally taught or openly that children learn to read with better
expressed but is necessary to get ahead comprehension and more enjoyment if they
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children experience written language from the outset as
(K-ABC-II) a way to gain information and express ideas and
- An individual test for ages 3 to 18, is designed feelings,
to evaluate cognitive abilities in children with Metacognition
diverse needs (such as autism, hearing - involves thinking about thinking. It can help
impairments, and language disorders) and from children monitor their understanding of what
varying cultural and linguistic background they read and develop strategies to address
Dynamic tests challenges.
- based on Vygotsky’s theories emphasize Intellectual disability
potential rather than present achievement - Significantly subnormal cognitive functioning.
- In contrast with traditional static tests that Also referred to as cognitive disability or mental
measure a child’s current abilities, these tests retardation.
seek to capture the dynamic nature of Dyslexia
intelligence by measuring learning processes - Developmental disorder in which reading
directly rather than through the products of past achievement is substantially lower than
learning predicted by IQ or age.
Pragmatic Learning disabilities (LDs)
- The major area of linguistic growth during the - Disorders that interfere with specific aspects of
school years is in pragmatics: the social learning and school achievement.
context of language. Pragmatics includes both Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
conversational and narrative skills Syndrome
English- immersion approach: - characterized by persistent inattention and
- Some schools use an English-immersion distractibility, impulsivity, low tolerance for
approach (sometimes called ESL, or English as frustration, and inappropriate overactivity
a second language) in which language-minority Creativity
children are immersed in English from the - One definition of creativity is the ability to see
beginning in special classes. things in a new light—to produce something
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

never seen before or to discern problems others - By age 7 or 8, children typically are aware of
fail to recognize and find new and unusual feeling shame and pride, and they have a
solutions. clearer idea of the difference between guilt and
- Convergent thinking- thinking aimed at finding shame
the one right answer to a problem - When parents are skilled at the recognition of
- Divergent thinking, by contrast, involves emotions in others, label emotions, and allow
coming up with a wide array of fresh children the latitude to express emotions, their
possibilities, such as when children are asked to children understand and recognize emotions
list how many different uses there might be for a better
paper clip or to write down what a sound brings - Children who have difficulty with identifying and
to mind understanding emotions can have social and
- Enrichment programs may deepen students’ behavioral issues
knowledge and skills through extra classroom Coregulation
activities, research projects, field trips, or expert - Middle childhood brings a transitional stage of
coaching coregulation in which parent and child share
- Acceleration programs speed up their power. While parents still exercise oversight,
education through early school entrance, grade children enjoy moment-tomoment self-regulation
skipping, placement in fast-paced classes, or Internalizing behaviors
advanced courses - Behaviors by which emotional problems are
turned inward; for example, anxiety or
CHAPTER 10: Psychosocial development in middle depression.
childhood Externalizing behaviors
- At this time judgments about the self become - include aggression, fighting, disobedience, and
more conscious, realistic, balanced, and hostility—anger turned outward.
comprehensive as children form The child in a peer group
representational systems: broad, inclusive - Peer groups may also reinforce prejudice:
self-concepts that integrate various aspects of unfavorable attitudes toward outsiders,
the self especially members of certain racial or ethnic
- She can compare her real self (who she is) with groups. Children tend to be biased toward
her ideal self (who she wants to be) and can children like themselves.
judge how well she measures up to social - These biases peak at about 5 to 7 years of age
standards in comparison with others. All of these and then decrease through late childhood
changes contribute to the development of Popularity
self-esteem, her assessment of her global - Children can easily say who they like to play
self-worth with, who they like the most, or who they think
- Industry versus inferiority: Erikson’s fourth other kids like the most. This is known as a
stage of psychosocial development, in which positive nomination.
children must learn the productive skills their - Children can also easily describe which children
culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority they don’t like to play with, like the least, or think
- As with all of Erikson’s stages, there is an other kids don’t like—this is a negative
opportunity for growth represented by a sense nomination
of industry and a complementary risk - The tally may be composed of positive
represented by inferiority. nominations, negative nominations, or no
- In the event that children are unable to obtain nominations. This measure is known as
the praise of adults or peers in their lives, or lack sociometric popularity.
motivation and self-esteem, they may develop a - Sociometrically popular children receive many
feeling of low self-worth, and thus develop a positive nominations and few negative
sense of inferiority. nominations
- Developing a sense of industry, by contrast, Selman’s stages of friendship
involves learning how to work hard to achieve 1. Stage 0: Momentary friendship (0-7 yrs old)
goals. The details may vary across societies. - In this differentiated level of friendship,
- Parents strongly influence a child’s beliefs about children only think about what they want
competence and, consequently, the amount of from a relationship. Most very young
effort children put into different activities. children value their friends for material
Emotional growth and physical attributes.
- As children grow older, they are more aware of 2. Stage 1: one way assistance: (4 to 9 yrs old)
their own and other people’s feelings. They can - On this unilateral level, a “good friend”
better regulate or control their emotions and can does not want the child to want the
respond to others’ emotional distress friends to do.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

3. Stage 2: two-way-fair-weather cooperation- - Sometimes school phobia may be a form of

(6 to 12 yrs old) social phobia, or social anxiety: extreme fear
- This reciprocal level overlaps stage 1. and/or avoidance of social situations
It involves give and take but still serves - Some children have a generalized anxiety
many separate self interests, rather than disorder, not focused on any specific part of
the common interests of two friends their lives. These children worry about just about
4. Stage 3: intimate , mutually shared everything: school grades, storms, earthquakes,
relationships and hurting themselves on the playground.
- On this mutual level, children view - Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
friendship as an ongoing, systematic, Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts,
committed relationship. Friends become images, or impulses, often leading to
possessive and demand exclusivity. compulsive ritual behaviors.
5. Stage 4: Autonomous interdependence - Children with this disorder may be obsessed by
(beginning tp 12 yrs old) repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or
- In this interdependent level, children impulses (often involving irrational fears); or may
respect friends’ needs for both show compulsive behaviors, such as constant
dependency and autonomy. hand-washing; or both
- Childhood depression is a disorder of mood
Instrumental aggression that goes beyond normal, temporary sadness
- aggression aimed at achieving an objective—the Treatment techniques:
hallmark of the preschool period—becomes - Individual psychotherapy: psychological
much less common treatment in which a therapist sees a troubled
Hostile aggression person one-on-one
- aggression intended to hurt another person, - Family therapy: the therapist sees the family
proportionately increases together, observes how members interact, and
Hostile attribution bias points out both growth-producing and
- Tendency to perceive others as trying to hurt growth-inhibiting or destructive patterns of family
one and to strike out in retaliation or functioning
self-defense - Behavior therapy, or behavior modification, is a
Bullying form of psychotherapy that uses principles of
- Aggression deliberately and persistently directed learning theory to eliminate undesirable
against a particular target, or victim, typically behaviors or to develop desirable ones
one who is weak, vulnerable, and defenseless. - Cognitive behavioral therapy, which seeks to
change negative thoughts through gradual
Common emotions problems exposure, modeling, rewards, or talking to
- Disruptive conduct disorders: aggression, oneself, has proven the most effective treatment
defiance, or antisocial behavior. for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents
- Anxiety or mood disorders: feeling sad, - Art thera[y: When children have limited verbal
depressed, unloved, nervous, fearful, or lonely and conceptual skills or have suffered emotional
Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) trauma, art therapy can help them describe what
- a pattern of defiance, disobedience, and hostility is troubling them without the need to put their
toward adult authority figures lasting at least 6 feelings into words.
months and going beyond the bounds of normal - Play therapy, in which a child plays freely while
childhood behavior a therapist occasionally comments, asks
Conduct disorder (CD) questions, or makes suggestions, has proven
- a persistent, repetitive pattern, beginning at an effective with a variety of emotional, cognitive,
early age, of aggressive, antisocial acts, such as and social problems, especially when
truancy, setting fires, habitual lying, fighting, consultation with parents or other close family
bullying, theft, vandalism, assaults, and drug members is part of the process
and alcohol use - If drug therapy—antidepressants, stimulants,
School phobia and other anxiety disorders tranquilizers, or antipsychotic medications—to
- Some children have school phobia, an treat childhood emotional disorders is
unrealistic fear of going to school controversial
- True school phobia may be a type of separation Resilience
anxiety disorder, a condition involving - Resilient children are those who weather
excessive anxiety for at least 4 weeks circumstances that might blight others, who
concerning separation from home or from maintain their composure and competence
people to whom the child is attached. under challenge or threat, or who bounce back
from traumatic events.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- The two most important protective factors During puberty, these organs enlarge and
that help children and adolescents overcome mature
stress and contribute to resilience are good The secondary sex characteristics
family relationships and cognitive functioning - are physiological signs of sexual maturation that
do not directly involve the sex organs
CHAPTER 11: Physical and cognitive development - The secondary sex characteristics are
in adolescence physiological signs of sexual maturation that do
not directly involve the sex organs
Adolescence Signs of Puberty
- Developmental transition between childhood - The first external signs of puberty typically are
and adulthood entailing major physical, breast tissue and pubic hair in girls and
cognitive, and psychosocial changes. enlargement of the testes in boys (Susman &
Puberty Rogol, 2004). A girl’s nipples enlarge and
- Process by which a person attains sexual protrude, the areolae
maturity and the ability to reproduce - Pubic hair, at first straight and silky, eventually
becomes coarse, dark, and curly. It appears in
Adolescence: A time of opportunities and risks different patterns in males and females.
- Any time of transition and change in the life - Adolescent boys are usually happy to see hair
span offers opportunities for both advances and on the face and chest; but girls are generally
risks. Adolescence is no different. dismayed at the appearance of even a slight
- It offers opportunities for growth in cognitive and amount of hair on the face or around the
social competence, autonomy, self-esteem, and nipples, though this, too, is normal
intimacy. - Adolescent growth spurt: sharp increase in
height and weight that precedes sexual maturity
Physical development - Spermarche: Boy’s first ejaculation.
- Puberty involves dramatic biological changes. - occurs at an average age of 13.
These changes are part of a long, complex - A boy may wake up to find a wet spot or a
process of maturation that begins even before hardened, dried spot on the sheets—the result
birth, and their psychological ramifications may of a nocturnal emission, an involuntary
continue into adulthood. ejaculation of semen (commonly referred to as a
Hormonal changes wet dream).
- The advent of puberty is not caused by any - Most adolescent boys have these emissions,
single factor sometimes in connection with an erotic dream
- First, the hypothalamus releases elevated - Menarche- Girl’s first menstruation
levels of gonadotropin releasing hormone - a monthly shedding of tissue from the lining of
(GnRH) the womb
- The increased GnRH then triggers a rise in - a monthly shedding of tissue from the lining of
lutenizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating the womb
hormone (FSH). These hormones exert their - The first menstruation, called menarche, occurs
actions differentially on boys and girls. fairly late in the sequence of female
- HPG (hypothalamus pituitary gonadal) activation development; its normal timing can vary from
requires a signal from the central nervous age 10 to 16½.
system (CNS) to the hypothalamus, which - Secular trend: trend that can be seen only by
stimulates the production of LH and FSH from observing several generations, such as the
the pituitary trend toward earlier attainment of adult height
- The second stage, gonadarche, is marked by and sexual maturity, which began a century ago
the maturing of the sex organs, which triggers a in some countries
second burst of DHEA production. - Developmental scientists call a pattern such as
- During this time, a girl’s ovaries increase their this a secular trend—a trend that spans several
input of estrogen, which in turn stimulates the generations. The trend, which also involves
growth of female genitals, breasts, and the increases in adult height and weight, began
development of pubic and underarm hair about 100 years ago
Primary sex characteristics - The timing of hormonal activity signaling the
- are the organs necessary for reproduction. In start of puberty seems to depend in part on
the female, the sex organs include the ovaries, reaching a critical amount of body fat necessary
fallopian tubes, uterus, clitoris, and vagina. for successful reproduction.
- In the male, they include the testes, penis, The adolescent brain
scrotum, seminal vesicles, and prostate gland. - The frontal lobes are generally associated with
problem solving, impulse control, goal setting,

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

planning, and other similar behaviors generally - Formal operations: Piaget’s final stage of
associated with monitoring social behavior. cognitive development, characterized by the
- Given the relatively slow development of the ability to think abstractly.
prefrontal cortex, we might expect to see similar - when they move away from their reliance on
slow improvements in social behavior and concrete, real-world stimuli and develop the
decision making as children age into the teen capacity for abstract thought. This development,
years usually around age 11, gives them a new, more
- Adolescence is a time of social change. flexible way to manipulate information
- Cognitive stimulation in adolescence makes a - Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: Ability,
critical difference in the brain’s development. believed by Piaget, to accompany the stage of
Likewise, adolescent drug use can have formal operations, to develop, consider, and test
particularly devastating effects, depending on hypotheses.
how drugs interact with the growing brain. - Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: reasoning
Anorexia nervosa involves a methodical, scientific approach to
- Eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. problem solving, and it characterizes formal
- Has a distorted body image operational thinking. It involves the ability to
- Anorexia is, paradoxically, both deliberate and develop, consider, and test hypotheses, and the
involuntary: an affected person deliberately young person can be compared to a scientist
refuses food needed for sustenance, yet cannot exploring a problem.
stop doing so even when rewarded or punished. - As with the development of concrete operations,
Bulimia nervosa schooling and culture play a role, as Piaget
- Eating disorder in which a person regularly eats ultimately recognized.
huge quantities of food and then purges the Immature aspects of adolescents
body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or - David Elkind such behavior stems from
excessive exercise adolescents’ inexperienced ventures into formal
- A person with bulimia regularly goes on huge, operational thought. This new way of thinking,
short-lived eating binges (2 hours or less) and which fundamentally transforms.
then may try to purge the high caloric intake - Adolescents’ immaturity of thinking, Elkind
through self-induced vomiting, strict dieting or suggests, manifests itself in a number of
fasting, excessively vigorous exercise, or characteristic ways.
laxatives, enemas, or diuretics - Another characteristic of adolescent thought is
- These episodes occur at least twice a week for self-consciousness: Adolescents can think
at least 3 months about thinking—their own and other people’s.
- People with bulimia are usually not overweight, However, in their preoccupation with their own
but they are obsessed with their weight and mental state, adolescents often assume
shape. They tend to have low self-esteem and everyone else is thinking about the same thing
may become overwhelmed with shame, they are thinking about: themselves.
self-contempt, and depression - Elkind refers to this as the imaginary audience,
Binge eating disorder a conceptualized “observer” who is as
- Eating disorder in which a person loses control concerned with a young person’s thoughts and
over eating and binges huge quantities of food behavior as he or she is.
- People who binge frequently tend to be - Elkind uses the term personal fable to describe
overweight and to experience emotional distress a belief by adolescents that they are special,
and other medical and psychological disorders their experience is unique, and they are not
Substance abuse subject to the rules that govern the rest of the
- Repeated, harmful use of a substance, usually world
alcohol or other drugs. Moral reasoning: Kohlberg’s theory
Substance dependence - As children attain higher cognitive levels, they
- Addiction (physical, or psychological, or both) to become capable of more complex reasoning
a harmful substance. about moral issues
Binge drinking - Adolescents are better able than younger
- Consuming 5 or more drinks (for men) or 4 or children to take another person’s perspective, to
more drinks (for women) on one occasion. solve social problems, to deal with interpersonal
relationships, and to see themselves as social
Cognitive development beings.
- All of these tendencies foster moral
Piaget’ stage of formal operations development
- Heinz dilemma:

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Heinz’s problem is the most famous example of - Home influences: Across cultures, parents’
Lawrence Kohlberg’s approach to studying educational level correlates with their children’s
moral development math achievement.
- Moreover, he believed that at the heart of every - The amount of parental involvement in children’s
dilemma was the concept of justice—a universal education affects math performance.
principle. - Parents’ gender attitudes and expectations also
have an effect.
Kohlberg’s level and principle - School influences: Subtle differences in the
- On the basis of thought processes shown by way teachers treat boys and girls, especially in
responses to his dilemmas, Kohlberg math and science classes, have been
- Level I: Preconventional morality: People act documented.
under external controls. They obey rules to - Neighborhood influences: Boys benefit more
avoid punishment or reap rewards, or they act from enriched neighborhoods and are hurt more
out of self-interest. This level is typical of by deprived neighborhoods
children ages 4 to 10. - Women’s and men’s roles in society help
- Level II: Conventional morality (or morality of shape girls’ and boys’ choices of courses and
conventional role conformity: People have occupations
internalized the standards of authority figures. - Cultural influences: Cross-cultural studies
- They are concerned about being “good,” show that the size of gender differences in math
pleasing others, and maintaining the social performance varies among nations and
order. This level is typically reached after age becomes greater by the end of secondary
10; many people never move beyond it, even in school.
adulthood. - These differences correlate with the degree of
- Level III: Postconventional morality (or gender equality in the society
morality of autonomous moral principles:
People recognize conflicts between moral CHAPTER 12: Psychosocial development in
standards and make their own judgments on the Adolescence
basis of principles of right, fairness, and justice. - The search for identity: According to Erikson,
- People generally do not reach this level of moral a coherent conception of the self, made up of
reasoning until at least early adolescence, or goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is
more commonly in young adulthood, if ever. solidly committed.
- One reason the ages attached to Kohlberg’s - The chief task of adolescence, said Erikson
levels are so variable is that people who have (1968), is to confront the crisis of Identity versus
achieved a high level of cognitive development role confusion, so as to become a unique adult
do not always reach a comparably high level of with a coherent sense of self and a valued role
moral development. in society.
- A certain level of cognitive development is - Identity, according to Erikson, forms as young
necessary but not sufficient for a comparable people resolve three major issues: the choice of
level of moral development. In other words, just an occupation, the adoption of values to live by,
because a person is capable of moral reasoning and the development of a satisfying sexual
does not necessarily mean the person actually identity
engages in moral reasoning Identity versus identity confusion
- Erikson’s fifth stage of psychosocial
Giligan’s theory development, in which an adolescent seeks to
- Gilligan (1982/1993), who asserted that develop a coherent sense of self, including the
Kohlberg’s theory was sexist and oriented role she or he is to play in society. Also called
toward values more important to men than to identity versus role confusion
women. - Erikson believed this time-out period, which he
- Gilligan argued that men, Kohlberg included, called psychosocial moratorium, was ideal for
viewed morality in terms of justice and fairness. the development of identity and allowed young
- Women held a different set of values, however, people the opportunity to search for
that placed caring and avoiding harm as higher commitments to which they could be faithful.
goals than justice. - Adolescents who resolve the identity crisis
satisfactorily develop the virtue of fidelity:
Social and cultural forces that influence gender sustained loyalty, faith, or a sense of belonging
differences include the following (Halpern et al., to a loved one, friends, or companions.
2007) - Individuals who do not develop a firm sense of
their own identity and do not develop fidelity
may have an unstable sense of self, be

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

insecure, and fail to plan for themselves and the - Ethnic identity statuses
future. - Diffused, foreclosed, Moratorium, Achieved
- Erikson saw this identity or role confusion as the Cultural socialization includes practices that teach
prime danger of this stage. children about their racial or ethnic heritage, promote
- Erikson’s theory describes male identity cultural customs and traditions, and foster racial/ethnic
development as the norm and cultural pride
- According to Erikson, a man is not capable of
real intimacy until he has achieved a stable Sexuality
identity, whereas women define themselves - Seeing oneself as a sexual being, recognizing
through marriage and motherhood one’s sexual orientation, and forming romantic
Identity status- crisis and commitment or sexual attachments all are parts of achieving
- James E. Marcia distinguished four types of sexual identity.
identity status: identity achievement, - Awareness of sexuality is an important aspect of
foreclosure, moratorium, and identity diffusion. identity formation.
- The four categories differ according to the - Sexual orientation: Focus of consistent sexual,
presence or absence of crisis and commitment, romantic, and affectionate interest, either
the two elements Erikson saw as crucial to heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual.
forming identity. Marcia defined crisis as a - It is in adolescence that a person’s sexual
period of conscious decision making orientation generally becomes more clear:
- Crisis: Marcia’s term for a period of conscious whether that person will consistently be sexually
decision making related to identity formation. attracted to persons of the other sex
- Commitment: Marcia’s term for personal (heterosexual), of the same sex (homosexual),
investment in an occupation or system of beliefs or of both sexes (bisexual).
- Commitments can be held after they have been The myth of adolescent rebellion
deeply considered, after a crisis, or can be - Adolescent rebellion: Pattern of emotional
adopted without much thought put into them. turmoil, characteristic of a minority of
Here is a sketch of young people in each identity adolescents, that may involve conflict with
status. family, alienation from adult society, reckless
- Identity achievement: Identity status, described behavior, and rejection of adult values.
by Marcia, that is characterized by commitment Individuation
to choices made following a crisis, a period - If you were like most teens, you probably
spent in exploring alternatives. listened to different music from your parents,
- Identity achievement (crisis leading to dressed in a different style of clothing, and felt it
commitment). Olivia has resolved her identity was reasonable to keep certain things private
crisis. During her crisis period, she devoted from them
much thought and some emotional struggle to - Adolescents’ struggle for autonomy and
major issues in her life. personal identity
- Foreclosure Identity status, described by
Marcia, in which a person who has not spent CHAPTER 13: Physical and cognitive and
time considering alternatives (that is, has not development in emerging and young adulthood.
been in crisis) is committed to other people’s - For most laypeople, three criteria define
plans for his or her life adulthood: (1) accepting responsibility for
- Foreclosure (commitment without crisis). oneself, (2) making independent decisions, and
Isabella has made commitments, not as a result (3) becoming financially independent
of exploring choices but by accepting someone - Emerging adulthood: Proposed transitional
else’s plans for her life. She has not considered period between adolescence and adulthood
whether she believes in her commitments and commonly found in industrialized countries.
has uncritically accepted others’ opinions - It represents a period of time during which
- Moratorium Identity status, described by young adults can figure out who they are and
Marcia, in which a person is currently what they want to be. In essence, it is a time
considering alternatives (in crisis) and seems during which young people are no longer
headed for commitment adolescents but have not yet settled into adult
- Identity diffusion (no commitment, no crisis). roles
Jayden has not seriously considered options Physical development
and has avoided commitments - generally enjoy the benefits of good health, but
- Identity diffusion Identity status, described by they increasingly suffer from a range of
Marcia, that is characterized by absence of health-related risks tied to modern lifestyles.
commitment and lack of serious consideration of
alternatives

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Environmental factors can result in epigenetic - For example, a child might read about
hanges in the expression of particular genes dinosaurs out of pure interest in the
that can have lifelong consequences topic
- Risky drinking: Consuming more than 14 2. Achieving stage: (late teens or early twenties
drinks a week or 4 drinks on any single day for to early thirties). Young adults no longer acquire
men, and more than 7 drinks a week or 3 drinks knowledge merely for its own sake; they use
on any single day for women. what they know to pursue goals, such as career
Social integration and family.
- is active engagement in a broad range of social - For example, a child might read about
relationships, activities, and roles. Social dinosaurs out of pure interest in the
integration has repeatedly been associated with topic
lower mortality rate 3. Responsible stage: (late thirties to early
Social support sixties). Middle-age people use their minds to
- refers to material, informational, and solve practical problems associated with
psychological resources derived from the social responsibilities to others, such as family
network on which a person can rely for help in members or employees.
coping with stress - For example, an adult might figure out a
Alcoholism more efficient way to complete a task at
- Chronic disease involving dependence on use of work.
alcohol, causing interference with normal 4. Executive stage: (thirties or forties through
functioning and fulfillment of obligations middle age). People in the executive stage are
Sexual and reproductive issues responsible for societal systems (such as
- Sexual and reproductive activities are often a governmental or business organizations) or
prime preoccupation of emerging and young social movements.
adulthood. - They deal with complex relationships on
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) multiple levels.
- Disorder producing symptoms of physical - For example, an adult might mediate a
discomfort and emotional tension for up to 2 disagreement between two coworkers
weeks before a menstrual period. so the office runs more smoothly.
Infertility 5. Reorganizational stage: (end of middle age,
- Inability to conceive a child after 12 months of beginning of late adulthood). People who enter
sexual intercourse without the use of birth retirement reorganize their lives and intellectual
control energies around meaningful pursuits that take
the place of paid work.
Cognitive development - A retired adult, for example, might
- Piaget believed that the pinnacle of cognitive decide to volunteer at a local botanical
development was formal operations thought. garden.
- Reflective thinking: Type of logical thinking 6. Reintegrative stage: (late adulthood). Older
that becomes more prominent in adulthood, adults may be experiencing biological and
involving continuous, active evaluation of cognitive changes and tend to be more selective
information and beliefs in the light of evidence about what tasks they expend effort on.
and implications. ( John Dewey) - They focus on the purpose of what they
- Research and theoretical work since the 1970s do and concentrate on tasks that have
suggest that mature thinking is more complex the most meaning for them.
than Piaget described, and that it encompasses - For example, a person feeling the
more than just the capacity for abstract thought. effects of age on her joints might decide
- This higher stage of adult cognition, which tends to take a daily walk rather than a run for
to emerge in early adulthood, is sometimes health.
called postformal thought. 7. Legacy-creating stage: (advanced old age).
- As with reflective thinking, exposure to higher Near the end of life, once reintegration has been
education is often a catalyst for the development completed (or along with it), older people may
of this ability create instructions for the disposition of prized
K. Warner Schaie’s life-span model of cognitive possessions, make funeral arrangements,
development provide oral histories, or write their life stories as
1. Acquisitive stage: (childhood and a legacy for their loved ones.
adolescence). Children and adolescents acquire - An older adult might, for instance,
information and skills mainly for their own sake complete an advance directive and
or as preparation for participation in society. distribute that to his children
Triarchic model of intelligence
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Componential, experiential, and contextual family of origin, but expectations for self-reliance
and self-directedness begin to increase.
- An important aspect of practical intelligence is - In stage 2, during emerging adulthood, the
tacit knowledge: “inside information,” individual remains connected to but no longer
“know-how,” or “savvy” that is not formally taught embedded within the family of origin
or openly expressed. - In stage 3, usually by age 30, the individual
- Tacit knowledge: Sternberg’s term for moves into young adulthood. This stage is
information that is not formally taught but is marked by independence from the family of
necessary to get ahead. origin (while retaining close ties to it) and
- Tacit knowledge may include self-management commitment to a career, a partner, and possibly
(knowing how to motivate oneself and organize children.
time and energy), management of tasks - Moratorium status, a self-conscious crisis that
(knowing how to write a term paper or grant ideally leads to a resolution and identity
proposal), and management of others achievement status
(knowing when and how to reward or criticize
subordinates) Personality development: Four views
Emotional intelligence (EI) - Four approaches to adult psychosocial
- Salovey and Mayer’s term for the ability to development are represented by
understand and regulate emotions; an important normative-stage models, the
component of effective, intelligent behavior timing-of-events model, trait models, and
- Emotional intelligence (EI) Salovey and Mayer’s typological model
term for the ability to understand and regulate 1. Normative-stage models: are theoretical
emotions; an important component of effective, approaches that hold that adults follow a basic
intelligent behavior sequence of age-related psychosocial changes.
- The changes are normative in that they
Moral reasoning are common for most members of a
- In adulthood, however, moral judgments population at a particular time
become more complex. 2. Timing of events models: Non normative
- There is some support for the view that timing of ife events can cause stress and affect
experience may lead adults to reevaluate their personality development.
criteria for what is right and wrong. - Theoretical model of personality
- Culture affects the understanding of morality development that describes adult
Substantive complexity: degree to which a person’s psychosocial development as a
work requires thought and independent judgment response to the expected or unexpected
Spillover hypothesis: Hypothesis that there is a occurrence and timing of important life
carryover of cognitive gains from work to leisure that events.
explains the positive relationship between activities in - Normative life events In the
the quality of intellectual functioning. timing-of-events model, commonly
expected life experiences that occur at
Chapter 14: Psychosocial development in emerging customary times.
and young adulthood - Social clock: Set of cultural norms or
- For many young people today, emerging expectations for the times of life when
adulthood is a time of experimentation before certain important events, such as
assuming adult roles and responsibilities marriage, parenthood, entry into work,
- A young married couple may move in with and retirement, should occur.
parents while they finish school or get on their 3. Trait model (Costa and MCcrae)- Personality
feet. Finding stable work and developing changes substantially until age 30, more slowly
long-term romantic relationships may be thereafter.
postponed until the thirties or even later - Theoretical models of personality
Identity development development that focus on mental,
- Recentering is a name for the process that emotional, temperamental, and
underlies the shift to an adult identity. It is the behavioral traits, or attributes.
primary task of emerging adulthood. - Five-factor model: Theoretical model of
Recentering is a three-stage process in which personality, developed and tested by
power, responsibility, and decision making Costa and McCrae, based on the “Big
gradually shift from the family of origin to the Five” factors underlying clusters of
independent related personality traits: openness to
- At stage 1, the beginning of emerging experiences, conscientiousness,
adulthood, the individual is still embedded in the

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

extraversion, agreeableness, three elements: intimacy, passion, and

neuroticism. commitment.
- Costa and McCrae’s body of work - Intimacy, the emotional element, involves
originally made a powerful case for self-disclosure, which leads to connection,
continuity of personality warmth, and trust
4. Typological models: Personality types to show - Passion, the motivational element, is based on
continuity from childhood into adulthood but can inner drives that translate physiological arousal
change the life course. into sexual desire. Passion might include
- Jack Block was a pioneer in the feelings of sexual attraction, intrusive thoughts
typological approach. of the romantic partner, or sexual activity itself
- Researchers have identified three - Commitment, the cognitive element, is the
personality types: ego-resilient, decision to love and to stay with the beloved
overcontrolled, and undercontrolled Cohabitation
- Ego resiliency: adaptability under - is an increasingly common lifestyle in which an
stress unmarried couple involved in a sexual
- Dynamic capacity to modify one’s level relationship live together
of ego-control in response to Remarriage, said the essayist Samuel Johnson, “is the
environmental and contextual influences triumph of hope over experience.” Evidence for the truth
- Ego control- self-control of that statement is that remarriages are more likely than
- Ego-resilient: people are well-adjusted: first marriages to end in divorce
self-confident, independent, articulate,
attentive, helpful, cooperative, and CHAPTER 15: Physical and cognitive development
task-focused in middle adulthood
- Overcontrolled: people are shy, quiet,
anxious, and dependable; they tend to - The term midlife first came into the dictionary in
keep their thoughts to themselves and 1895 (Lachman, 2004) as life expectancy began
to withdraw from conflict, and they are to lengthen.
the most subject to depression - We define middle adulthood in chronological
- Undercontrolled: people are active, terms as the years between ages 40 and 65, but
energetic, impulsive, stubborn, and this definition is arbitrary
easily distracted. - There is no consensus on when midlife begins
- Fictive kin: Friends who are considered and ends
and behave like family members. - The experience of middle age varies with health,
Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
- Intimacy versus isolation: Erikson’s sixth cohort, and culture, as well as with personality,
stage of psychosocial development, in which marital and parental status, and employment
young adults either form strong, long-lasting
bonds with friends and romantic partners or face Physical changes
a possible sense of isolation and - With increasing age, it is common for adults to
self-absorption. (Non-normative change) experience a variety of perceptual declines,
- Resolution of this stage results in the virtue of including hearing and visual difficulties
love: mutual devotion between partners who - As people age, they have difficulty focusing on
have chosen to share their lives and have near objects, a condition known as presbyopia.
children - Presbyopia: Age-related, progressive loss of
- Despite these critiques, normative-stage the eyes’ ability to focus on nearby objects due
research has nonetheless had an impact on the to loss of elasticity in the lens.
field and has drawn attention to the idea that - The incidence of myopia (nearsightedness) also
human beings continue to change and develop increases throughout middle age
throughout their lives - Presbycusis: Age-related, gradual loss of
hearing, which accelerates after age 55,
Robert J. Sternberg’s triangular theory of love especially with regard to sounds at higher
- the way love develops is a story frequencies.
- Triangular theory of love: Sternberg’s theory - Basal metabolism: Use of energy to maintain
that patterns of love hinge on the balance vital functions. Basal metabolism is the minimum
among three elements: intimacy, passion, and amount of energy, typically measured in
commitment. calories, that your body needs to maintain vital
- triangular theory of love Sternberg’s theory that functions while resting.
patterns of love hinge on the balance among
The brain and midlife

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- In general, the aging brain can be described in - Condition in which the bones become thin and
two ways: as working more slowly and as brittle as a result of rapid calcium depletion
having difficulty juggling multiple tasks. This - Common signs of osteoporosis are marked loss
general process affects multiple tasks across in height and a hunchbacked posture that
many different areas—from understanding results from compression and collapse of a
complex language to driving a car skillfully to weakened spinal column
learning new skill Mammography
- Vital capacity: Amount of air that can be drawn - Diagnostic X-ray examination of the breasts.
in with a deep breath and expelled. Hormone therapy
- The maximum volume of air the lungs can draw - hormone therapy (HT) Treatment with artificial
in and expel—may begin to diminish at about estrogen, sometimes in combination with the
age 40 and can drop by as much as 40 percent hormone progesterone, to relieve or prevent
by age symptoms caused by decline in estrogen levels
- Myelin, the fatty sheath that lines nerve axons after menopause.
and helps impulses move more quickly through Stress
the brain, also begins to break down with age - is the damage that occurs when perceived
- Changes in appearance may become noticeable environmental demands, or stressors, exceed a
during the middle years. By the fifth or sixth person’s capacity to cope with them. The body’s
decade, the skin may become less taut and capacity to adapt to stress involves the brain,
smooth as the layer of fat below the surface which perceives danger
becomes thinner, collagen molecules more rigid, - either real or imagined); the adrenal glands,
and elastin fibers more brittle which mobilize the body to fight it; and the
Menopause immune system, which provides the defenses.
- Cessation of menstruation and of ability to bear Stress in middle age may come from role
children. changes, career transitions, grown children
- Menopause takes place when a woman leaving home, and the renegotiation of family
permanently stops ovulating and menstruating relationships
and can no longer conceive a child; it is Stressors
generally considered to have occurred one year - Perceived environmental demands that may
after the last menstrual period. produce stress
Perimenopause - The classic stress response—fight or
- Period of several years during which a woman flight—may be more characteristic of men,
experiences physiological changes of activated in part by testosterone. Women’s
menopause; includes the first year after the end response pattern is typically tend and
of menstruation; also called climacteric. befriend—nurturant activities that promote
- Menopause is not a single event; it is a process safety and reliance on social networks to
called the menopausal transition. It begins exchange resources and responsibilities.
with perimenopause, also known as the Fluid intelligence Type of intelligence
climacteric. During this time, a woman’s - proposed by Horn and Cattell, that is applied to
production of mature ova begins to decline, novel problems and is relatively independent of
and the ovaries produce less estrogen. educational and cultural influences
Erectile dysfunction - Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve novel
- Men’s changing hormone levels affect more than problems on the fly. Such problems require little
just their sexual organs. or no previous knowledge, such as realizing that
- Many men suffer no ill effects from declines in a hanger can be used to fix a leaky toilet or
testosterone production, but some middle-aged discovering the pattern in a sequence of figures.
and older men experience erectile dysfunction - It involves perceiving relations, forming
(ED; commonly called impotence). concepts, and drawing inferences
- Erectile dysfunction: Inability of a man to Crystallized intelligence
achieve or maintain an erect penis sufficient for - Type of intelligence, proposed by Horn and
satisfactory sexual performance. Cattell, involving the ability to remember and
- Myths about sexuality in midlife—for example, use learned information; it is largely dependent
the idea that satisfying sex ends at on education and culture.
menopause—have sometimes become - Crystallized intelligence, by contrast, is the
self-fulfilling prophecies ability to remember and use information
Hypertension acquired over a lifetime, such as finding a
- Chronically high blood pressure synonym for a word or solving a math problem.
Osteoporosis It is fixed, as is the structure of ice.

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Crystallized intelligence is measured by tests of which the middle-aged adult develops a concern
vocabulary, general information, and responses with establishing, guiding, and influencing the
to social situations and dilemmas—abilities that next generation or else experiences stagnation
depend largely on education and cultural (a sense of inactivity or lifelessness).
experience - Generativity: Erikson’s term for concern of
Encapsulation mature adults for finding meaning through
- In Hoyer’s terminology, the process that allows contributing to society and leaving a legacy for
expertise to compensate for declines in future generations.
information-processing ability by bundling - The virtue of this period is care: “a widening
relevant knowledge together commitment to take care of the persons, the
- It may take middle-aged people longer than products, and the ideas one has learned to care
younger people to process new information. But for”
when it comes to solving problems within their - Erikson believed that generativity was especially
field of expertise, their encapsulated knowledge salient during midlife because of the demands
compensates and allows them to rapidly and placed on adults through work and family
effectively solve a problem - High levels of generativity are linked to positive
Literacy outcomes.
- is a fundamental requisite for participation not - The age at which individuals achieve
only in the workplace but in all facets of a generativity varies, as does its strength at any
modern, information-driven society. At the turn particular time, and some people are more
of the century, a person with a fourth-grade generative than others
education was considered literate; today, a high The self and the midlife crisis
school diploma is barely adequate - ften, changes in personality and lifestyle such as
- literacy, ability to use printed and written these during the early to middle forties are
information to function in society, achieve goals, attributed to what has been called a midlife
and develop knowledge and potential. crisis.
- Many people realize that they will not be able to
CHAPTER 16: Psychosocial development in middle fulfill the dreams of their youth, or that fulfillment
adulthood of their dreams has not brought the satisfaction
- Developmental scientists view the course of they expected, and they become more aware of
midlife psychosocial development in several their own mortality
ways. Objectively, they look at trajectories or - Midlife crisis: In some normative-crisis models,
pathways, such as a once-traditional wife and stressful life period precipitated by the review
mother’s pursuit of a midlife career. and reevaluation of one’s past, typically
- Subjectively, they look at how people construct occurring in the early to middle forties
their identity and the structure of their lives - The midlife crisis is a supposedly stressful
- In psychosocial terms, middle adulthood once period triggered by this review and reevaluation
was considered a relatively stable period of of one’s life.
development in which little change occurred. - Turning point: Psychological transitions that
- Middle-aged adults were rarely the object of involve significant change or transformation in
direct study the perceived meaning, purpose, or direction of
- In psychosocial terms, middle adulthood once a person’s life.
was considered a relatively stable period of - Midlife review: Introspective examination that
development in which little change occurred. often occurs in middle age, leading to
- Middle-aged adults were rarely the object of reappraisal and revision of values and priorities.
direct study - However, it can also involve regret over failure
- The Big Five traits are related to actual, physical to achieve a dream or a keener awareness of
differences in brain structures of adults. For developmental deadlines—time constraints on,
example, extraversion is correlated to the size of say, the ability to have a child or to make up with
the medial orbitofrontal cortex—an area of the an estranged friend or family member
brain involved in processing rewards—and - Ego-resiliency: The ability to adapt flexibly and
neuroticism is related to the volume of brain resourcefully to potential sources of stress.
areas associated with threat and punishment. Identity development
This supports a biologically based model of the - Although Erikson defined identity formation as
Big Five the main concern of adolescence, he noted that
identity continues to develop throughout
Erikson’s generativity vs. stagnation adulthood as well.
- Generativity versus stagnation: Erikson’s Susan Krauss Whitbourne: Identity Processes
seventh stage of psychosocial development, in
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Identity process theory (IPT): Whitbourne’s - Highly generative adults tend to construct
theory of identity development based on generativity scripts. These scripts often feature a
processes of assimilation and accommodation theme of redemption, or deliverance from
- Physical characteristics, cognitive abilities, and suffering, and are associated with psychological
personality traits are incorporated into identity well-being.
schemas. Social convoy theory
- Identity schemas: Accumulated perceptions of - Theory, proposed by Kahn and Antonucci, that
the self shaped by incoming information from people move through life surrounded by
intimate relationships, work-related situations, concentric circles of intimate relationships on
and community and other experiences which they rely for assistance, well-being, and
- These self-perceptions are continually confirmed social support.
or revised in response to incoming information. - Characteristics of the person (gender, race,
- Identity assimilation: Whitbourne’s term for religion, age, education, and marital status)
effort to fit new experience into an existing together with characteristics of that person’s
self-concept. situation (role expectations, life events, financial
- Consistent sense of self in the face of new stress, daily hassles, demands, and resources)
experiences that do not fit the current influence the size and composition of the
understanding of the self. Contradictory or convoy, or support network.
confusing information is absorbed without Socioemotional selectivity theory
changing one’s identity schema. - Laura Carstensen’s (1991, 1995, 1996;
- Identity accommodation, in contrast, involves Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999)
adjusting the identity schema to fit new socioemotional selectivity theory assumes we
experiences. Here discontinuity of the self is the select our friends based on their ability to meet
result because identity accommodation involves our goals.
changing the understanding of the self. - According to Carstensen, social interaction has
- Whitbourne’s term for adjusting the self concept three main goals: (1) it is a source of
to fit new experience. information; (2) it helps people develop and
- Ideally, people are able to achieve identity maintain a sense of self; and (3) it is a source of
balance and maintain a stable sense of self emotional well-being. In infancy, the third goal,
while adjusting their self-schemas to incorporate the need for emotional support, is paramount.
new information, such as the effects of aging. - Socioemotional selectivity theory: Theory,
- People who achieve identity balance recognize proposed by Carstensen, that people select
changes and respond flexibly; they seek to social contacts on the basis of the changing
control what can be controlled and accept what relative importance of social interaction as a
cannot. source of information, as an aid in developing
- Ideally, people are able to achieve identity and maintaining a self concept, and as a source
balance and maintain a stable sense of self of emotional well-being
while adjusting their self-schemas to incorporate Marital capital
new information, such as the effects of aging. - Financial and emotional benefits built up during
Generativity and identity a long-standing marriage, which tend to hold a
- Erikson saw generativity as an aspect of identity couple together
formation Empty nest
- A particularly fruitful place to examine this is with - Transitional phase of parenting following the last
respect to balancing the demands of home and child’s leaving the parents’ home.
family, something that is generally more difficult Revolving door syndrome
for women than men - sometimes called the boomerang
- Once established, generativity paves the way for phenomenon, has become more common.
positive life outcomes. For instance, generativity Increasing numbers of young adults, especially
has been associated with positive feelings about men, return to their parents
marriage, motherhood, and the care of aging FIlial crisis
parents, and an increased certainty about - In Marcoen’s terminology, normative
identity and sense of confidence late in life development of middle age, in which adults
Narrative psychology learn to balance love and duty to their parents
- The field of narrative psychology views the with autonomy within a two-way relationship.
development of the self as a continuous process - This normative development is seen as the
of constructing one’s life story—a dramatic healthy outcome of a filial crisis, in which adults
narrative to help make sense of one’s life and learn to balance love and duty to their parents
connect the past and present with the future with autonomy in a two-way relationship
Sandwich generation

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- Middle-aged adults squeezed by competing differences between elderly people because

needs to raise or launch children and to care for these differences can influence outcomes
elderly parents - Geriatics: Branch of medicine concerned with
Caregiver burnout processes of aging and medical conditions
- Condition of physical, mental, and emotional associated with old age
exhaustion affecting adults who provide Longevity and aging
continuous care for sick or aged persons. - Life expectancy: Age to which a person in a
Respite care particular cohort is statistically likely to live
- (substitute supervised care by visiting nurses or (given his or her current age and health status),
home health aides) gives regular caregivers on the basis of average longevity of a
some time off. population.
Kinship care - Longevity: Length of an individual’s life
- Care of children living without parents in the - Gains in life expectancy reflect declines in
home of grandparents or other relatives, with or mortality rates, or death rates (the proportions of
without a change of legal custody. a total population or of certain age groups who
- Grandparents providing kinship care who do not die in a given year).
become foster parents or gain custody have no - The human lifespan is the longest period that
legal status and few rights. members of our species can live.
- They may face many practical problems, from Senescence
enrolling the child in school and gaining access - Period of the life span marked by declines in
to academic records to obtaining medical physical functioning usually associated with
insurance for the child. aging; begins at different ages for different
people
CHAPTER 17: Physical and cognitive development Genetic-programming theories
in late adulthood - Theories that explain biological aging as
- Ageism Prejudice or discrimination against a resulting from a genetically determined
person (most commonly an older person) based developmental timetable
on age. - propose that people’s bodies age according to
instructions built into the genes and that aging is
Physical development a normal part of development
- Primary aging is a gradual, inevitable process - Twin studies have shown that genetic
of bodily deterioration that begins early in life differences account for about one-fourth of the
and continues through the years irrespective of variance in the adult human life span.
what people do to stave it off. - Aging also may be influenced by specific genes
- In this view, aging is an unavoidable “switching off,” after which agerelated losses
consequence of getting older. (such as declines in vision, hearing, and motor
- Primary aging is a nature process governed by control) occur. This process, broadly described
biology as epigenesis involves genes being turned on
- Secondary aging results from disease, abuse, and off by.
and disuse—factors that are often within a - Another cellular process involves telomeres,
person’s control (J. C. Horn & Meer, 1987). the repetitive fragments of DNA on the tips of
These two philosophies of aging can be likened chromosomes
to the familiar nature-nurture debate. - Hayflick limit: Genetically controlled limit,
- Secondary aging is the result of nurture, the proposed by Hayflick, on the number of times
environmental insults that accrue over the cells can divide in members of a species.
course of a lifetime. Endocrine theory
- Activities of daily living (ADLs) Essential - According to endocrine theory, the biological
activities that support survival, such as eating, clock acts through genes that control hormonal
dressing, bathing, and getting around the house changes. Loss of muscle strength, accumulation
- Chronologically, young old generally refers to of fat, and atrophy of organs may be related to
people ages 65 to 74, who are usually active, declines in hormonal activity.
vital, and vigorous. The old- old, ages 75 to 84, - mutations in the genes that code for hormones
and the oldest old, age 85 and above involved in the regulation of blood sugar have
- A more meaningful classification is functional been linked in other species to either increased
age: how well a person functions in a physical or decreased life span, and it is likely they
and social environment in comparison with function similarly in humans
others of the same chronological age. Immunological theory
- Gerontology is the study of the aged and aging - proposes a similar process; certain genes may
processes. Gerontologists are interested in cause problems in the immune system (Holliday,

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

2004) that then lead to an increased older people cannot respond to extra physical
susceptibility to diseases, infections, and cancer demands as they once did.
Evolutionary theory of aging - Ability of body organs and systems to put forth 4
- According to the evolutionary theory of aging, to 10 times as much effort as usual under acute
reproductive fitness is the primary aim of natural stress; also called organ reserve.
selection. Cataracts
- Therefore, natural selection acts most strongly - cloudy or opaque areas in the lens of the eye,
on the young, who have many years of potential are common in older adults and eventually
reproduction ahead of them. cause blurred vision
- If a trait favoring reproductive output in the Age-related macular degeneration
young is present, it will spread throughout the - Condition in which the center of the retina
population, even if the effects are later gradually loses its ability to discern fine details;
damaging to the individual leading cause of irreversible visual impairment
Variable rate theories in older adults
- According to variable-rate theories, aging is - The macula is a small spot in the center of the
the result of random processes that vary from retina that helps us keep objects directly in our
person to person. They are also called error line of sight in sharp focus.
theories because these processes often involve Glaucoma
damage due to chance errors in, or - Irreversible damage to the optic nerve caused
environmental assaults on, biological systems by increased pressure in the eye.
Wear- and-tear theory Functional fitness
- One such theory, wear-and-tear theory, holds - The ability to perform the physical activities of
that the body ages as a result of accumulated daily living.
damage to the system at the molecular level. Periodontal disease
- Like an old car, the parts of the body eventually - is a chronic inflammation of the gums caused by
wear out the bacteria in plaque
Free radicals Mental and behavioral problems
- Unstable, highly reactive atoms or molecules, 1. Dementia
formed during metabolism, that can cause - Deterioration in cognitive and behavioral
internal bodily damage. functioning due to physiological causes
- Another theory of aging, known as the - Cognitive decline becomes increasingly
free-radical theory, proposes that aging results common with advanced age
from the formation of free radicals, a by-product - Dementia is not inevitable. A variety of
of metabolic processes. Free radicals are factors protect people from developing
molecules with unpaired electrons dementia.
Mitochondrial theory of aging 2. Alzheimer’s disease
- The free-radical theory was expanded to the - Progressive, irreversible, degenerative
mitochondrial theory of aging. brain disorder characterized by
Mitochondria—tiny organisms that generate cognitive deterioration and loss of
chemical energy for cells and tissues—play an control of bodily functions, leading to
important role in helping cells survive under death
stress and powering the body - Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the
The rate of living theory most common and most feared terminal
- The rate-of-living theory postulates that there is illnesses among aging persons. It
a balance between metabolism, or energy use, gradually robs patients of intelligence,
and life span. The faster a body’s metabolism, awareness, and even the ability to
the shorter its lifespan, and vice versa control their bodily functions—and finally
Survival curve kills them
- A curve on a graph showing the percentage of - 5As of Alzheimer’s (Agnosia, Aphasia,
people or animals alive at various ages Apraxia, Amnesia, Anomia)
- A survival curve represents the percentage of 3. Parkinson’s disease
people or animals alive at various ages. With - the second most common disorder
respect to humans, the curve currently ends involving progressive neurological
roughly at age 100, meaning few people survive degeneration, is characterized by
past this age tremor, stiffness, slowed movement, and
Reserve capacity unstable posture
- is the backup capacity that helps body systems > These two ( alzheimer’s and parkinsons) diseases
function to their utmost limits in times of stress. together with multi-infarct dementia (MD), which is
With age, reserve levels tend to drop, and many caused by a series of small strokes.

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

Neurofibrillary tangles - Do you remember what you had for breakfast

- Accumulation of an abnormal protein called this morning? Such information is stored in
beta amyloid peptide episodic memory, the long-term memory system
- Twisted masses of protein fibers found in brains most likely to deteriorate with age
of persons with Alzheimer’s disease - Semantic memory: Long-term memory of
- The brain of a person with AD contains general factual knowledge, social customs, and
excessive amounts of neurofibrillary tangles language.
(twisted masses of dead neurons) and large - Procedural memory includes motor skills (like
waxy clumps of amyloid plaque (non functioning riding a bike) and habits (like taking a particular
tissue formed by bet amyloid in the spaces street home) that, once learned, take little
between neurons) conscious effort.
- Amyloid plaque: Waxy chunks of insoluble - Long-term memory of motor skills, habits, and
tissue found in brains of persons with ways of doing things, which can be recalled
Alzheimer’s disease. without conscious effort; sometimes called
Cognitive reserve implicit memory
- Hypothesized fund of energy that may enable a - three steps required to process information in
deteriorating brain to continue to function memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval
normally. - The main structures involved in normal memory
- Cognitive reserve, like organ reserve, may processing and storage include the frontal
enable a deteriorating brain to continue to lobes and the hippocampus.
function under stress, up to a point, without - The frontal lobes are active in both encoding
showing signs of impairment. and retrieval of episodic memories.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Dysfunction in these areas may cause false
- The WAIS is a standardized measure that allows memories— “remembering” events that never
assessment of a person’s intellectual functioning occurred
at different ages. Scores on the WAIS subtests - The hippocampus, a small, centrally located
yield a verbal IQ, a performance IQ, and a total structure deep in the temporal lobe, seems
IQ. Older adults tend not to perform as well as critical to the ability to store new information in
younger adults on the WAIS episodic memory and is broadly important for
- scores drop with age, but on the six tests memory processes.
making up the verbal scale—particularly tests of Problems in Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
vocabulary, information, and comprehension— - Episodic memory is particularly vulnerable to the
scores fall only slightly. This is called the classic effects of aging; an effect that is aggravated as
aging pattern memory tasks become more complex or
demanding
Memory and aging - Older adults seem to have greater difficulty
- Researchers assess short-term memory by encoding new episodic memories, presumably
asking a person to repeat a sequence of because of difficulties in forming and later
numbers, either in the order in which they were recalling a coherent and cohesive episode
presented (digit span forward) or in reverse - Another hypothesis is that material in storage
order (digit span backward). may deteriorate to the point where retrieval
- Sensory memory involves the brief storage of becomes difficult or impossible. Some research
sensory information suggests that a small increase in “storage
- Working memory: involves the short-term failure” may occur with age
storage of information being actively processed, Wisdom
such as when you calculate the tip on a - has been defined as “exceptional breadth and
restaurant bill in your head. depth of knowledge about the conditions of life
- Tasks that require only rehearsal, or repetition, and human affairs and reflective judgment about
show very little decline. Tasks that require the application of this knowledge.
reorganization or elaboration show greater fall - It may involve insight and awareness of the
of uncertain, paradoxical nature of reality and may
Long term memory lead to transcendence, detachment from
- Information-processing researchers divide preoccupation with the self”
long-term memory into three major systems:
episodic memory, semantic memory, and CHAPTER 18: Psychosocial development in late
procedural memory adulthood
- Episodic memory: Long-term memory of
specific experiences or events, linked to time Erikson’s ego integrity versus despair:
and place.

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- According to Erikson, the eighth and final stage Coping and mental health
of psychosocial development, in which people in - Coping is adaptive thinking or behavior aimed
late adulthood either achieve a sense of integrity at reducing or relieving stress that arises from
of the self by accepting the lives they have lived, harmful, threatening, or challenging conditions.
and thus accept death, or yield to despair that It is an important aspect of mental health
their lives cannot be relived. - Adaptive thinking or behavior aimed at reducing
- For Erikson, the crowning achievement of late or relieving stress that arises from harmful,
adulthood is a sense of ego integrity, or integrity threatening, or challenging conditions
of the self. - Cognitive-appraisal model: Model of coping,
- In the eighth and final stage of the life span, ego proposed by Lazarus and Folkman, that holds
integrity versus despair, older adults need to that, on the basis of continuous appraisal of their
evaluate and accept their lives so as to accept relationship with the environment, people
death. choose appropriate coping strategies to deal
- Building on the outcomes of the seven previous with situations that tax their normal resources
stages, they struggle to achieve a sense of - In the cognitive-appraisal model, people
coherence and wholeness, rather than give way respond to stressful or challenging situations on
to despair over their inability to relive the past the basis of two types of analyses.
differently. - In primary appraisal, people analyze a
- The virtue that may develop during this stage is situation and decide, at some level, whether or
wisdom, an “informed and detached concern not the situation is a threat to their well-being.
with life itself in the face of death itself” - In secondary appraisal, people evaluate what
- Although integrity must outweigh despair if this can be done to prevent harm and choose a
stage is to be resolved successfully, Erikson coping strategy to handle the situation
maintained that some despair is inevitable. - Problem-focused coping: In the
- According to Erikson, ego integrity in late cognitive-appraisal model, coping strategy
adulthood requires continuing stimulation and directed toward eliminating, managing, or
challenge, which can come from creative work. improving a stressful situation.
- This type of coping is more common when a
The five-factor model: Personality traits in old age person sees a realistic chance to change the
- Costa and McCrae reported long-term stability in situation.
their data, the stability was in terms of average - Emotion-focused coping, by contrast, involves
levels of various traits within a population, and attempting to manage the emotional response to
people generally maintained their rank order. a stressful situation to relieve its physical or
- In other words, particularly outgoing people psychological impact.
were likely to remain more outgoing than their - People are more likely to use this coping
peers, even if everyone became slightly more so strategy when they conclude that little or nothing
over time. can be done about the situation itself.
- Moreover, when the personality traits were - There are two types of emotion-focused coping:
examined independently, agreeableness, proactive (confronting or expressing one’s
conscientiousness, and neuroticism were emotions or seeking social support) and
stronger predictors than were extraversion and passive (avoidance, denial, suppression of
openness to experience emotions, or acceptance of the situation as it is)
- Generally, emotion-focused coping is less
Well-being in late adulthood adaptive than problem-focused coping, but this
- The U-shaped pattern of well-being appears to is only true when something can realistically be
be most true for elderly adults in wealthy areas done about the problem
of the world where English is spoken. It does not - Coping styles are related to physical well-being.
appear to be a universal feature of human In general, happier people are healthier.
psychology Research suggests that adaptive coping is
- Once people reach older adulthood, the related to health via stress hormone pathways.
prevalence of psychiatric disorders tends to - Coping need not be problem-focused for elderly
decrease through the later decades of life, and adults to be effective, however.
gender differences tend to even out
- Another explanation for this generally positive Models of successful or optimal aging
picture comes from socioemotional selectivity - (1) avoidance of disease or disease-related
theory: As people get older, they tend to seek disability, (2) maintenance of high physical and
out activities and people that give them cognitive functioning, and (3) sustained, active
emotional gratification engagement in social and productive activities

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

(activities, paid or unpaid, that create social - Family-related variables such as marriage,
value). quality and dependents,
Disengagement theory - Retirement transition related variables such as
- Theory of aging that holds that successful aging retirement planning
is characterized by mutual withdrawal of the - Post retirement activities such as bridge
older person and society employment and voluntary work
- a normal part of aging involves a gradual Aging in place
reduction in social involvement and greater - Remaining in one’s own home, with or without
preoccupation with the self assistance, in later life.
- Disengagement theory was one of the first
theories in gerontology. Its proponents regarded Theories of social contact and social support
disengagement as a normative, or typical, part - According to social convoy theory, aging
of aging. adults maintain their level of social support by
Activity theory identifying members of their social network who
- Theory of aging that holds that to age can help them and avoiding those who are not
successfully a person must remain as active as supportive.
possible. - As former coworkers and casual friends drop
- Takes the opposing viewpoint. In this theory, we away, most older adults retain a stable inner
are what we do (Moody, 2009). Rather than circle of social convoys: close friends and family
retreating from life, adults who age successfully members on whom they can rely and who
tend to remain engaged with social roles and strongly affect their well-being
connections - A somewhat different explanation of changes in
- As originally framed, activity theory is now social contact comes from socioemotional
regarded as overly simplistic. selectivity theory.
Continuity theory - As remaining time becomes short, older adults
- What you prefer prior to the later stages of life choose to spend time with people and in
may influence what you prefer when you reach activities that meet immediate emotional needs
them. In other words, if you are happy being
active now, you are likely to be happy being CHAPTER 19: Dealing with death and bereavement
active later. - Death is a biological fact, but it also has social,
- This is the primary premise of continuity theory. cultural, historical, religious, legal, psychological,
In this approach, people’s need to maintain a developmental, medical, and ethical aspects,
connection between past and present is and often these are closely intertwined.
emphasized, and activity is viewed as important, - Cultural and religious attitudes toward death
not for its own sake but because it represents and dying affect how people regard their own.
continuation of a previous lifestyle - Death may mean one thing to an elderly
- Theory of aging, described by Atchley, that Japanese person, imbued with Buddhist
holds that in order to age successfully people teachings of accepting the inevitable, and
must maintain a balance of continuity and another to a third-generation Japanese
change in both the internal and external American youth who has grown up with a belief
structures of their lives in directing one’s own destiny.
Selective optimization with compensation (SOC). - Although there are wide variations in customs
- SOC involves developing abilities that allow for surrounding death, there are nonetheless some
maximum gain, as well as developing abilities commonalities in the experience across cultures
that compensate for decline and could lead to - Great historical changes regarding death and
loss. According to SOC, older adults conserve dying have taken place since the late nineteenth
their resources by: century, especially in developed countries
- Selecting fewer and more meaningful activities Thanatology
or goals. • - Study of death and dying, and is arousing
- Optimizing, or making the most of, the interest, and educational programs have been
resources they have to achieve their goals. • established to help people deal with death
- Compensating for losses by using resources in Hospice care
alternative ways to achieve their goals. - Personal, patient- and family-centered care for a
Life after retirement person with a terminal illness
- Individual attributes such as health and financial Palliative care
status - Care aimed at relieving pain and suffering and
- Pre-retirement job-related variables such as job allowing the terminally ill to die in peace,
stress comfort, and dignity.
Terminal drop, or terminal decline

twitter: @rochachtest Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

- refers specifically to a widely observed decline takes the following path—though, as with
in cognitive abilities shortly before death, even Kübler-Ross’s stages, it may vary
when factors such as demographics and health 1. Shock and disbelief
are controlled for - Immediately following a death, survivors
Near-death experiences (NDE), often feel lost and confused. As
- often involving a sense of being out of the body awareness of the loss sinks in, the initial
or sucked into a tunnel and visions of bright numbness gives way to overwhelming
lights or mystical encounters. feelings of sadness and frequent crying.
- When a brain is deprived of oxygen, certain - This first stage may last several weeks,
images arise due to alterations in the visual especially after a sudden or unexpected
cortex and can result in the perception of a death.
tunnel, like the images reported by people who 2. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead
have had near-death experiences. person.
- In the second stage, which may last 6
Elisabeth Kubrel-Ross five stages in coming to months to 2 years or so, the survivor
terms with death tries to come to terms with the death but
- The psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, in cannot yet accept it.
her pioneering work with dying people, found - These experiences diminish with time,
that most of them welcomed an opportunity to though they may recur—perhaps for
speak openly about their condition and were years.
aware of being close to death, even when they 3. Resolution.
had not been told - The final stage has arrived when the
- (1) denial (“This can’t be happening to me!”); bereaved person renews interest in
- (2) anger (“Why me?”); everyday activities.
- (3) bargaining for extra time (“If I can only live - Memories of the dead person bring fond
to see my daughter married, I won’t ask for feelings mingled with sadness rather
anything more”) than sharp pain and longing
- (4) depression; and ultimately - In the recovery pattern, the mourner
- 5) acceptance. goes from high to low distress.
- She also proposed a similar progression in the - In the delayed grief pattern, there may
feelings of people facing imminent bereavement be moderate or elevated initial grief, and
- Kübler-Ross’s findings, valuable as they are in symptoms gradually worsen over time.
helping us understand the feelings of those who - In the chronic grief pattern, the
are facing the end of life, should not be mourner remains distressed for a long
considered the sole model or criterion for a time
“good death.” - Chronic grief may be especially painful
and acceptance most difficult when a
Stages of grieving loss is ambiguous, as when a loved one
- First, there is grief, the emotional response that is missing and presumed dead.
generally follows closely on the heels of death. - In the final pattern, known as
- Grief: Emotional response experienced in the resilience, the mourner shows a low
early phases of bereavement and gradually diminishing level of grief
- This is followed by bereavement. Bereavement in response to the death of a loved one
is a response to the loss of someone to whom a - Adjusting to loss is more difficult if a
person feels close. But bereavement is not just child had a troubled relationship with the
an event, and it is not just grief—it is also a person who died; if a surviving parent
process of adjustment depends too much on the child; if the
- Bereavement: Loss, due to death, of someone death was unexpected, especially if it
to whom one feels close and the process of was a murder or suicide.
adjustment to the loss
The classic grief work model Terror management theory
- A classic pattern of grief is three stages in which - Regardless of age, the awareness of death is
the bereaved person accepts the painful reality distressing and has the potential to result in
of the loss, gradually lets go of the bond with the declines in well-being and increases in anxiety .
dead person, and readjusts to life by developing - One approach—terror management theory
new interests and relationships. (TMT)—proposes that humans’ unique
- This process of grief work, the working out of understanding of death, in concert with
psychological issues connected with grief, often self-preservation needs and capacity for fear,
results in common emotional and psychological
twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

responses when mortality, or thoughts of death, - Legal instrument that appoints an individual to
are made salient. make decisions in the event of another person’s
- One common response to thoughts of death is incapacitation.
to become more committed to a cultural - A number of states have adopted a simple form
worldview known as a medical durable power of attorney
- Another implication of TMT is that high expressly for decisions about health care.
self-esteem should buffer people against anxiety Assisted suicide
and fear over death. - Suicide in which a physician or someone else
- Feeling significant and valuable to others can helps a person take his or her own life
help people believe they are more than their - In which a physician or someone else helps a
physical body person bring about a self-inflicted death by, for
- Statistics probably understate the number of example, prescribing or obtaining drugs or
suicides; many go unreported and some (such enabling a patient to inhale a deadly
as traffic “accidents” and “accidental” medicinal gas—commonly refers to situations in which
overdoses) are not recognized as such. people with incurable, terminal illnesses request
- Also, the figures on suicides often do not include help in ending their lives.
suicide attempts; an estimated 20 to 60 percent - Assisted suicide is still illegal in most places but
of people in the United States who commit in recent years has come to the forefront of
suicide have tried before, and about 10 percent public debate.
of people who attempt suicide will kill - The ethical arguments for assisted suicide are
themselves within 10 years based on the principles of autonomy and
self-determination: that mentally competent
Euthanasia persons should have the right to control the
- Euthanasia means “good death” and is quality of their own lives and the timing and
intended to end suffering or to allow a terminally nature of their death.
ill person to die with dignity. - Proponents of assisted suicide place a high
- People differ in their beliefs about this process, value on preserving the dignity and personhood
and some draw distinctions between the types of the dying human being.
of euthanasia used. - Medical arguments hold that a doctor is
1. Passive euthanasia obligated to take all measures necessary to
- Withholding or discontinuation of relieve suffering.
lifeprolonging treatment of a terminally ill - Additionally, in assisted suicide, the patient, not
person in order to end suffering or allow the doctor, is the one who takes the actual step
death with dignity to end life
- Many people would characterize turning - A legal argument is that legalizing assisted
off life support systems as passive suicide would permit the regulation of practices
euthanasia, although such cases are that now occur anyway out of compassion for
complicated by the fact that brain dead suffering patients.
people are considered legally dead - It is argued that adequate safeguards against
even if their heart continues to beat. abuse can be put in place through a
- Passive euthanasia is generally legal. combination of legislation and professional
2. Active euthanasia (sometimes called mercy regulation
killing) involves action taken directly or - They favor legalizing all forms of
deliberately to shorten a life, and it is generally - Ethical arguments against assisted suicide
illegal. center on two principles: (1) the belief that
- An important question regarding either form of taking a life, even with consent, is wrong;
euthanasia is whether it is done at the direct and (2) concern for protection of the
request, or to carry out the express wishes, of disadvantaged.
the person whose death results - Opponents of aid-in-dying point out that
Advance directive autonomy is often limited by poverty or disability
- A mentally competent person’s wishes can be or membership in a stigmatized social group,
spelled out in advance in a document called an and they fear that persons in these categories
advance directive, which contains instructions may be subtly pressured into choosing suicide
for when and how to discontinue futile medical with cost containment as an underlying factor
care. with safeguards against involuntary euthanasia.
- Document specifying the type of care wanted by - Medical arguments against assisted suicide
the maker in the event of an incapacitating or include the possibility of misdiagnosis, the
terminal illness potential future availability of new treatments,
Durable power of attorney the likelihood of incorrect prognosis, and the

twitter: @rochachtest
Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|44013624

belief that helping someone die is incompatible

with a physician’s role as healer and that
adequate safeguards are not possible.
- Legal arguments against assisted suicide
include concerns about enforceability of
safeguards and about lawsuits when family
members disagree about the propriety of
terminating a life
Life review
- is a process of reminiscence that enables a
person to see the significance of his or her life.
Life review can occur at any time
- it may have special meaning in old age, when it
can foster ego integrity—according to Erikson,
the final critical task of the life span.
- As the end of their journey approaches, people
may look back over their accomplishments and
failures and ask themselves what their lives
have meant.

Downloaded by Real, Marvin L. ([email protected])