UNIT 1 – LESSON 1

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM PARTS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

• PROTECTION • Lymphatic Capillaries
▪ Close ended
o lymphatic system functions
▪ Walls overlap to form flap-like mini
▪ transports escaped fluids back to the valves – SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
blood/fluid balance – to prevent edema or EPITHELIUM
swelling of the tissues. ▪ Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries- More
permeable, because no basement
▪ Plays essential roles in body defense, membrane
resistance to disease and promotes immunity ▪ Capillaries are anchored to connective
tissue by filaments
▪ Lipid Absorption – through LACTEALS ▪ Higher pressure on the inside closes
• Chyle - lymph fluid passing through lacteals and milky white mini valves Fluid is forced along the
vessel
in appearance (due to increase fat content)
o present in most tissues of the body
o Lymph—excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic o EXCEPT: the central nervous system, bone
vessels marrow, the epidermis and cartilage
o A superficial group of lymphatic capillaries
o Properties of lymphatic vessels collects excess interstitial fluids from the dermis
and subcutaneous tissue
▪ One way system toward the heart o a deep group collects excess fluid from muscle,
▪ No pump the viscera, and other deep structures.
• Lymphatic collecting vessels
▪ Lymph moves toward the heart o Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
o Lymphatic capillaries join to form larger
✓ Milking action of skeletal muscle
lymphatic vessels, which resemble small veins
✓ Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in Small lymphatic vessels have a beaded
vessel walls appearance because they have one-way valves
that are similar to the valves of veins
o Carry lymph to and away from lymph nodes
o Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart
o When a lymphatic vessel is compressed, the
valves prevent backward movement of lymph.
o Consequently, compression of the lymphatic
vessels causes lymph to move forward through
them.
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o Three factors cause compression of the lymphatic

vessels:
▪ 1. contraction of surrounding
skeletal muscle during activity
▪ 2. periodic contraction of smooth
muscle in the lymphatic vessel wall
▪ 3. pressure changes in the thorax
during breathing
• The lymphatic vessels converge and eventually empty into
the blood at two locations in the body:
o Right thoracic duct – empty to right subclavian
vein
▪ Lymphatic vessels from the right upper
limb and the right half of the head, neck,
and chest
o Thoracic Duct - empty to left subclavian vein
▪ From the rest of the body

LYMPHATIC ORGANS
• Lymphatic tissue is characterized by housing many
lymphocytes and other defense cells, such as
macrophages.
• The lymphocytes originate from red bone marrow and are
carried by the blood to lymphatic organs.
• These lymphocytes divide and increase in number when the
body is exposed to pathogens.
• Lymphatic tissue has very fine reticular fibers that form an
interlaced network that holds the lymphocytes and other
cells in place.

LYMPH NODES
LYMPH • are rounded structures, varying from the size of a small
seed to that of a shelled almond.
• Harmful materials that enter lymph vessels • Lymph nodes are distributed along the various lymphatic
o Bacteria vessels

o Viruses • Most lymph passes through at least one lymph node before
entering the blood.
o Cancer cells
• classified as superficial or deep.
o Cell debris
• There are three superficial aggregations of lymph nodes on
each side of the body:
o inguinal nodes in the groin,
o the axillary nodes in the axilla (armpit),
o the cervical nodes in the neck.
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PARTS OF LYMPH NODES

• Capsule - dense connective tissue surrounds each

lymph node
• Trabeculae - extensions of the capsule subdivide a
lymph node
• Lymphatic nodules - the lymphatic tissue consists of
lymphocytes and other cells that can form dense
aggregations of tissue
• Lymphatic sinuses - are spaces between the
lymphatic tissue that contain macrophages on a
network of fibers.
• Germinal centers – rapidly dividing lymphocytes
• Afferent lymph vessels – entry of lymph into lymph
node
• Efferent lymph vessels – exit of lymph from lymph
node
• Most are kidney-shaped and less than 1 inch long
• Cortex
LYMPH NODE FUNCTIONS
o Outer part
• Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
o Contains follicles—collections of lymphocytes
• Activate the immune system.
• Medulla
• Remove pathogens from the lymph through the action of
o Inner part macrophages.
o Contains phagocytic macrophages • Defense cells within lymph nodes
o Macrophages—engulf and destroy foreign
substances, innate immunity
o Lymphocytes—provide specific immune response to
antigens, adaptive immunity
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SPLEEN

• located in the left superior corner of the abdominal cavity

• Capsule – outer covering of dense connective and a small
number of smooth muscles.
• Trabeculae – from the capsule divide the spleen into
small, interconnected compartments containing two
specialized types of lymphatic tissue.
• Two types of lymphatic tissues in spleen
o White pulp - lymphatic tissue surrounding the
arteries within the spleen.
o Red pulp - associated with the veins and consists
of a fibrous network, filled with macrophages and
red blood cells, and enlarged capillaries that
connect to the veins. THYMUS
• BEFORE BLOOD LEAVES OUT THE SPLEEN IT • a bilobed gland roughly triangular in shape.
PASSES THROUGH THE RED PULP!
• It is located in the superior mediastinum
• Capsule - thin connective tissue that surrounds each
thymus lobe capsule.
• Trabeculae - extends from the capsule divide each lobe into
lobules
• Cortex – located near the capsule and trabeculae, dark
staining with numerous lymphocytes
• Medulla - inner lighter staining with less lymphocytes

SPLEEN FUNCTIONS

• Filters blood
• Destroys worn out blood cells - cells within the spleen
detect and respond to foreign substances in the blood THYMUS FUNCTIONS
• Lymphocytes in the white pulp can be stimulated in the
• The thymus is the site for the maturation of a class of
same manner as in lymph nodes - protection
lymphocytes called T.
• Forms blood cells in the fetus
• The mature T cells migrate to the medulla, enter the blood,
• Acts as a blood reservoir – especially in hypovolemia and travel to other lymphatic tissues, where they help
protect against pathogens.
• Active during early stages of life
• Produce thymosin
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TONSILS PEYER’S PATCHES

• traps bacteria • Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)

• the paired palatine tonsils • Found in the wall of the small intestine – ILEUM
• the pharyngeal tonsils • Resemble tonsils in structure
• the lingual tonsil. • Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine
• Small masses of lymphoid Tissue in mouth

SUMMARY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

• Lymphatic capillaries remove fluid from tissues.
• The fluid becomes lymph
• Lymph flows through lymphatic vessels, which have valves
that prevent the
• backflow of lymph.
• Lymph nodes filter lymph and are sites where lymphocytes
respond to infections.
• Lacteals in the small intestine absorb lipids, which enter the
thoracic duct.
• Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
• Chyle, which is lymph containing lipids, enters the blood.
• The palatine tonsils are located on each side of the
posterior opening of the oral cavity; these are the ones • The spleen filters blood and is a site where lymphocytes
usually referred to as “the tonsils.” respond to infections.
• The pharyngeal tonsil is located near the internal DEVELOPMENT OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
opening of the nasal cavity.
• Lymphocytes (pre-B and pre-T cells) originate from stem
• When the pharyngeal tonsil is enlarged, it is commonly cells in the red bone marrow.
called the adenoid or adenoids. An enlarged pharyngeal
tonsil can interfere with normal breathing. • The pre-B cells become mature B cells in the red bone
marrow and are released into the blood.
• The lingual tonsil is on the posterior surface of the
tongue • The pre-T cells enter the blood and migrate to the thymus.
• The thymus is where pre-T cells derived from red bone
marrow increase in number and become mature T cells that
are released into the blood.
• B cells and T cells from the blood enter and populate all
lymphatic tissues. These lymphocytes can remain in tissues
or pass through them and return to the blood.
• B cells and T cells can also respond to infections by dividing
and increasing in number. Some of the newly formed cells
enter the blood and circulate to other tissues
UNIT 1 – LESSON 1
CLINICAL

• Lymphedema
o Swelling of tissues due to accumulation of lymph in
the tissues (instead of the fluid that will be re-directed
back to the blood it will stay in the tissues)
▪ Causes: cancer, removal of lymph nodes after
surgery, elephantiasis/filariasis (filarial worm)

• Lymphadenopathy
o swelling of the lymph nodes or glands
o It can be a response to infection, tuberculosis
(scrofula), or cancer
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• Lymphoma
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
o Cancer of the lymphatic system/lymphocytes
• Innate body defenses are mechanical barriers to pathogens
o Involves the cells (lymphocytes)
such as
o In the lymph nodes and other o Body surface coverings
o Intact skin
o Lymphoid organs
o Mucous membranes
o Specialized human cells
o Chemicals produced by the body

• Skin and mucous membranes

o Physical barrier to foreign materials
o Also provide protective secretions
▪ pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth
▪ Sebum is toxic to bacteria
▪ Vaginal secretions are very acidic
▪ Stomach mucosa
▪ Secretes hydrochloric acid
▪ Has protein-digesting enzymes
▪ Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozymes, an
enzyme that destroy bacteria
▪ Mucus traps microorganisms in digestive and
respiratory pathways

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

• IMMUNITY - the ability to resist damage from pathogens,

such as microorganisms; harmful chemicals, such as toxins
released by microorganisms; and internal threats, such as
cancer cells.
▪ Innate Immunity - the body recognizes and
destroys certain pathogens, but the response to
them is the same each time the body is
exposed.
▪ Adaptive Immunity – the body recognizes and
destroys pathogens, but the response to them
improves each time the pathogen is
encountered. SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
• SPECIFICITY - is the ability of adaptive immunity to
recognize a particular substance. • Phagocytes
o Cells such as neutrophils (increases during
• MEMORY - is the ability of adaptive immunity to bacterial infections) and macrophages (antigen
“remember” previous encounters with a particular presenting)
substance o Engulf foreign material into a vacuole
o Enzymes from lysosomes digest the material
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
• Natural Killer Cells
Innate (nonspecific) defense Adaptive (specific)
o can lyse (disintegrate or dissolve) and kill cancer
mechanisms defense mechanisms
cells.
o can destroy virus-infected cell
1st line of defense 2nd line of defense 3rd line of defense • White Blood Cells
• phagocytic cells o Chemicals released from the pathogen will attract the
• skin
• antimicrobial • lymphocytes WBCS to move towards it – CHEMOTAXIS
• mucous membrane
proteins • antibodies o Basophils – a type of WBC that releases histamine
• secretions of skin &
• the inflammatory • macrophages and leukotrienes
mucous membrane
response o Eosinophils – a type of WBC that releases
 UNIT 1 – LESSON 1
histamine and increases in allergic reactions,
parasitic infections and asthma • Release vasodilators and chemotaxis chemicals, cause
o Mast cells - located at points where pathogens opsonization – tagging for foreign body such as virus or
may enter the body, such as the skin, lungs, bacteria so that the phagocytes will know they will eat them
gastrointestinal tract, and urogenital tract releases
histamine and leukotrienes
o Lymphocytes – type of WBC that increases during
viral infections

INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
INTERFERON
• Triggered when body tissues are injured, can result in loss
of function • Proteins secreted by virus-infected cells
• Four most common indicators of acute inflammation • Bind to healthy cell surfaces to interfere with the ability of
• Redness – rubor, due to vasodilation and increase in blood viruses to multiply
flow
• Heat – due to increase blood flow FEVER

• Swelling – increase vascular permeability • Abnormally high body temperature (greater than 37.5 C or
98.7 F)
• Pain – production of prostaglandins
• Pyrogen – a substance that can produce fever
• Results in a chain of events leading to protection and
healing • Hypothalamus heat regulation can be reset by pyrogens
(secreted by white blood cells)

FUNCTIONS OF THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE • High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc
from the liver and spleen needed by bacteria
• Prevents spread of damaging agents
• Fever also increases the speed of tissue repair
• Disposes of cell debris and pathogens through
phagocytosis
• Sets the stage for repair
• Antimicrobial proteins
• Antimicrobial proteins
• Attack microorganisms
• Hinder reproduction of microorganisms
• Most important

COMPLEMENT PROTEINS

• A group of at least 20 plasma proteins

• Activated when they encounter and attach to cells
(complement fixation)
• Damage foreign cell surfaces
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• Macrophages help lymphocytes by presenting antigens
THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE
and then in doing so stimulate lymphocytes
• Adaptive Immunity
o Immune response is the immune system’s response • MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX – binding
to a threat sites for antigen
o Immunology is the study of immunity • MHC I – all cells with nucleus in body, transplantation
o Antibodies are proteins that protect from pathogens
• MHC II – macrophages, B cells, immunity
• Three aspects of adaptive defense • Immunocompetent—cell becomes capable of responding to
o Antigen specific—recognizes and acts against a specific antigen by binding to it
particular foreign substances
o Systemic—not restricted to the initial infection site • Cells of the adaptive defense system
o Memory—recognizes and mounts a stronger attack o Lymphocytes
on previously encountered pathogens
▪ Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone
• Types of Immunity marrow
o Humoral immunity = antibody-mediated immunity. ▪ B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the
Provided by antibodies present in body fluids bone marrow (remember B for Bone marrow)
o Cellular immunity = cell-mediated immunity.
Targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of ▪ T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the
foreign grafts thymus (remember T for Thymus)
• Cells of the adaptive defense system
o Macrophages
▪ Arise from monocytes
▪ Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
▪ Secrete cytokines (proteins important in the
immune response)
▪ Tend to remain fixed in the lymphoid organs

ANTIGENS (nonself)

• Any substance capable of exciting the immune system and

provoking an immune response
• Examples of common antigens
o Foreign proteins (strongest)
o Nucleic acids
o Large carbohydrates
o Some lipids HUMORAL ANTIBODY
o Pollen grains • Antibodies
o Microorganisms o Soluble proteins secreted by B cells (plasma cells)
• Cells of the adaptive defense system o Carried in blood plasma
o Lymphocytes respond to specific antigens o Capable of binding specifically to an antigen
▪ B lymphocytes (B cells) o Plasma cells – nucleus described as spokes of a
▪ T lymphocytes (T cells) wheel
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o Antibody classes o Cytotoxic (killer) T cells – release cytokines
▪ Antibodies of each class have slightly different ▪ Specialize in killing infected cells
roles
▪ Insert a toxic chemical (perforin) to
▪ Five major immunoglobulin classes (MADGE) directly KILL infected cells
▪ IgM—can fix complement, BIGGEST ▪ Memory T cells – faster!
▪ IgA—found mainly in mucus o Helper T cells
▪ IgD—important in activation of B cell ▪ Recruit other cells to fight the invaders
▪ IgG—can cross the placental barrier and ▪ Interact directly with B cells
fix complement
o T cell clones (continued)
▪ IgE—involved in allergies
o Regulatory T cells
o Antibody function
▪ Release chemicals to suppress the
▪ Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of activity of T and B cells
ways
▪ Stop the immune response to prevent
• Complement fixation uncontrolled activity
• Neutralization o A few members of each clone are memory cells
• Agglutination
• Precipitation
• The primary response results from the first exposure of a
B cell to an antigen (virus, bacteria) resulting in plasma cells
producing antibodies. The primary response normally takes
3–14 days to produce enough antibodies to be effective
against the antigen
• The secondary response/memory response is due to
memory B cells which occurs when the immune system is
exposed to an antigen against which it has already
produced a primary response. When exposed to the
antigen, the memory B cells quickly divide to form
plasma cells, which rapidly produce antibodies

CELLULAR RESPONSE

• Most effective against viruses and intracellular bacteria

• T cell clones
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SUMMARY OF IMMUNITY ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION

• Innate Immunity is the first line of defense (NON-SPECIFIC) • Major types of grafts
– physical, chemical and cells such as macrophages, WBC
that respond o Autografts—tissue transplanted from one site to
another on the same person (skin from a patient with
• The macrophages would then PHAGOCYTOSE the
burns use to cover a part that was burned
pathogen (virus, bacteria, etc)
o Isografts—tissue grafts from an identical person
• The macrophages would then break down the pathogen (identical twin)
and then the antigen will be presented to the helper T-cell o Allografts—tissue taken from an unrelated person
since macrophages have MHC II that can bind antigen and (a person receives a kidney from a donor that
then they will bring this antigen to the helper T-cells (from matches)
cellular immunity) o Xenografts—tissue taken from a different animal
species (animal to human)
• The helper cells, after the macrophage presents the
antigen, then proliferate and increase and multiply so that • Autografts and isografts are ideal donors
they can combat the infection and they produce • Xenografts are never successful
CYTOKINES (enhances phagocytosis and production of • Allografts are more successful with a closer tissue match
antibodies (example sibling or relative)
• The helper T cells then activate the B-cells (from humoral
immunity to produce antibodies) CLINICAL

• The helper T cells will also activate the Cytotoxic T cells, • Allergy
and these cells have the ability to directly lyse and kill cells
that got infected! o Abnormal, vigorous immune responses
o Types of allergies
• The plasma cells then produced antibodies and then the ▪ Immediate hypersensitivity
antibodies would act on the pathogen ▪ Delayed hypersensitivity
• The cytotoxic T cells aside from killing the infected cells will • 4 TYPES:
also produce more cytokine to further increase the immune o Type I – allergy to food, dust, pollen, skin rashes
response! o Type II – hemolytic anemia, transfusion reaction –
wrong blood type
• Both the T cell and the B cells will produce “memory cells” o Type III – autoimmune diseases
so that they will have a memory and they will know the o Type IV – tuberculosis, contact dermatitis
organism next time your body is exposed to it!
• The presence of memory cells will make the immune • Immunodeficiency
response better so that the next time you will be exposed o Production or function of immune cells or
you won’t get sick at all or you will have mild or no symptoms complement is abnormal
at all o May be congenital (thymus or bone marrow) or
acquired (HIV)
• REMEMBER THAT BOTH Humoral and Cellular Adaptive o Includes AIDS – due to HIV virus, results in decrease
Immunity work together so that you will be healthy! They T cells hence these patients have decrease cellular
need also to recognize pathogens, differentiate self or non- immunity!
self and identify cells that are sick especially cancer cells!
• Autoimmune Diseases
o The immune system does not distinguish between
self and non-self
o The body produces antibodies and sensitized T
lymphocytes that attack its own tissues
▪ Multiple sclerosis—white matter of brain and
spinal cord are destroyed because of antibodies
against MYELIN SHEATH
▪ Myasthenia gravis—impairs communication
between nerves and skeletal muscles, your body
produced antibodies against ACETYLCHOLINE
RECEPTORS!
▪ Type I diabetes mellitus—destroys pancreatic
beta cells that produce insulin
 UNIT 1 – LESSON 1
▪ Rheumatoid arthritis—ANTIDODIES AGAINST
YOUR JOINTS destroys joints, pain fingers, wrist,
toes
▪ Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) – your
body develops antibodies against your DNA.
Affects kidney, heart, lung and skin
▪ Glomerulonephritis—impairment of renal
function, antibodies attack the kidney’s glomerulus
• EFFECTS OF AGING
• Aging has little effect on the lymphatic system’s ability to
remove fluid from tissues, absorb lipids from the digestive
tract, or remove defective red blood cells from the blood.
• Decreased helper T-cell proliferation results in decreased
antibody mediated and cell-mediated immune responses.
• The primary and secondary antibody responses decrease
with age.
• The ability to resist intracellular pathogens decreases with
age.

SOURCES:
- Dr. Albert Borbon’s Exclusive Study Guide for BSN 1G
- AnaPhy Book