MALAWI ASSEMBLIES OF GOD UNIVERSITY

GENERAL TEACHING METHODS

MODULE

BUBIRE JERE KITHA

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Course outline for the study:

Unit 1. The teacher and the child

i. Definition of teacher and effective teacher
ii. Duties of a professional teacher
iii. Factors affecting learning
Unit 2. Understanding learners
i. Types of learners
ii. Characteristics of various types of learners
Unit 3. Formal preparatory activities of teaching
i. The aims of teaching
ii. The syllabus
iii. Schemes of work
Unit 4. Instructional Strategies
i. Direct and indirect instructional strategies
ii. Engaging learners in direct and indirect instruction
iv. Promote goals of direct and indirect instruction in a culturally diverse classroom Unit
5. Questions and Questioning techniques
i. Effective questions
ii. Different types of questions
iii. Question-asking sequence
iv. Questions at different levels of cognitive complexity
v. Questions that promote thinking and problem solving
Unit 6. Learning Strategies
i. Identifying varying learning styles
ii. Activities involved in self-directed, cooperative and collaborative
 types of learning
ii. Goals of self-directed, cooperative and collaborative types of learning in a
culturally diverse classroom
Unit 7. Classroom management
i. Effective classroom management plan
ii. Effective techniques for classroom managers
iii. Establishing an effective classroom climate
iv. Classroom order and discipline
Teaching and learning methods/activities:
Lecture, group discussion, research, class presentations, reading assignments, demonstrations
Prescribed text
Borich, Garry, D. 2004. Effective Teaching Methods.5th edition. Upper Saddle River: Pearson
Education Inc
Mtunda, F,G and Safuli S, D.D.1997. An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Teaching.
Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing Company.
Recommended texts
Boekarts. M. 2002. Motivation to Learning: Educational Practice Series No.10. Geneva:
International Bureau of Education at [Link]
materials/publications/[Link]

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Brophy, J. 1999. Teaching: Educational Practice Series No.1. Geneva: International Bureau of
Education at [Link]
materials/publications/educational- [Link]
Elias, M.J. [Link] and Social-Emotional Learning.: Educational Practice Series No.11.
Geneva: International Bureau of Education at
[Link]
UNICEF.1996. what makes a good teacher? Opinions from around the world. Available at
[Link] accessed on 23 February 2013

UNIT 1: THE EFFECTIVE TEACHER

INTRODUCTION

The implementation of the school curriculum necessitates the need of effective teachers. What
makes a teacher effective? How does one become one? These questions have been asked by every
teacher, young or old. An understanding of these questions will help you become an effective
teacher who has the required professional knowledge and skills needed to implement a
curriculum. Therefore, you will learn in this unit who an effective teacher is and how one
becomes an effective teacher although, Borich (2004) has pointed out that despite decades of
experience and research; one of the most difficult tasks in education today is defining an effective
teacher. You will also learn important indicators of effective teaching and patterns of effective
teaching behavior.

SUCCESS CRITERIA

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define an effective teacher

2. Explain how one becomes an effective teacher
3. Describe patterns of effective teaching behavior

KEY TERMS

You will find the following key words useful in this unit:

∙ Good teaching
∙ Effective teaching
∙ Lesson Clarity
∙ Instructional variety
∙ Engagement in the Learning Process
∙ Student Success Rate
∙ Teacher Task Orientation

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AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER

Look at what Borich has said in the introduction about an effective teacher. Hence, take note that
it is not easy to define who an effective teacher is because teaching is a complex and difficult task
that demands extraordinary abilities. For instance, who is your ideal effective teacher? Is it
his/her experience? Personality or performance which makes him/her an effective teacher?

Borich (2004) observes that historically an effective teacher was defined as a good person- a role
model who met the community ideal for a good citizen, good parent, and good employee. You
will notice that during this time, teachers were judged primarily on their goodness as people and
only secondarily on their behavior in the classroom.

Borich (2004) further provides you with a psychological characteristic definition of a good
teacher by stating the following qualities of a good teacher; teacher’s personality, attitude,
experience and aptitude and past achievement.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEACHER

∙ Personality

Levis (1987) indicates that certain interpersonal, emotional and coping behaviors are
 believed to be required for effective teaching. It is paramount you know that teaching is
an intentional activity which aims at bringing about learning or impartation of knowledge
into the learners. It is therefore important for teachers to connect with their learners at an
interpersonal level because teaching is a reciprocal venture. This is why Sadker, Myra and
David Sadker (2005) point out that an effective teacher is approachable.

∙ Attitude

You need to be aware that the use of attitude data for measuring teacher effectiveness rest
on the assumption that attitudes are related to behaviours that are one or more steps
removed from the actual teaching process, such as more organized lesson plans or better
subject-matter preparation (Clark & Peterson, 1986) in Borich (2004).

∙ Aptitude and Achievement

You need to understand that when it comes to an individual’s aptitude and achievement
data, the data in question cannot accurately predict classroom performance. This is
because a teacher’s recorded school achievement seldom correlates strongly with
classroom performance.

∙ Experience

It includes a teachers listing of their general qualifications, such as years of experience,

graduate credits earned, or degrees granted. You will notice that such descriptions

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typically do not describe experience relevant to performing the day-to-day tasks required
in a specific context, such as classroom, grade level, or subject-matter area.

You will observe that the psychological definition of a good teacher aims at measuring a
teachers’ behavior objectively. This is why Borich (2004) asserts that the characteristics are too
remote from the teacher’s day-to-day work in the classroom to contribute meaningfully to a
definition of a good teacher.

You will agree that defining a good teacher by community ideals proves unrealistic. Similarly,
defining a good teacher through the use of their psychological characteristics proves to be poorly
related to what teachers actually do in their classroom. You will notice that these historical
definitions exclude the most important and obvious measure of all for determining good
teaching: the performance of the students being taught.

This therefore resulted into a paradigm shift of defining specific teacher’s behaviours on the
specific cognitive and affective behaviours of their students. The term good teaching changed to
effective teaching and research now focus from exclusively studying teachers to include their
effects on students. Hence, these new ways of studying classroom behavior and teacher -student
interaction have changed the focus of modern definitions of effective teaching.
 ∙ Darling-Hammond (2006) points out that research indicates that teacher
preparation/knowledge of teaching and learning, subject matter knowledge,
experience, and the combined set of qualifications measured by teacher licensure are
all leading factors in teacher effectiveness.
∙ Further, Popham and Ryan, 2012; Muijs et al, 2014; Polikoff, 2014 define effective
teaching as that which leads to high achievement by students in valued outcomes,
other things being equal.

You therefore need to understand that being an effective teacher necessitates that you must
intentionally be well acquainted with the various ways by which you can transfer
knowledge, skills and ideas to your students. You must also have the required professional
knowledge and skills. In addition, you must also possess the mastery of the subject matter,
since the students depend much on the teacher for acquiring new knowledge. Hence, no teacher
can impart knowledge that he has not acquired, therefore you must prepare adequately well in
advance.

Activity 1a

The definition of effective teaching by Popham and Ryan, 2012;Muijs et al, 2014; Polikoff
suggest that teachers are responsible for aiding learners’ achievements. Outline any four ways
you can aid the achievement of your learners in your classroom.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

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WAYS OF BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER

You will become an effective teacher if you understand that as teachers you need to;

∙ have the knowledge of central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of discipline
which will enable you to create learning experiences that make the aspects of subject
matter meaningful for students
∙ understand how your leaners learn and develop which will provide you an opportunity to
support their intellectual, social and personal development
∙ be creative by in cooperating varying teaching methods because students differ in their
approaches to learning, hence you need to creates instructional opportunities that are
adapted to diverse learners
∙ use varying instructional strategies to encourage students’ development of critical
thinking, problem solving and performance skills. You will learn in unit 4 of the two
types of instructional strategies namely; direct and indirect.
∙ take note of your individual students; their motivation and behavior so that you can create a
learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in
 learning, and self-motivation.

PATTERNS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING BEHAVIOUR

You will find the outlined essential behaviours effective for teaching in your classrooms since
they appeal to teachers’ daily practices. You should remember that in teaching, the concern of
any good teacher is how to make students learn. Hence, in the process of teaching and learning,
the teacher, the student and the subject matter are involved. The following includes five key
behavior essentials for effective teaching

∙ Lesson Clarity
It refers to the ability of teachers to make their presentations clear to their learners in the
classroom. Take note that more effective teachers make their points clear to learners who
may be at different levels of understanding. In addition, you need to understand that
effective teaching necessitates that you explain concepts in ways that help students follow
along in a logical step-by step order. Thus avoid using vague, ambiguous, or indefinite
language and overly complicated sentences.
-Take note that not all teachers are able to communicate clearly and directly to
their students without wandering, speaking above students’ levels of
comprehension, or using speech patterns that impair their presentation’s clarity
(Brown & Wragg, 1993) in Borich (2004). You need to understand therefore that effective
teaching necessitates a teacher’s high degree of clarity since this enables you to spend
less time going over material. You also need to understand that clarity is a complex
behavior because it is related to many other cognitive behaviors such as organization of
the content, lesson familiarity, and delivery strategies

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∙ Instructional variety
It refers to your variability or flexibility of delivery during the presentation of a lesson (
Rohrkemper & Corno, 1988) In Borich (2004). You will agree with me that variety is the
spice of life. This is because engaging oneself in the same thing over and over makes it
boring and can eventually make you to lose interest. Similarly, effective teaching demands
the creative nature of teachers to bring in variety in their day to day instruction. You need to
understand that one of the most effective ways of creating variety during instruction is to ask
questions. It is important to note that the different types of questions can be integrated into
the pacing and sequencing of a lesson varied in the creation of meaningful variation.
Therefore, an effective teacher needs to know the art of asking questions and how to
discriminate among different question formats. In addition, variety can be achieved through
the use of learning materials, equipment, displays and creating space in one’s classroom.

∙ Teacher Task Orientation

Borich (2004) asserts that teacher task orientation refers to how much classroom time the
teacher devotes to the task of teaching an academic subject. Take note that this will ensure
 that teachers are given more time to engage with their students. It follows that the more time
allocated to the subject, the greater the opportunity students have to learn. Hence, take note
that effective teachers prepare their students to learn and to enjoy learning. According to
(Brophy, 2002) in Borich (2004) classrooms in which teacher-student interactions focus
more on intellectual content, allows the students to maximize the opportunity to learn and
practice what was taught, hence leads to a likely higher rate of achievement. You will recall
that one of the definitions of effective teaching is that it should lead to high achievement by
students in valued outcomes.

∙ Engagement in the Learning Process

You need to understand that being an effective teacher necessitates that the amount of
time you devote to teaching a topic –is the time your students are actively engaged in
learning the material being taught (Borich, 2004).

Activity 1b
Provide five ways in which teachers can promote students engagement in classroom
activities.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

∙ Student Success Rate

It refers to the rate at which students understand and correctly complete assignments and
exercises. Good and Brophy (2000) point out that student engagement, that is, the time the
learner is actively engaged with, thinking about, and working with the content being taught,
is related to student success rate. Take note that effective teachers need to know the success
rate of their students since only then will they be able to lead their learners to their success
rate. Research according to Slavin (1991) in Ferrora (2015) indicates that instruction
promoting low error rates can contribute to increased levels of student self- esteem and to

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positive attitudes toward the subject matter. Take note that there are three levels of
difficulty;
High success: students understand the task and make only occasional
careless errors
Moderate success: the student has partial understanding but makes some
substantive errors
Low success: the student does not understand the task at all

Hence, Rosenshire (1986) suggests that students should spend 60% to 70% of their time on tasks
that allow almost complete understanding of the material being taught with only occasional
errors.

SUMMARY

You have learnt in this unit that being an effective teacher involves the organization and
integration of key and helping behaviours into meaningful patterns to achieve specified goals.
Patterns of effective teaching behavior which include; lesson clarity, teacher task orientation,
student success rate, instructional variety and engagement in the learning process appeal to
teachers daily practices as they embark in their involvement with the subject matter, learners and
teaching resources. You have also learnt in this unit a number of ways of becoming an effective
teacher. We will now proceed to the next unit in which we will learn why it is essential for
teachers to understand their students.

UNIT TEST

Explain any four reasons which can affect the ability of a teacher to achieve the stated patterns
of effective teaching behavior.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

Suggested answers to Unit 1 activities

Activity 1a

∙ Prepare your behavioural objectives at the desired level of complexity ∙ Use clear
examples, illustrations and demonstrations to explain your concepts ∙ Ask questions to
your learners at the beginning of your lessons to determine level of understanding of
prerequisite facts or concepts.
∙ Use a variety of teaching methods to cater for the learning abilities of different learners.

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Activity 1b

Emmer et al. (2003) in Borich (2004), has provided the following suggestions for teachers to
promote student engagement.

∙ Set rules that let pupils attend to their personal and procedural needs without obtaining
your permission each time.
∙ Move around the room to monitor pupils’ seatwork and to communicate your awareness
of student progress.
∙ Ensure that independent assignments are interesting, worthwhile, and easy enough to be
completed by each pupil without your direction.
∙ Minimize time consuming activities such as giving directions and organizing the class for
instruction by writing the daily schedule on the board.
 ∙ Make abundant use of resources and activities that are at, or slightly above, a student’s
current level of understanding.
∙ Avoid timing errors. Act promptly to prevent misbehaviors from occurring or increasing
in severity so that they do not influence others in class.

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UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING YOUR STUDENTS

INTRODUCTION

In unit one, you have been exposed to the understanding of an effective teacher as one who needs
to employ various ways in order to transfer knowledge, skills and ideas to their students. You
will recall that the process of becoming an effective teacher also necessitates the need for
teachers to be aware of the type of learners in their classrooms. This is because individual
differences exist in every classroom and it influences the outcome of one’s teaching. It follows
that, this unit is designed to make you understand the different types of learners, their
characteristics and ways in which teachers can accommodate varying learners in their
classrooms.
SUCCESS CRITERIA

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define the different types of learners

2. Explain individual differences of learners and their effects on learning 3.

Discuss ways teachers can accommodate their learners in classrooms KEY

TERMS

You will find the following key words useful in this unit:

∙ Slow Learners
∙ Gifted and Talented Learners
∙ Normal Learners
∙ Physically Disabled Learners

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNERS

You will recall that in units 1, one way of becoming an effective teacher is to know your
individual students; their motivation and behavior so that you can create a learning environment
that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.
Thus, according to Rasaq (2003) understanding the different types of learners will be of immense
value in assisting the teachers in preparing suitable materials to cater for the varying learning
needs.

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∙ Slow Learners

Take note that these categories of learners exhibit numerous learning difficulties that seem to
defy all learning methodologies and procedures. This therefore results in them lagging behind
in virtually all that they do, and especially in their school work. This category of learners is
made up of mentally retarded and the learning disabled (LD). Do you have such type of
learners in your classrooms? What do you think are the characteristics of such type of
learners? To answer the second question let us take a look at the list below.

-They have a short attention span, that is, they cannot concentrate for long.
 -They have short memory which makes it difficult for them to remember what
they are taught.

-They are always bored and generally have no interest in learning.

-They have poor communication skills, thus they are challenges in both oral and
written languages.

-They have poor social interaction and cannot get along with others easily.

-They score low in all types of tests and assessment.

∙ Gifted and Talented Learners

Notice that unlike slow learners these types of learners have intellectual abilities which
are exceptional and constantly outstanding. What do you think are characteristics of
gifted and talented learners?

Activity 2a

Mention any four characteristics of gifted and talented learners.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

∙ Normal Learners
These are the types of learners which exhibit average abilities. You should take note that
the majority of learners can be classified as normal learners. Characteristics of normal
learners include;

-They manifest average ability

-They have their own learning problems like lateness to school, truancy and
wrong peer group
-They manifest giftedness when faced with challenges.

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∙ Physically Disabled Learners

These types of learners have physical deformities like blindness, deafness, lameness and
paralysis. You will be interested to know that these types of learners require special
equipment necessary to facilitate their learning and movement such as wheel chairs, brail
books and tape recorders. Characteristics of the physically handicapped learners include the
following;

-They have physical deformities that people can see

-They have sound intellectual powers

 -Some of them may be gifted/ talented

-They generally have feelings of inadequacy

-They generally have feeling of low self-concept.

Take note that slow learners and gifted learners are highly problematic whereas normal learners
need to be stimulated and encouraged to make maximum use of their potential and to develop
their individual talents. While as physically disabled learners have nothing to do with their
intellectual capacity to learn.

Having been exposed to the different types of learners, how can teachers identifying the
varying types of learners in their classrooms?

According to Herbert J. Klausmeier (1961) the gifted and the talented are identified through the
use of standardized intelligence tests, which are also referred to as scholastic aptitude tests.

Take note that other means include;

-Interviews

-Case studies

-Special dialogues with parents

-Teachers’ daily observation in and outside class

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES OF LEARNERS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON LEARNING

You need to understand that the characteristics of the learners stated above demands the ability
of teachers to prepare their instructions by having a consideration of their learners in mind. It
follows that teachers need to have an adaptive type of teaching. Borich (2004) states that an
adaptive teaching is the general approach to achieving a common instructional goal with learners
whose individual differences, such as prior achievement, aptitude, or learning styles differ

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widely. Take note that there are two types of approaches to adaptive learning namely;
remediation and compensatory. (refer to Borich (2004), p.p. 47-48).

You need to be aware that learners’ individual differences pose a challenge on teachers since
they are tasked with creating an instruction which results to effective learning for the betterment
of each learner. Notice that the ability of the teacher to accommodate the needs of every learner
results into varying effects on learning.

For instance, the teaching of slow learners necessitates that;

 ∙ the teaching methods to be used in the classroom should include; role play, demonstration
and individualized instruction.
∙ teachers hold special classes to help slow learners catch up with others. ∙ teachers should
create a systematic and patient mannerism for teaching concepts using concrete items.
∙ teachers provide special incentives and reinforcement which serves as an
acknowledgement for the little efforts they make.
∙ teachers instill effective study habits in the learners

You will notice in the proceeding examples that the teaching of gifted and talented learners
necessitates the need for teachers to use different approaches.

For instance, the teaching of gifted and talented learners requires that the teacher should;

∙ provide creative exercises which will give them an opportunity to maximize their
potential.
∙ keep them occupied by giving them leadership roles to play.

Activity 2b

Explain using four points the learning effects exhibited by normal learners and physically
handicapped learners.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

Having looked at the different ways in which learners learn above, you will agree with me that
good teaching should be structured in relation to students’ abilities, interests and needs. In
addition, teacher must create a conducive environment for learning to take place. Hence, teachers
must help learners to make sense of their world and encourage creative and divergent thinking
abilities of the learners with the resources available. Do you think cultural differences in learners
can affect their learning process? To answer the question, refer to Borich (2004) p.p.57-61)

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WAYS TEACHERS CAN ACCOMMODATE LEARNERS IN THEIR CLASSROOMS

Take note that teachers can accommodate their learners in the classroom using the varies ways;

∙ Organising learning and instruction around important ideas that your students already
know something about.
∙ Acknowledging the importance of learners’ prior learning by having them compare what
they know with what you are teaching.
∙ Challenging the adequacy of students’ prior knowledge by designing lessons that create
 the opportunity for learners to resolve conflict and construct new meanings for
themselves.
∙ Providing some tasks that make learners confront ambiguity and uncertainty by exploring
problems that have multiple solutions in authentic, real world contexts.
∙ Teaching learners how to find their own approaches or systems for achieving educational
goals, for which they can take ownership.
∙ Teaching learners that knowledge construction is a collaborative effort rather than a
solitary search of knowledge or an exclusively teacher-controlled activity. ∙ Monitoring
and assessing a learners’ knowledge acquisition frequently and providing feedback
during the lesson.

SUMMARY

You will remember that there different types of learners which include; slow, normal, physically
handicapped and gifted/talented learners. It is therefore every teacher’s duty to be aware of the
individual differences of their learners so that they are accommodated in the lesson. Research by
Corno and Snow (1986) in Borich (2015) indicates that when instructional methods are matched
to individual strengths of learners they significantly improve their performance. You will proceed
to learn formal preparatory activities of teaching in the next unit.

UNIT TEST

Imagine you have a class and some of your learners’ exhibit the characteristics mentioned under
slow learners, would you conclude that such particular learners are slow learners? Argue using
four points.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

Suggested answers to Unit 1 activities

Activity 1a

Activity 1b

The Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Learners

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• They rank high in academic achievement and cover a wide ground within a limited period
of time.

• They are fast thinking, highly creative and imaginative with very high constructive
abilities.

• They have very good cordial relationships, hence make friends easily. • They
 have outstanding leadership qualities and can work well under pressure.

• They are mostly invariably good in all subjects i.e. science, languages, arts and even
sporting activities.

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UNIT 3

FORMAL PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES OF TEACHING

INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit we have examined the teacher and the learner, the different types of learners
and the implications to the teaching profession. In this unit, you will be exposed to preparatory
activities which take place before teachers take up their roles in the classrooms like constructing
the schemes and records of work and the lesson plan. You will also gain insights into the steps in
writing behavioural objectives and an understanding of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
learning domains.

SUCCESS CRITERIA

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define the curriculum

2. Explain the components of the scheme and records of work and the lesson plan 3.
Describe steps in writing behavioural objectives (success criteria) to be achieved in a lesson.
4. Discuss levels of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning domains.

KEY TERMS

You will find the following key terms useful in this unit:

∙ Curriculum
∙ Lesson plan
∙ Schemes of work
∙ Records of work
∙ Affective domain
∙ Psychomotor domain
∙ Cognitive domain

DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM

According to Good (1959) cited in Mtunda and Safuli (1997:9), curriculum is a systematic group
of courses or sequence of subjects required for graduation or certification in a major field of
study. Note that it can also be defined as a group of courses and planned experiences which
learners obtain under the guidance of the school or college

∙ Types of Curriculum
Siberman (1973) gives a broad view of curriculum under academic, extra and hidden.

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Academic curriculum

Take note that this consists of all formal courses the pupil experiences under the
guidance of the school and the scope and sequence of concepts in a course of study

It includes the following:

 - a statement of goals and objectives specifying the purpose for the creation of
the curriculum
-an outline of the content to be taught
-a statement of the suggested activities and resources

The extra curriculum

You will notice that this type of curriculum is not related to classroom activities.
Nevertheless, it consists of planned but voluntary school activities such as sporting
activities, clubs and societies. Note that learners’ participation depends on the interest
of the individual and it often provides very meaningful school related learning.

The hidden curriculum

Take note that this consists on unplanned but highly meaningful learning
experiences which occur as a by-product of participation in school activities.

Remember that the academic curriculum consist of all the courses the learners experience in the
planned period in the school calendar. Hence, take note that teachers play a vital role in
implementing the curriculum. You will be interested to know that the implementation of the
curriculum is only possible if the curriculum has been interpreted into a syllabus. A syllabus is a
curriculum document which outlines topics or concepts to be covered in a particular subject for a
whole year with a particular class. Take note that there two types of syllabuses; the examination
and the teaching. (for further reading refer to Mtunda, F.G. and Safuli, S. D. D. An Introduction
to the Theory and Practices of Teaching)

COMPONENTS OF THE SCHEME AND RECORDS OF WORK AND THE LESSON

PLAN

You need to understand that a syllabus is an important curriculum document which every teacher
must have and use when preparing lessons. This is because it is through the aid of the syllabus
that teachers are able to draw the schemes and records of work and further construct their lesson
plans to be used in the process of teaching and learning in the actual classroom setting.

∙ SCHEME AND RECORDS OF WORK

You will agree that planning and preparation are essential in any activity or task that an
individual carries out. Similarly, it is important that teachers plan and prepare well ahead

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of their lesson delivery. You will recall that in unit 1 we discussed that one of the ways of
becoming an effective teacher is to plan what you will teacher. Hence note that preparing
the scheme and records of work is one of the preparatory stages of teachers before
engaging in any classroom activities.
 Mtunda and Safuli (1986) define a scheme of work as ‘the interpretation of the syllabus
indicating the amount of ground the teacher is likely to cover during a term’ (p.32). They
further state that ‘the scheme shows the topics or concepts to be covered (scope) and the
order in which they are covered every week (sequence) (p.32).
You should take note that topics in your schemes of work should be presented in the
order that promotes the learners understanding of the material.

Having defined the scheme of work, now let us move on to define the records of work.
Mtunda and Safuli (1986) state that the teacher
must record the actual material that the pupils of a given class or grade
were able to learn during the lesson; he must also indicate the degree of
success or failure of the lesson and he must also indicate the degree of
success or failure of the lesson and he must explain the reasons for the
lack of success. Finally, he should state what he proposes to do next time
if his lesson was not successful. Such statements are collectively referred
to as records of work (p.89).

You need to understand that records of work are part and parcel of the schemes of work.
That is to say, in the scheme of work, the teachers spell out what they intend to teach
throughout the term. While as in the records of work, teachers’ record what has actually
been taught in a particular lesson. For instance, the success and failure of the lesson and
the plan of action they will follow next time. (refer to the components of the scheme and
records of work on the samples provided).

Activity 3a

The following include factors to consider when writing schemes of work;

∙ The syllabus
∙ Class ability
∙ School and annual calendar
∙ Time
∙ Teaching Materials
∙ Learners’ previous experience

Discuss the above factors.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

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Take note that some of the functions of records of work include;

∙ providing the ministry of education with the means of checking what goes on in schools. ∙
 making every teacher accountable to the government and the society at large. ∙ reminding
teachers of the work they have already covered.
∙ assisting newly transferred teachers to have a head start.
∙ showing different stages of the work covered during the term or year.

Now let us look at the lesson plan.

∙ Lesson Plans

Having prepared schemes of work, as explained above, you will be required to write a lesson
plan for each of the lessons that you teach. Mtunda and Safuli (1986, p.28) define a lesson
plan as ‘an outline of important ideas to be covered during the process of teaching and
learning’.

Take note that lesson plans are a necessity for every teacher because they enhance learners’
participation and contribute to effective lessons. You may also wish to know that in a lesson
plan ideas are organised in logical order.

Now let us look at the components of the lesson plan.

-Preamble
Take note that all lesson plans include a preamble, which consists of name of school,
student teacher name, form, time, subject, core element and topic respectively. (refer to
the sample given).You may wish to know that the topic in your lesson plan is obtained
from your scheme of work.
-Success Criteria
You need to understand that these drive the lesson since they indicate to the teacher the
direction of the lesson. It is important that you also note that they state the intended
learning outcomes. You will be interested to know that they use action verbs which are
formulated through the aid of SMART, which translate to specific, measurable,
achievable, realistic and time bound.
-Teaching and Learning Resources
You will agree that resources aid the teaching and learning process. This is because they
help promote learners participation in classroom activities by aiding their understanding.
Note that as a teacher, you will need to state the aids that will be used in your lesson. The
aids may include: real objects, maps, charts, pictures and many others.
-Presentation/Lesson Procedure
You will notice that this forms the main body of the lesson. It contains the introduction
which should set the tone of the lesson by arousing the learners’ interest. Then the
development where the content is organised in logical format and thereafter the

20
conclusion whose aim is to bind together what has gone on in the development stages.
The presentation further includes both teacher and learner activities in all the stages.
 -Self-Evaluation
This component is normally completed when the lesson is over. Take note that as
teachers, you are required to honestly analyse your lesson. If you feel the lesson was not
successful, you should decide on ways of improving.
Have you ever wondered why teachers are urged to write lesson plans? To answer this question,
let us look at the outline that Mtunda and Safuli (1986:28) provide on the uses of written lesson
plan.

∙ It acts as a reminder for the teacher.

∙ It gives teachers an agenda or outline to follow as they teach a lesson. ∙
It builds confidence in teachers
∙ It enables the supervisor /inspector to offer practical, constructive and concrete advice on
what the teacher is attempting to do.
∙ It gives a substitute teacher a basis for presenting real lessons to the class they teach.
(for further reading refer to Mtunda and Safuli (1986) p.p. 28).

Activity 3b

State four effects of teaching without a lesson plan.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

STEPS IN WRITING BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES (SUCCESS CRITERIA) TO BE

ACHIEVED IN A LESSON

Do you know that success criterions are written based on three learning domains; cognitive,
affective and psychomotor? Before we tackle the three domains stated in the question, let us first
of all define success criterions. These are statements of intent that describe what participants
(learners) are expected to learn or be able to do after instruction. Grandon (1989) states that
objectives are invaluable planning aids for teachers to choose teaching methods and materials.
You will agree that Grandons’ definition highlights to us on one advantage of writing objectives/
success criterions as teachers. What do you think are some of the advantages?

Take note that objectives/success criterions;

∙ direct both teaching and evaluation processes in an efficient and effective manner. ∙
guide the selection of materials and methods of instruction.
∙ help in selecting or constructing appropriate assessment procedures.
∙ are used in conveying instructional intent to others, such as teachers taking over classes. ∙
make feedback straightforward both to teachers and learners.

21
You may have noticed that some teachers do not always use objectives.
Activity 3c

Mention any four disadvantages of having success criteria’s in the process of teaching and
learning?

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

∙ STEPS IN WRITING BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES (SUCCESS CRITERIA)

According to Cranton (1989) the following sequence of steps need to be followed when
writing behavioural objectives;
-list the topics or goals of the instruction in the order appropriate to
learners. -translate the objectives on the list into observable or measurable
terms.
-consider the degree of specificity for the translated observable behavior or learner
products.
-consider the conditions / circumstances necessary for the achievement of the intended
learning.
-then have the objectives reviewed by others who have the necessary expertise to ensure
that objectives are clear and understandable.
-finally, discuss the objectives with the learners to gather their input. This ensures that
objectives take into consideration learners’ interests or needs.

THE COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING DOMAINS

Having gone through the process of stating objectives, we shall now consider the general areas of
learning which tend to be expounded by the behavioural objectives.

∙ The Cognitive Domain

Take note that it includes all intellectual processes such as recall of information,
comprehension of concepts, application of principles or formulae to the solution of
problems and analysis of ideas presented by others (Cranton, 1989).
The cognitive domain of learning was designed by Bloom, Englehart, Hill and Krathwohl
in 1956. It is a taxonomy of educational objectives that demarcates six levels of cognitive
complexity ranging from the knowledge level to the evaluation level.
You will find an elaboration of the six levels of cognitive complexity in unit 5.
The levels are illustrated in figure 3.1 below:
 22

∙ Affective Domain
Take note that the taxonomy of the five levels of the affective domain was designed by
Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia in 1964. They include;
Characterisation

Organisation

Valuing

Responding

Receiving

Fig. 3.2. Taxonomy of affective domain

Note that the figure above reveals the lowest level of learning to be receiving. Take note
 that at this level learners are expected to be aware of or passively attend to certain
stimuli. The second level in the hierarchy is responding which involves active attention
to the presentation of values, opinions and beliefs. Valuing is the next level after
responding in the affective domain. At this level students are expected to demonstrate a
preference or display a high degree of certainty and conviction. At the organisation
level, you need to understand that learners organize values, beliefs and attitudes into a
system. Finally, the most complex learning level is the characterisation. Take note that
at this level, objectives require consistency between the behavior that a learner displays
and the values he or she upholds.

23
∙ The Psychomotor Domain
The domain was devised by Harrow in 1969. As taxonomy, it delineates five levels of
complexity ranging from the imitation level (least complex), to the manipulation, then
to the precision, thereafter the articulation and finally the naturalisation level (most
complex). Note that the behaviours of these domains emphasise neuromuscular skills
involving various degrees of physical dexterity.

SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt the link which occurs from the curriculum, syllabus, schemes and
records of work to the lesson plan. You have also learnt the components of both the lesson plan
and the scheme and records of work and their importance. Lastly, you the learning domains
which are linked with the success criteria for any given lesson have been elaborated. In the next
unit you will learn about the instructional strategies which teachers can use in their classrooms.

UNIT TEST

Argue for or against the claim that ‘unsuccessful lessons are a result of unpreparedness on the
part of the teachers’.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

Suggested answers to Unit 1 activities

Activity 3a

Activity 3b

Activity 3c
 24
Unit 4

INSTRUCTION STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION

You have learnt in the previous unit the use of a lesson plan in a classroom. You will be
interested to know that before teachers construct lesson plans, they need to select the instruction
strategy which will best help deliver the lesson with regard to the content. You should also note
that depending on the content, the teacher my employ the use of two instructional strategies.
Emmer et al. 2003 states that knowledge of a variety of instructional strategies and the flexibility
to change them both within and among lessons are two of the greatest assets a teacher can have.
Therefore, you will learn in this unit the direct and indirect instructional strategies. You will also
learn ways in which you can engage learners in direct and indirect instructional as well as goals
in promoting direct and indirect instruction in a culturally diverse classroom.

SUCCESS CRITERIA

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to;

1. Define the direct and indirect instructional strategies

2. Describe how to engage learners in direct and indirect instruction
3. Explain how to promote goals of direct and indirect instruction in a culturally diverse
classroom

KEY TERMS

You will find the following key terms useful in this unit:

∙ Direct instruction
 ∙ Indirect instruction

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

∙ DIRECT INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY

According to Borich (2004) the teaching of facts, rules and action sequences can most
efficiently be achieved through a process called direct instruction model. Take note that the
model advocates that the teacher is the major information provider whose role is to pass
facts, rules or action sequences to students in the most direct way possible. As a teacher
centred strategy, it usually takes a presentation and recitation format with explanations,
examples and opportunities for practice and feedback.

Rosenshine (1986) and Good (1979) refer to direct instruction as active teaching, which is
characterized by:

25
-full-class instruction (as opposed to small-group instruction)
-organisation of learning around questions you pose
-provision of detailed and redundant practice
-presenting material so that learners master one new fact, rule, or sequence before the
teacher presents the next
-formal arrangement of the classroom to maximize recitation and

practice Activity 4a

Using three points, discuss the appropriate time a teacher can employ the direct instructional
strategy.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

∙ INDIRECT INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY

Borich (2004) observes that indirect instruction is an approach to teaching and learning in
which the learning process is inquiry, the result is discovery, and the learning context is a
problem. Note that indirect instruction strategies are best suited for teaching concepts,
patterns and abstractions. You will recall that the cognitive domain aims at enabling
learners to increase their intellectual abilities. Hence, you will be interested to know that
the indirect instruction model uses strategies that encourage the cognitive processes
required both to form concepts and to combine concepts into larger patterns and
abstractions. You therefore need to understand that as a strategy, it entails the need for
learners to acquire behavior indirectly by transforming-or constructing-the stimulus
material into a meaningful response or behavior that differs from both the content used to
present the learning, and any previous response given by the student (Borich, 2004).
Note however that a combination of the two strategies reveal how together they can build
additional teaching strategies that help learners solve problems, think critically and work
cooperatively.

ENGAGING LEARNERS IN DIRECT AND INDIRECT INSTRUCTION

You will be interested to know that you can engage learners in direct instruction through;
∙ Clearly presenting goals and main point
-State goals or objectives of a presentation beforehand
-Focus on one though (point, direction) at a time
∙ Presenting content sequentially
-present material in small steps
-present an outline when the material is complex
∙ Checking for students understanding
-make sure students understand one point before you proceed to the next
- have students summarise the main points in their own words.

26
∙ Being specific and concrete
-provide students with concrete and varied examples
-give detailed and redundant explanations for difficult points.

Activity 4b
State two reasons why it is important for teachers to clearly present goals and main points when
engaging learners in a direct instruction model?
Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

Indirect Instruction
Take note that the engagement of learners in indirect instruction takes a less teacher centred
approach than in direct instruction strategy. This is because learners are mostly guided to an
answer that goes beyond the specific problems or content presented.
∙ Content organisation: providing advance organisers that serve as ‘pegs’ on which
students
-Hang key points
-Focus learning in most productive areas
∙ Conceptual movement: induction and deduction using
-Selected events to establish general concepts and patterns
-principles and generalizations that apply to specific events
∙ Questions: raising questions that
-guide the search and discovery process
-probe for deeper understanding
 ∙ Student self-evaluation
-asking students to evaluate the appropriateness of their own responses
-providing cues, questions, and hints that call attention to inappropriate
responses ∙ Discussion: promoting classroom dialogue that encourages students to
-examine alternatives
-make predictions
-judge solutions
PROMOTING GOALS OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT INSTRUCTION IN A
CULTURALLY DIVERSE CLASSROOM

Take note that classrooms where the range of individual and cultural differences is great,
students’ engagement in the learning process during direct or indirect instruction can be a major
challenge to achieving performance outcome. As you will recall, being an effective teacher
necessitates the ability to know the type of learners in your classroom. This is why Borich (2004)
observed that culturally sensitive teachers consider students cultures and language skills when
planning learning objectives and activities. In addition, Burnette (1999) notes that teachers
realise that lesson objectives should include more than just delivering content knowledge-diverse

27
students are often motivated by objectives that include the opportunity for effective and personal
development as well.

Hence, take note that according to the direct instruction strategy students of any culture are more
likely to engage expressively in the learning process in an atmosphere that;

∙ reduces feelings of individual competitiveness

∙ emphasizes the importance of unique learner responses
∙ promotes a multisensory learning environment
∙ encourages social reinforcement and peer interaction
∙ conveys a sense of nurturance and caring

Having looked at how you can engage learners in a culturally diverse classroom using direct
instruction, let us now put our focus on how to promote goals in relation to indirect instruction.
Bowers and flinders (1991) make a case for understanding the context in which different cultures
expect information to be transmitted that is particularly relevant during indirect instruction. Thus,
the teacher should;

∙ present content from the frame most dominant to the classroom

∙ make explicit what the frame is through which learners must see and interact with the
content
∙ negotiate when necessary, the frame with students at the start of the lesson.
Take note that the key to effective instruction is the creativity of the teacher. You will therefore
agree that in relation to cultural differences in the classroom, effective teachers should consider
how to include students’ backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences when ‘framing’ the
knowledge to be gained or the activities to be accomplished.

SUMMARY

You should remember that in this unit you have learnt the two types of instructional strategies;
direct and indirect which teachers can employ in their day to day interaction with the learners.
Borich (2004) states that “Just like the carpenter, electrician, and plumber must select the proper
tool for a specific task, you must select the proper instructional strategy for a learning outcome.”
(p.176). You have also been hinted on ways of engaging your learners in a direct or indirect
instruction so that effective learning should be achieved. Note that this unit has also enlightened
you with ways of promoting goals of direct and indirect instruction in a culturally diverse
classroom. The next chapter will introduce you to questioning strategies.

UNIT TEST

Compare and Contrast the direct and indirect instructional strategies.

Suggested answers to unit 4 activities

28
Activity 4a

Activity 4b

Unit 5

QUESTIONING STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION

Most exchanges between teachers and students in the classroom setting involve questions in
some form. Have you ever wondered whether the questions are effective in raising student
achievement? Chuska, 1995; Wilen, 1991 observe that effective questions are ones for which
students actively compose a response and thereby become engaged in the learning process.
Therefore, you will learn in this Unit varying questioning strategies which help learners. You
will also learn different types of questions as tool for bridging the gap between a teachers
presentation of content and the students’ understanding of it. This chapter will therefore enable
you to understand in-depth questioning techniques and enlighten you when and where to use
specific types of questions.

SUCCESS CRITERIA

By the end of this unit, you should be able to;

 1. Define the varying questioning strategies

2. Explain the different types of questions

3. Describe the questions at different levels of cognitive complexity

KEY TERMS

You will find the following key terms useful in this Unit:

∙ Lower cognitive questions

∙ Higher cognitive questions
∙ Knowledge
∙ Application
∙ Evaluation
∙ Analysis
∙ Comprehension
∙ Synthesis

QUESTIONING STRATEGIES

29
General research shows that instruction involving questioning is more effective than instruction
without questioning (Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock 2001). One important finding is that
questions that focus student attention on important elements of a lesson result in better
comprehension. You need to remember that good questioning strategies can enable you to
become an effective teacher since questions act as tools of encouraging learners to think and act
on the material you have structured.

Questioning strategies include;

∙ Planning in advance the type of questions to be asked

∙ Delivering questions in a style that is concise, clear, and to the point
∙ Allowing time for learners to think: wait time
∙ Keeping the students in suspense
∙ Giving students sufficient time to complete their response before redirecting the question
or probing
∙ Providing immediate feedback to the learner

Activity 5a

From the given questioning strategies above, discuss how a teacher can employ each one of them
in order to effectively promote learners thinking and problem solving.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

Having looked at the varying questioning strategies, provide an answer to the following question;
how can teachers ask better questions to their students? The outline below on characteristics of
good questions will help answer the question.

∙ Clearness – learners will in most cases provide correct answers to questions if they
understand what they have been asked. It is important to recognize that the words one
may use to frame a specific question could affect a learners understanding. Therefore as
teachers you need to use words which are clear and familiar to your learners.
∙ Definiteness – The question you ask your learners should limit generalization. In this
case, avoid questions requiring “YES” or “NO” answers which encourage learners to
guess work.
∙ Interest – It is important that you neat your questions in an interesting manner. Note that
such kind of questions provokes enthusiasm and thirst for knowledge.
∙ Fair Distribution – you need to understand that in any given classroom setting, teachers
should always distribute questions fairly. The teacher should see to it that his questions
give encouragement to those of his/her learners who are modest or shy or those who are
too lazy to think. Remember that questions need to be interesting; hence a fair
distribution of the questions necessitates the ability of the teacher to make the questions
appeal to every learner.
30
Now that you know the characteristics of good questions, let us look at tips of questioning
which can enable teachers to come up with questions that can be fairly distributed,
definiteness, clear and interesting.

Tips of questioning
∙ Make your first questions interesting to arouse learners attention and curiosity ∙
Give learners time to answer which will help them process your question. ∙
Allow students to help each other
∙ Make questions clear by rephrasing the question or ask further question which lead
towards the information you need.
∙ Do not settle for one correct response, get suggestions from students involving the whole
class.
∙ Make students discuss a topic or an issue by using open-ended questions, like what? Or
How?
∙ Ask questions that are necessary and varied to the topic
∙ Provide sufficient time to allow for a thoughtful answer from your learners.

You will agree that both the characteristics of good questions and tips of questioning are inherent
in the questioning strategies stated above. You should nevertheless understand that these are
necessary in helping teachers’ structure effective questions while at the same time creating a
conducive environment for teacher-learner classroom interaction.

Let us now look at the different types of questions teachers can form through the help of the
characteristics stated above.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

You should understand that educators have traditionally classified questions according to
Bloom’s Taxonomy, a hierarchy of increasingly complex intellectual skills. Below are six types
of questions according to Bloom’s Taxonomy:

∙ Knowledge – these types of questions elicits the students ability to recall, describe,
define or recognise facts that already has been committed to memory.
∙ Comprehension – these types of questions require some level of understanding of facts the
student has committed to memory. Thus response to these questions should show that the
learner can explain, summarize, or elaborate on facts that have been learnt.
∙ Application – these require the students to apply facts to a problem, context, or
environment that is different from the one in which the information was learnt. This is
because these types of questions extend facts and understanding to the next level of
authenticity by going beyond memorization and translation of facts.
∙ Analysis – take note that questions at this level require the student to break a problem
into its component parts and to draw relationships among the parts. Some purposes of

31
questions at the analysis level are to identify logical errors; to differentiate among facts,
opinions, and assumptions; to derive conclusions; and to find inferences or
generalizations.
∙ Synthesis – questions at the synthesis level ask the student to produce something unique or
original-to design a solution, compose a response, or predict an outcomes to a problem for
which the student has never before seen, read, or heard a response. This level is often
associated with directed creativity in which not all responses are equally acceptable.
∙ Evaluation – questions at this highest level of cognitive complexity require the student to
form judgments and make decisions using stated criteria. These criteria may be subjective
(when a personal set of values is used in making a decision) or objective (when scientific
evidence or procedures are used in evaluating something).

Further readings refer Borich (2004) Effective Teaching Methods (5th ed.). p.p.266-273.

Activity 5b

Explain using four points why it is important for teachers to vary their questioning techniques.
Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

QUESTIONS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY

Now let us look at different types of questions in relation to their different levels of cognitive
complexity. You will notice that the types of questions we have looked at fall under the two
broad categories below.

∙ Lower cognitive questions; which include soliciting fact, recall, and knowledge are more
effective when the goal is to impart factual knowledge and commit it to memory. ∙ Higher
cognitive questions; which include interpretive, evaluative, inquiry, inferential, and
synthesis questions involve the mental manipulation of information to produce or support
an answer.

Take note that a combination of lower and higher questions is more effective than the exclusive
use of one or the other. Nevertheless, you will agree that higher cognitive questions can make an
individual to become a critical thinker because they move a learner from mere knowledge of
facts to an advance understanding of issues. This is why they are associated with secondary
school level of learners.

It is important to note, though, that simply asking these kinds of questions does not guarantee
higher responses or greater learning gains. Learners need explicit instruction in answering these
types of questions, including making inferences.

SUMMARY

32
You have learnt in this unit the varying questioning strategies. You need to understand that
teachers have to understand the strategies so that the questions serve their purpose by instilling in
the learners the desire to learn. Thus, questions that entice a probing nature in the learners are
necessary. You have also learnt in this unit the different types of questions and how to describe
questions at different levels of cognitive complexity. The next unit introduces you to the learning
styles.

Suggested answers to unit 5 activities

Activity 5a

You can effectively promote learners thinking and problem solving through;

∙ Planning in advance the type of questions to be asked

- This will help you as a teacher to ask questions varied to the learning outcomes of
your lesson.
∙ Delivering questions in a style that is concise, clear, and to the point
 - This will enable your learners to have an in-depth understanding of the content, hence
be able to apply.
∙ Allowing time for learners to think: wait time
- It will enable your learners to provide well thought through responses to questions ∙
Keeping the students in suspense
- This will help your learners to have the hunger to investigate more into the concept,
hence they will probe.
∙ Providing immediate feedback to the learner
- This will guide their minds to venture into other avenues in their thought process so
that they come up with a correct answer.

Activity 5b

It is important to vary questioning techniques because;

∙ To account for individual differences of your learners

∙ To stimulate the interest of your learners
∙ To enhance critical reasoning skills in your learners
∙ To cover content in a fast rate
∙ To cultivate the desire of learning to learn in your learners

Unit Test

How can teachers accomplish fair distribution of questions in their classrooms?

Suggested answers to unit 1 activities

33
Unit 6

LEARNING STYLES

INTRODUCTION

You will recall that in unit four you learnt that a combination of the two instructional strategies
direct and indirect can help build additional teaching strategies that help learners solve problems,
think critically and work cooperatively. Note that one of the reasons which enable learners to
work cooperatively and think critically is the type of learning styles teachers use in their
classrooms. You will learn in this unit the varying learning styles; self-directed, cooperative and
collaborative. You will also learn in this unit the goals of self-directed, cooperative and
collaborative types of learning in a culturally diverse classroom.

SUCCESS CRITERIA
By the end of this unit, you should be able to;

1. Define the varying learning styles

2. Explain the activities involved in self-directed, cooperative and collaborative types of
learning
3. Discuss the goals of self-directed, cooperative and collaborative types of learning in a
culturally diverse classroom

KEY TERMS
You will find the following key terms useful in this Unit:
∙ Self-directed learning
∙ Collaborative learning
∙ Cooperative learning
LEARNING STYLES

You need to understand that in a classroom setting, the act of varying learning styles can occur
amongst our students if teachers take an active role in nurturing and accommodating learners
learning styles. One of such learning styles includes collaborative, cooperative and self-directed
learning.

∙ SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING (SDL)

This refers to a learner’s ability to guide and direct his or her own learning; in other
words, self-directed learning (Hartley & Bendixen, 2001). According to Candy (1991),
learners may have a high level of self-direction in an area in which they are familiar, or in
areas that are similar to a prior experience. According to Garrison (1997), SDL is
accomplished by three dimensions interacting with each other: self-management, self
monitoring, and motivation. In educational settings, self-management involves learners‟

34
use of learning resources within the learning context. You will agree that Garrisons’
model is on resource use, learning strategies use, and motivation to learn. This is because
Garrison explained that self-management involved learners taking control of the learning
context to reach their learning objectives.

∙ COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

Take note that it is a classroom technique that creates a situation whereby learners come
together in groups. This is why Panitz (1996) defines it as a set of processes which help
learners interact together in order to accomplish a specific goal or develop an end product
which is usually content specific. Thus, collaborative learning advocates for sharing of
authority and acceptance of responsibility among group members for the group’s actions.
Take note that the underlying premise of collaborative learning is based upon consensus
 building through cooperation by group members, in contrast to competition in which
individuals out shines others in the group.

∙ COOPERATIVE LEARNING
The method of cooperative learning involves designing small groups in which students
can work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning (Gillies and Ashman,
1996). This is why Marzone, Pickering & Pollock (2001) points out that cooperative
learning activity instill in learners important behaviors that prepare them to reason and
perform in an adult world. Note that this type of learning thus actively engages the
learners in the learning process and seeks to improve the critical thinking, reasoning, and
problem-solving skills of the learner (Webb, Trooper, & Fall, 1995) in Ferrora (2015).
Hence as a learning style it has been linked to increases in the academic achievement of
learners at all ability levels. Take note that critical thinking cannot occur outside a
context of attitudes and values, prosocial behavior, alternative perspectives, and an
integrated identity.

Activity 6a

Mention any three similarities and any three differences of cooperative and collaborative
learning.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN SELF-DIRECTED, COOPERATIVE AND

COLLABORATIVE TYPES OF LEARNING

The following includes activities involved in cooperative learning;

∙ It involves the interaction a teacher have with the learners and the interaction learners
have with fellow learners. Note that in order for cooperative learning to be deemed

35
effective, the learners must perceive the importance of group goals and the role they must
play to achieve them ( Slavin, 1987) in Ferrora (2015).
∙ It necessitates the creation of a conducive environment whereby the task in question
elicits learners’ active participation.
∙ The availability of materials for selected tasks.
∙ The teacher needs to select learners and assign expected roles and responsibilities.

The following includes activities involved in collaborative learning;

∙ Teachers are supposed to specify the goal of the activity

∙ The teacher needs to structure the task so that learners work hand in hand to accomplish it
in unison
 ∙ Teacher needs to eventually evaluate the collaborative process
∙ Teacher needs to act as a facilitator by monitoring group performance ∙
Debrief needs to follow after the task has been completed.

Activity 6b

What do you think are the activities involved in self-directed learning?

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

GOALS OF SELF-DIRECTED, COOPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE TYPES OF

LEARNING IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE CLASSROOM

You will recall that in unit 2, we learnt about different types of learners and how each category
of learners require the teachers ability to use certain methods in order to encompass the learning
needs of each learner. Similarly, you will agree that a classroom is a social setting in which
different types of learners from different cultures met and interact in the process of teaching and
learning. Take note that both cooperative and collaborative types of learning necessitate group
learning, whereby learners from different cultures share ideas and use their experience to learn
varying concepts.

Hence the goal of cooperative and collaborative type of learning in a cultural diverse classroom
is to;

∙ enhance an atmosphere of learning from the experience of others. This is because learners
are expected to help discuss and argue with each other, assess each others current knowledge
and fill in any gaps in each others understanding (Gillies and Ashman, 1996).
∙ promote in-depth understanding of the material since discussions are the gist in such
types of learning.
∙ instill the heart of responsibility in the learners
∙ make sure that learners different learning strategies are accounted since the teacher forms

36
the groups in a systematic way. Singh (1993) suggests that group learning processes can
empower individuals to move from low to high self-directedness.

You will notice that, self-directed learning unlike collaborative and cooperative involves
individual learning. Hence, the question to be asked is that; how does a highly self-directed
learner become motivated to learn in a structured learning context among learners of different
culture backgrounds? In order to answer this question, you need to understand that teachers need
to strive to have learners that are self-motivated to learn. Thus, in a culturally diverse classroom
teachers need to;

∙ promote active learning in other learners by bringing in tasks that provoke critical
 thinking
∙ break tasks in chunks so that it becomes easier for the learners to understand when the
learners try to fit in the pieces
∙ provide room for activities which lead learners having varying roles to play

Take note that learner’s self-directed learning can be a by-product of collaborative and
cooperative type of learning, whereby the help the learners acquire from fellow learners can act
as stimuli for their further inquiry in a given area.

SUMMARY

UNIT TEST

Discuss the methods a teacher can use in his/her lesson in order to employ the use of the three
learning styles in a single lesson.

Suggested answers to unit 6 activities

Activity 6a

∙ Similarities
-They both stress the importance of active learning.
-In both the teacher acts as facilitator
-They both place emphasis on students' responsibility for taking charge of his or her
learning.
-They both help students develop social and teambuilding skills.
-They both utilize student diversity.
∙ Differences
Cooperative Collaborative

-the teacher observes, listens and -they activity is not monitored by the
intervenes in a group when necessary. instructor. When questions are
directed

37
 - activities are structured with each - student
student having a specific role. efforts th

- students receive training in small - there

group social skills. already
skills, an
existing
goals.
Unit7

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to get you to understand what it means to be a classroom manager. Note
that managers plan, organize, influence and control resources in such a way as to ensure that the
organisation achieves its objectives. You will therefore learn in this unit how teachers can
become classroom managers who strive for the accomplishments of teaching and learning goals.
You will agree that management is accompanied by discipline since it yields to ones success in
his or her undertakings. You will therefore also learn ways of handling classroom discipline.

SUCCESS CRITERIA

By the end of this unit, you should be able to;

1. Define classroom management

2. Explain problem areas in classroom management
3. Analyse effective techniques for classroom managers

KEY TERMS
You will find the following key terms useful in this Unit:
∙ Classroom management
∙ Classroom discipline
CLASSROOM MANAGEMEMNT

Recently, the concept of management has been applied in school settings. The school exists as an
organization set up by society to serve certain ends. The principal end being to turn (produce)
individuals, who would be able not only to read and write and calculate, but also to be a useful
citizen in the society (Cookey, 1969). Note that Certo (1985) defines classroom management as a
term used to designate a career devoted to the task of guiding and directing organizations. It is
obvious that the purpose of classroom management is to ensure that the students learn in a
comfortable and conducive environment. This is because the learners, the teacher and the
physical aspects of the classroom are all involved. As a teacher, how can you achieve classroom
management? You need to be aware that as an effective classroom manager, you should be well

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prepared for lessons, anticipate difficulties and react immediately before problems escalate and
execute with verbal deftness.

Now let us answer the above question by looking at what Wragg and Dooley (1984) have
highlighted about classroom management;

∙ it involves the teachers’ ability to establish good personal relationship with learners. ∙
it also involves effective preparation of lessons
∙ it necessitates that there is proper organization of materials and learners work during
lessons. Take note that a class ought to be organized so that little opportunity as possible is
afforded for disruptions, noises and disorderly behaviours’ (Awoniyi, 1979). ∙ it also
requires that the teachers possess specific pedagogical skills

Activity 7a

Describe three ways in which teacher’s knowledge of pedagogical skills can help them instill
discipline in their learners.

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

PROBLEM AREAS IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Take note that education is about teaching and training citizens to become productive well
behaved members of a society. In order for this to be achieved teachers must get to know the
latest and most efficient and effective ways to maintain discipline in the classroom. Akinboye et
al (1981) define discipline as a “strategy of training the child in the art of self-management”.
You will be interested to know that in most cases in effective classroom management bleeds
indiscipline among learners. Hence teachers need to be aware of problem areas in the classroom
so that they are well equipped in handling their classrooms.

∙ In ability of teachers to know the characteristics of their learner’s.

Learner’s characteristics include age, sex, attitude, socio-economic background, level of
influences and previous [Link] note that the knowledge of the above will equip
you to be able to understand your learners’ behaviours and performances. Prior to which
you will fail to assist the learners promptly and effectively, hence lose their cooperation
and respect.
∙ In ability of the teacher to master the subject matter
Take note that an ill prepared teacher will not only embarrass himself but also lose self
respect. Learners often look unto teachers as authorities in the subject matter they teach.
This is because learners know when a teacher does not know more of the subject and they
often seize this opportunity to ridicule and embarrass the teacher by asking questions and
 making counter -productive observations. Thus a good teacher should prepare very well
and know far more than he/she intends to cover.

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∙ Lack of rapport between the teacher and the learner
You need to be aware that teachers need to create good rapport between the learners and
themselves and among the learners themselves. In other words, teachers need to create a
friendly environment in the classroom. When you develop interest in the learners, they
are likely to reciprocate by loving and respecting you. Teachers can show friendliness by
being consistently polite, taking time to listen and avoiding situations that undermine
student’s self-concept (Oyinloye G. K. 1988).
∙ In effective management of instructional materials
You need to understand that instructional materials are no doubt very useful in
facilitating learning. It may however constitute a problem if not handled properly. In the
first place, production of these materials should not be solely a teacher’s affair; learners
should also be involved in the production of some of the locally produced ones. Their
involvement in the production will enable them to see the work as their own creation and
thus help in their preservation and storage. Note also that great care should be exercised
to avoid disruption of lesson by running here and there for instructional materials since
this could result in a rowdy or noisy classroom.
∙ Ineffective communication skills
You will agree that successful teaching implies effective communication. Take note that
as teachers the ability to express your thoughts and feelings accurately to learners is very
important in human interpersonal communication process. Hence as teachers you should
be learned in communication skills to be able to teach successfully. The teacher is usually
the source of the message. Therefore as teachers you need to use simple but appropriate
words, select effective channel/medium of communication and reduce or eliminate
communication barriers along the channel of communication.

EFFECTIVE TECHNIQUES FOR CLASSROOM MANAGERS

What do you think are techniques that teachers use to enhance classroom management? Take
note that classroom management involves many interrelated and interdependent activities in
management. Hence to answer the question, take note of the following ways;

∙ Classroom Planning

It is a process of addressing issues related to “what to teach”, “how to teach”, “when to

teach”, “with what to teach” in the most effective and efficient manners possible. Note that
classroom planning is a short term type of planning and the paper work on this is referred to
as the daily lesson plan.

∙ Organizing
Fawant (1980) notes that organizing involves a teacher’s ability to anticipate classroom needs
and ability by dealing with them effectively and at an appropriate time. Organizing the

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students as well as the physical and material resources available in the classroom demands
your managerial skills and knowledge as a teacher. A class ought to be organized so that little
opportunity as possible is afforded for disruptions, noises and disorderly behaviours
(Awoniyi, 1979). This may involve grouping students or allowing a free activity class.

Activity 7b

What do you think the classroom manager techniques below involve?

Suggested answers to this activity are at the end of the unit

∙ Leading
∙ Coordinating
∙ Directing
∙ Classroom Controlling
∙ Evaluating
∙ Reporting

SUMMARY

You need to remember that teachers are managers in their classrooms. It is therefore
important that thy display in their classroom an ability to maintain order and discipline for
effective teaching to be promoted. You have also learnt in this unit the need for teacher to
instill discipline in their learners. Akinboye et al (1981) defined discipline as a “strategy of
training the child in the art of self-management”. In this case discipline can be regarded as a
process involving external persons or agents. Thus, “the way the teacher dresses, speaks and
conducts himself in front of his class will go a long way in helping him to control the class
effectively” (Bello, 1981).

UNIT TEST

Explain any five importance of classroom management.

Suggested answers to unit 7 activities

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Garrison, D. R. 1997. Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult

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Marzano, R., D. Pickering, and J. Pollock. 2001. Classroom instruction that works:
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Michele Ferraro. 2015. Investigation of Cooperative Learning and Collaborative

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Mtunda, F,G and Safuli S, D.D.1997. An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of
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[Link]

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