HAVING A LAUGH
The findings of psychological scientists reveal the importance of humor
Humans start developing a sense of humour as early as six weeks old, when babies begin to laugh and smile in
response to stimuli. Laughter is universal across all human cultures and even exists in some form in rats, chimps,
and bonobos. Like other human emotions and expressions, laughter and humour provide psychological scientists
with rich resources for studying human psychology, ranging from the development of language to the neuroscience
of social perception.
Theories focusing on the evolution of laughter point to it as an important adaptation for social communication.
Take, for example, the recorded laughter in TV comedy shows. Back in 1950, US sound engineer Charley
Douglass hated dealing with the unpredictable laughter of live audiences, so started recording his own ‘laugh
tracks’. These were intended to help people at home feel like they were in a social situation, such as a crowded
theatre. Douglass even recorded various types of laughter, as well as mixtures of laugher from men, women, and
children. In doing so, he picked up on a quality of laughter that is now interesting researchers: a simple ‘haha’
communicates a remarkable amount of socially relevant information.
In one study conducted in 2016, samples of laughter from pairs of English-speaking students were recorded at the
University of California, Santa Cruz. A team made up of more than 30 psychological scientists, anthropologists,
and biologists then played these recording to listeners from 24 diverse societies, from indigenous tribes in New
Guinea to city-dwellers in India and Europe. Participants were asked whether they thought the people laughing
were friends or strangers. On average, the results were remarkably consistent: worldwide, people’s guesses were
correct approximately 60% of the time.
Researchers have also found that different types of laughter serve as codes to complex human social hierarchies. A
team led by Christopher Oveis from the University of California, San Diego, found that high-status individuals had
different laughs from low-status individuals, and that strangers’ judgements of an individual’s social status were
influenced by the dominant or submissive quality of their laughter. In their study, 48 male college students were
randomly assigned to groups of four, with each group composed of two low-status members, who had just joined
their college fraternity group, and two high-status members, older students who had been active in the fraternity for
at least two years. Laughter was recorded as each student took a turn at being teased by the others, involving the
use of mildly insulting nicknames. Analysis revealed that, as expected, high-status individuals produced more
dominant laughs and fewer submissive laughs relative to the low-status individuals. Meanwhile, low-status
individuals were more likely to change their laughter based on their position of power; that is, the newcomers
produced more dominant laughs when they were in the ‘powerful’ role of teasers. Dominant laughter was higher in
pitch, louder, and more variable in tone than submissive laughter.
A random group of volunteers then listened to an equal number of dominant and submissive laughs from both the
high- and low-status individuals, and were asked to estimate the social status of the laughter. In line with
predictions, laughers producing dominant laughs were perceived to be significantly higher in status than laughers
producing submissive laughs. ‘This was particularly true for low-status individuals, who were rated as significantly
higher in status when displaying a dominant versus submissive laugh,’ Oveis and colleagues note. ‘Thus, by
strategically displaying more dominant laughter when the context allows, low-status individuals may achieve
higher status in the eyes of others.’ However, high-status individuals were rated as high-status whether they
produced their natural dominant laugh or tried to do a submissive one. Another study, conducted by David Cheng
and Lu Wang of Australian National University, was based on the hypothesis that humour might provide a respite
from tedious situations in the workplace. This ‘mental break’ might facilitate the replenishment of mental
resources. To test this theory, the researchers recruited 74 business students, ostensibly for an experiment on
perception. First, the students performed a tedious task in which they had to cross out every instance of the letter
‘e’ over two pages of text. The students then were randomly assigned to watch a video clip eliciting either humour,
contentment, or neutral feelings. Some watched a clip of the BBC comedy Mr. Bean, others a relaxing scene with
dolphins swimming in the ocean, and others a factual video about the management profession.
27 When referring to laughter in the first paragraphs, the writer emphasises
A its impact on language.
B its function in human culture.
C its value to scientific research.
D its universality in animal societies.
28 What does the writer suggest about Charley Douglass?
A He understood the importance of enjoying humour in a group setting.
B He believed that TV viewers at home needed to be told when to laugh.
C He wanted his shows to appeal to audiences across the social spectrum.
D He preferred shows where audiences were present in the recording studio.
29 What makes the Santa Cruz study particularly significant?
A the various different types of laughter that were studied
B the similar results produced by a wide range of cultures
C the number of different academic disciplines involved
D the many kinds of people whose laughter was recorded
30 Which of the following happened in the San Diego study?
A Some participants became very upset.
B Participants exchanged roles.
C Participants who had not met before became friends.
D Some participants were unable to laugh.
31 In the fifth paragraph, what did the results of the San Diego study suggest?
A It is clear whether a dominant laugh is produced by a high- or low-status person.
B Low-status individuals in a position of power will still produce submissive laughs.
C The submissive laughs of low- and high-status individuals are surprisingly similar.
D High-status individuals can always be identified by their way of laughing.
Green roofs
A. Rooftops covered with grass, vegetable gardens and lush foliage are now a common sight in many cities around
the world. More and more private companies and city authorities are investing in green roofs, drawn to their wide-
ranging benefits. Among the benefits are saving on energy costs, mitigating the risk of floods, making habitats for
urban wildlife, tackling air pollution and even growing food. These increasingly radical urban designs can help
cities adapt to the monumental problems they face, such as access to resources and a lack of green space due to
development. But the involvement of city authorities, businesses and other institutions is crucial to ensuring their
success — as is research investigating different options to suit the variety of rooftop spaces found in cities. The UK
is relatively new to developing green roofs, and local governments and institutions are playing a major role in
spreading the practice. London is home to much of the UK’s green roof market, mainly due to forward-thinking
policies such as the London Plan, which has paved the way to more than doubling the area of green roofs in the
capital.
B. Ongoing research is showcasing how green roofs in cities can integrate with 'living walls': environmentally
friendly walls which are partially or completely covered with greenery, including a growing medium, such as soil
or water. Research also indicates that green roofs can be integrated with drainage systems on the ground, such as
street trees, so that the water is managed better and the built environment is made more sustainable. There is also
evidence to demonstrate the social value of green roofs. Doctors are increasingly prescribing time spent gardening
outdoors for patients dealing with anxiety and depression. And research has found that access to even the most
basic green spaces can provide a better quality of life for dementia sufferers and help people avoid obesity.
C. In North America, green roofs have become mainstream, with a wide array of expansive, accessible and food-
producing roofs installed in buildings. Again, city leaders and authorities have helped push the movement forward
— only recently, San Francisco, USA, created a policy requiring new buildings to have green roofs. Toronto,
Canada, has policies dating from the 1990s, encouraging the development of urban farms on rooftops. These
countries also benefit from having newer buildings than in many parts of the world, which makes it easier to install
green roofs. Being able to keep enough water at roof height and distribute it right across the rooftop is crucial to
maintaining the plants on any green roof — especially on ‘edible roofs’ where fruit and vegetables are farmed. And
it’s much easier to do this in newer buildings, which can typically hold greater weight, than to retro-fit old ones.
Having a stronger roof also makes it easier to grow a greater variety of plants, since the soil can be deeper.
D. For green roofs to become the norm for new developments, there needs to be support from public authorities
and private investors. Those responsible for maintaining buildings may have to acquire new skills, such as
landscaping, and in some cases, volunteers may be needed to help out. Other considerations include installing
drainage paths, meeting health and safety requirements and perhaps allowing access for the public, as well as
planning restrictions and disruption from regular activities in and around the buildings during installation. To
convince investors and developers that installing green roofs is worthwhile, economic arguments are still the most
important. The term 'natural capital' has been developed to explain the economic value of nature; for example,
measuring the money saved by installing natural solutions to protect against flood damage, adapt to climate change
or help people lead healthier and happier lives.
E. As the expertise about green roofs grows, official standards have been developed to ensure that they are
designed, constructed and maintained properly, and function well. Improvements in the science and technology
underpinning green roof development have also led to new variations in the concept. For example, ‘blue roofs’
enable buildings to hold water over longer periods of time, rather than draining it away quickly — crucial in times
of heavier rainfall. There are also combinations of green roofs with solar panels, and ‘brown roofs’ which are
wilder in nature and maximise biodiversity. If the trend continues, it could create new jobs and a more vibrant and
sustainable local food economy — alongside many other benefits. There are still barriers to overcome, but the
evidence so far indicates that green roofs have the potential to transform cities and help them function sustainably
long into the future. The success stories need to be studied and replicated elsewhere, to make green, blue, brown
and food-producing roofs the norm in cities around the world.
Choose TWO letters, A-E.
Which TWO advantages of using newer buildings for green roofs are mentioned in Paragraph C of the passage?
A. a longer growing season for edible produce
B. more economical use of water
C. greater water-storage capacity
D. ability to cultivate more plant types
E. a large surface area for growing plants
Choose TWO letters, A-E.
Which TWO aims of new variations on the concept of green roofs are mentioned in Paragraph E of the passage?
A. to provide habitats for a wide range of species
B. to grow plants successfully even in the wettest climates
C. to regulate the temperature of the immediate environment
D. to generate power from a sustainable source
E. to collect water to supply other buildings
Texting the Television
A Once upon a time, if a television show with any self-respect wanted to target a young audience, it needed to have
an e-mail address. However, in Europe’s TV shows, such addresses are gradually substituted by telephone numbers
so that audiences can text the show from their mobile phones. Therefore, it comes as no shock that according to
Gartner’s research, texting has recently surpassed Internet usage across Europe. Besides, among the many uses of
text messaging, one of the fastest-growing uses is to interact with television. The statistics provided by Gartner can
display that 20% of French teenagers, 11% in Britain and 9% in Germany have responded to TV programmes by
sending a text message.
B This phenomenon can be largely attributed to the rapid growth of reality TV shows such as ‘Big Brother’, where
viewers get to decide the result through voting. The majority of reality shows are now open to text-message voting,
and in some shows like the latest series of Norway’s ‘Big Brother’, most votes are collected in this manner. But
TV-texting isn’t just about voting. News shows encourage viewers to, comment by texting messages; game shows
enable the audience to be part of the competition; music shows answer requests by taking text messages; and
broadcasters set up on-screen chatrooms. TV audiences tend to sit on the sofa with their mobile phones right by
their sides, and ‘it’s a supernatural way to interact.’ says Adam Daum of Gartner.
C Mobile service providers charge appreciable rates for messages to certain numbers, which is why TV-texting can
bring in a lot of cash. Take the latest British series of ‘Big Brother’ as an example. It brought about 5.4m text-
message votes and £1.35m ($2,1m) of profit. In Germany, MTV’s ‘Videoclash’ encourages the audience to vote for
one of two rival videos, and induces up to 40,000 texts per hour, and each one of those texts costs €0.30 ($0.29),
according to a consultancy based in Amsterdam. The Belgian quiz show ‘1 Against 100’ had an eight-round texting
match on the side, which brought in 110,000 participants in one month, and each of them paid €0.50 for each
question. In Spain, a cryptic-crossword clue invites the audience to send their answers through text at the expense
of €1, so that they can be enrolled in the poll to win a €300 prize. Normally, 6,000 viewers would participate within
one day.
At the moment, TV-related text messaging takes up a considerable proportion of mobile service providers’ data
revenues. In July, Mm02 (a British operator) reported an unexpectedly satisfactory result, which could be attributed
to the massive text waves created by ‘Big Brother’. Providers usually own 40%-50% of the profits from each text,
and the rest is divided among the broadcaster, the programme producer and the company which supplies the
message-processing technology. So far, revenues generated from text messages have been an indispensable part of
the business model for various shows. Obviously, there has been grumbling that the providers take too much of the
share. Endemol, the Netherlands-based production firm that is responsible for many reality TV, shows including
‘Big Brother’, has begun constructing its own database for mobile-phone users. It plans to set up a direct billing
system with the users and bypass the providers.
D How come the joining forces of television and text message turn out to be this successful? One crucial aspect is
the emergence of one-of-a-kind four-, five- or six-digit numbers known as ‘short codes’. Every provider has
control over its own short codes, but not until recently have they come to realise that it would make much more
sense to work together to offer short codes compatible with all networks. The emergence of this universal short
codes was a game-changer, because short codes are much easier to remember on the screen, according to Lars
Becker of Flytxt, a mobile-marketing company.
E Operators’ co-operation on enlarging the market is by a larger trend, observes Katrina Bond of Analysys, a
consultancy. When challenged by the dilemma between holding on tight to their margins and permitting the
emergence of a new medium, no provider has ever chosen the latter WAP, a technology for mobile-phone users to
read cut-down web pages on their screens, failed because of service providers’ reluctance towards revenue sharing
with content providers. Now that they’ve learnt their lesson, they are altering the way of operating. Orange, a
French operator, has come such a long way as to launch a rate card for sharing revenue of text messages, a new
level of transparency that used to be unimaginable.
F At a recent conference, Han Weegink of CMG, a company that offers the television market text-message
infrastructure, pointed out that the television industry is changing in a subtle yet fundamental way. Instead of the
traditional one-way presentation, more and more TV shows are now getting viewers’ reactions involved.
Certainly, engaging the audiences more has always been the promise of interactive TV. An interactive TV was
originally designed to work with exquisite set-top devices, which could be directly plugged into the TV. However,
as Mr Daum points out, that method was flawed in many ways. Developing and testing software for multiple and
incompatible types of set-top box could be costly, not to mention that the 40% (or lower) market penetration is
below that of mobile phones (around 85%). What’s more, it’s quicker to develop and set up apps for mobile
phones. ‘You can approach the market quicker, and you don’t have to go through as many greedy middlemen,’ Mr
Daum says. Providers of set-top box technology are now adding texting function to the design of their products.
G The triumph of TV-related texting reminds everyone in the business of how easily a fancy technology can all of
a sudden be replaced by a less complicated, lower-tech method. That being said, the old-fashioned approach to
interactive TV is not necessarily over; at least it proves that strong demands for interactive services still exist. It
appears that the viewers would sincerely like to do more than simply staring at the TV screen. After all, couch
potatoes would love some thumb exercises.
Questions 28-32: Choose the correct heading for sections B-E and G from the list of headings below.
List of Headings
i. An application of short codes on the TV screen
ii. An overview of a fast-growing business
iii. The trend that profitable games are gaining more concerns
iv. Why Netherlands takes the leading role
v. A new perspective towards sharing the business opportunities
vi. Factors relevant to the rapid increase in interactive TV
vii. The revenue gains and bonus share
viii. The possibility of the complex technology replaced by the simpler ones
ix. The mind change of set-top box providers
Section A ii
28. Section B vi 29. Section C vii
30. Section D i 31. Section E v
Section F ix 32. Section G viii
Questions 33-35: Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
33. In Europe, a research hints that young audiences spend more money on
A. thumbing text messages.
B. writing e-mails.
C. watching TV programmes.
D. talking through mobile phones.
34. What would happen when reality TV shows invite the audience to vote?
A. Viewers would get attractive bonus.
B. They would be part of the competition.
C. Their questions would be replied.
D. Their participation could change the result.
35. Interactive TV will change from concentrating on set-top devices to
A. increasing their share in the market.
B. setting up a modified set-top box.
C. building an embedded message platform.
D. marching into the European market.
Questions 36-40: Match each description with the correct company, A-F.
List of Companies
A. Flytxt B. Analysys C. Endemol
D. CMG E. Mm02 F. Gartner
36. offered mobile phone message technology D
37. earned considerable amount of money through a famous programme E
38. expressed the view that short codes are convenient to remember when turning up A
39. built their own mobile phone operating applications C
40. indicated that it is easy for people to send message in an interactive TV F
