Appendix

Learning Resource Materials

Physiological Process Affecting Crop Production

Target Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to

1. Learn the parts of the plants responsible in the process of photosynthesis.

2. Determine the factors affecting photosynthesis.

3. Learn the process of respiration and factors affecting it.

4. Understand the process of translocation, and transpiration and the parts where

it occurs.

Abstraction

Introduction

Growth and development in plants, from seed germination to plant maturation, are

controlled by a chain of physiological processes.

Some aspects of these processes will be featured and discussed in relation to the

influence that they have on crop yields. Photosynthesis is the starting point of all biosynthesis.

Respiration is important in to the expenditure of stored energy. Metabolism into end-products

like carbohydrates, proteins, fats and other forms essential to man has a direct bearing on

yields and the quality of the products.

Fortunately for us, the biochemical aspects of the various processes have been worked

out by the plant physiologists and biochemists. This knowledge is significant for agronomists

to know under what conditions such systems operate normally or how they can be constrained

by some factors so that proper measures can be taken.

A. PHOTOSYNTHESIS

✓ A biochemical process that serves as the connecting link between solar energy

and life on earth.

✓ It is the process in which carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of light and

chlorophyll, are converted to carbon-containing energy rich organic compounds.

✓ The main organ for photosynthesis is the leaf; the main organelle involved is the

chloroplast.

The features which make the leaf an ideal organ for photosynthesis are:

1. Its typically expanded form

2. It’s usually perpendicular angle to incident light

3. Its extensive internal surface with an efficient vascular system for

channeling the various reactants and end products of photosynthesis

4. Its pigment for light absorption

Chloroplast

− Are usually lens-shaped bounded by double membrane

− The inner membrane invaginates parallel to the surface and becomes

organized into specialized cytoplasmic body consisting of a stack of

thylakoids called granum which are embedded in a proteinaceous matrix

called stroma.
 Chlorophyll

− Principal pigment in photosynthesis located in the partition between two

adjacent thylakoids

− Chlorophyll a occurs in all higher plant, but other isomers like chlorophyll

b, c, d etc may also be found

− In higher plants, the two main isomers are chlorophyll a and chlorophyll

b in ration 3:1

− Its basic unit is the porphyrin ring system, a structure made up of four

simpler pyrrole nuclei joined by carbon linkage

− The center of porphyrin is occupied by a single magnesium atom.

✓ In this process, solar energy is captured and converted into chemical energy

stored in the form of carbohydrates.

✓ Carbon dioxide is taken from the air through the stomata, while water is

absorbed from the soil by the roots and is transported in the xylem to sites of

photosynthesis.

Significance of Photosynthesis

• The products of photosynthesis are sources of energy and building materials for

plants and animals.

• They are also sources of industrial materials.

• Approximately 90% of the human population is engaged directly or indirectly in

the production, processing, and sale of the products and by-product of

photosynthesis.

Component Reactions of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a complex process. is as follows:

light
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
The process can be understood in terms of three partial steps as follows:

i) Diffusion of carbon dioxide to the chloroplast. Carbon dioxide in the air is

transported by turbulence or diffusion to the leaf stomata through which it

diffuses to chloroplast.

ii) Light reactions or photochemical reactions. In these reactions, light is

essential, while temperature is unimportant. They take place in the thylakoid

membranes of the chloroplast. Light energy is used to split water producing

molecular oxygen (O2), reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The light reactions

can be divided into three components:

a. Photolysis of water. Water split into hydrogen ions (H+), electron (e-)

and molecular oxygen (O2).

2H2O + light 4H+ = 4e- + O2

b. Reduction of NADP+ to NADPH. The electrons from water are

transferred through the photosynthetic electron transfer system to

NADP+ to form NADPH.

NADP+ + H+ + 2e- + light NADPH

c. Photophosphorylation. Light and inorganic phosphate (Pi) is used to

convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to ATP.

ADP + Pi + light ATP

iii) Dark reactions or biochemical reactions. In these reactions, light is not

required, but temperature plays an important role. The products of the light

reactions (NADPH and ATP) are used to fix carbon dioxide. The CO2

fixation can occur by one of three pathways; (a) the Calvin-Benson or C3

pathway; (b) the Hatch and slack or C4 pathway; and (c) the Crassulacean

Acid Metabolism or CAM pathway.

 C3 pathway

− Ribulose biphosphate (RUBP) is the CO2 acceptor.

− 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) is the first stable product.

− The name of the pathway came from the fact that the first stable

product (PGA) has three carbon atoms.

− The Calvin-Benson cycle also occurs in C4 plants and CAM

plants as the last stage of the CO2-fixation process.

 C4 pathway

− Phosphoenol pyruvic acid (PEP) is the initial CO2 acceptor

− And the first stable product is oxaloacetic acid (OAA), which is

converted to either malic acid or aspartic acid.

− OAA has four carbon atoms, hence the name of the pathway

− It is also called Hatch and Slack pathway to honor the two

scientists who elucidated the pathway.

− The Calvin-Benson cycle part of the pathway occurs in the bundle

sheath cells, while the initial fixation of CO2 occurs in the

mesophyll cells.
 CAM pathway

− CO2 is fixed at night because the stomata of the CAM plants are

closed during the day and open at night as a way of conserving

moisture.

− It has many reactions similar to those of the C4 pathway, but the

Calvin-Benson cycle is separated from the rest of the

photosynthetic pathway in time – it occurs during the day while

the initial fixation of CO2 occurs during the night.

 Based on the photosynthetic pathway followed, plants are classified a C3plants, C4

plants, and CAM plants. Table 1 shows a comparison of the three types of plants.

Table 1. Some characteristics of C3, C4, and CAM plants

Characteristics C3 plants C4 plants CAM plants

Typically temperate
species, e.g., Typically
Typically arid
spinach, wheat, tropical or semi-
zone species,
potato, tobacco, tropical species,
e.g., cacti,
sugar beet, soy e.g. corn,
Plant species agave,
bean, sunflower, sorghum,
following the bromeliads
etc., and tropical sugarcane,
pathway such as
species, e.g. rice, amaranth, plants
pineapple, most
taro, sweetpotato, adapted to high
orchids, other
cassava, mungbean, light intensity
succulents.
etc. Most plants are and temperature.
C3 plants
Mesophyll with
Mesophyll with no
distinct bundle Mesophyll with
Leaf anatomy distinct bundle
sheath (Kranz large vacuoles
sheath
anatomy)
Ribulose-1, 5- Phosphoenol PEP in the dark
Initial CO2
biphosphate pyruvate (PEP), and RuBP in
acceptor
(RuBP), a 5-C sugar a 3-C acid the light
OAA in the
3-phosphoglycerate Oxaloacetate
dark and 3-
First stable product (3 PGA), a 3-C (OAA), a 4-C
PGA in the
compound compound
light
Optimum
temperature for 15-25 25-40 35-45
photosynthesi (OC)
Two CO2 Two CO2
fixation fixation
CO2 fixation Only one CO2
pathways are pathways are
pathways fixation pathway
separated in separated in
space time
Unsaturated
Light saturation for ¼ to ½ of full 1/10 of full
even at full
photosynthesis sunlight sunlight
sunlight
High affinity
CO2 compensation
High Low for CO2 at
point
night
Glycolate synthesis High Low Low
Transpiration ratio
(H2O lost/CO2 450-950 250-350 18-125
fixed)
High (1/3 of total Very low or
Photorespiration Very low
photosynthesis) absent
Open stomata by Open stomata by Open stomata
Stomatal opening
day day by night

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

1. Internal Factors

a. Nutritional status of the plant

✓ A deficiency of any of the essential element will cause a decrease in

the photosynthesis rate of the leaves.

✓ For example, chlorophyll contains both nitrogen and magnesium; if

they are limited in supply, chlorophyll may not be formed.

✓ Precursor molecules for chlorophyll synthesis include iron, and if it

is not present, chlorophyll cannot be synthesized.

✓ In this case, the deficiency of an element influenced the

photosynthetic apparatus of the plant.

b. Stomata aperture

✓ When water is abundant and nutrition is adequate, the rate of

photosynthesis is usually controlled by the stomatal aperture or

opening and the number of stomata per unit of surface area.

✓ Since carbon dioxide (CO2) diffuses or moves into green tissues

through the stomata, the stomatal number and apertures must be

great enough for passage of adequate levels of CO2.

✓ Stomatal aperture is reduced by water stress, insufficient light, and

high carbon dioxide concentration.

c. Leaf age

✓ The photosynthetic rate of young leaves is usually low but increases

as the leaf approaches full expansion.

✓ After reaching maturity, subsequent photosynthetic activity varies

widely with both species and environment

✓ Old, senescent leaves eventually become yellow and are unable to

photosynthesize because of chlorophyll breakdown and loss of

functional chloroplasts.

2. External Factors

a. Light (Irradiance)
✓ Under natural conditions, the process of photosynthesis is “driven”

by the visible portion of the spectrum or radiant energy between 400

and 700 nanometer (nm) wavelength

✓ Photosynthetic rate is partially a function of the level of irradiance.

✓ In total darkness, photosynthesis occurs and as irradiance increases,

photosynthesis increases until the light compensation point is

reached, where photosynthetic fixation of CO2 exactly equals

respiratory release of CO2, i.e. there is no net movement of CO2 into

or out of the leaf (net photosynthesis = 0).

✓ As irradiance further increases, net photosynthesis (gross

photosynthetic CO2 fixation minus respiration) increases rapidly

until the light saturation level is reached, at which point the

photosynthetic rate levels off.

✓ The following are units or expressions of:

a) Photosynthesis

1. mg CO2/dm2 leaf area/hr

2. mg CO2/cm2 leaf area/sec

3. µmol CO2/m2 leaf area/sec

b) irradiance

1. watt/m2

2. cal/cm2/min

✓ Light intensity with the season, for instance in Los Baños, Laguna

the light intensity during the wet and dry seasons are:

a) wet season – 300 cal/cm2/day

b) dry season – 500-600 cal/cm2/day

✓ This means that there is a doubling of the available light during

summer and explains why light is often a limiting factor to high

yields during the wet season.

 ✓ The figure below (Figure 2) shows the marked difference in light

response curves of C-3 and C-4 plants.

Figure 2. Light response curves of typical C3 and C4 plants.

b. Temperature

✓ The light dependent reaction of photosynthesis is little affected by

temperature but the dark reaction is very temperature dependent.

✓ Within the temperature range of 20-350C, temperature has little effect

on photosynthesis.

✓ However, it does have a definite effect on respiration.

✓ Enzymatically controlled reactions such as respiration occur in

temperature range greater than 00C and less than 500C.

✓ Respiration increases by a factor of 2 or 3 for every increase in

temperature of 100C.

✓ This means that the high tropical temperature has no effect on

photosynthesis but will result in a higher rate of respiration.

✓ This is one reason why yields are low in the tropics.

c. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) concentration

✓ Carbon dioxide is a gaseous component of air.

✓ Dry air contains 78% nitrogen (N2); 21% oxygen (O2); 0.93% Argon

(Ar); 0.038% (380ppm) CO2 and traces of other gases.

✓ Although carbon dioxide is at a low concentration, 85% to 92% of a

plant’s dry weight is derived from CO2 uptake in photosynthesis.

✓ The average CO2 concentration of normal ambient (surrounding) air is

about 0.038% or about 380 ppm.

✓ Diurnal fluctuation of CO2 concentration occur over the rice fields,

increasing at night when only respiration is being carried on and

decreasing during the day when the rice plants are carrying out

photosynthesis.

✓ Photosynthetic rates are enhanced by higher CO2 concentration, unless

stomata are closed by drought or water stress.

✓ The response of photosynthesis to CO2 is similar to its response to

irradiance.

✓ There is a very strong interaction between CO2 level and light level.

✓ At low irradiance, low levels of CO2 will saturate the photosynthetic

mechanisms but as light level increases, progressively higher

concentrations of CO2 are requires to “use up” the NADPH and ATP

produced in the light reactions.

✓ Another aspect of CO2 levels are often well below the general

atmospheric level. This depletion depends on several factors including

canopy density, wind speed and irradiance.

 Figure 3. Typical photosynthesis response of plants to carbon dioxide

d. Moisture

✓ Water is a substrate for photosynthesis, but only about 0.1% of the total

water is used by the plant for photosynthesis.

✓ Transpiration accounts for 99% of the water used by plants.

✓ Approximately 1% is used to hydrate the plant, maintain turgor pressure

and make growth possible.

✓ The supply of water or moisture affects stomatal aperture or opening

(discussed under internal factors).

✓ Stomata open because the guard cells take up water and swell.

✓ When water is deficient stomata close, hence the rate of photosynthesis

is reduced.

e. Wind

✓ Some preliminary data need to be examined in order to understand the

role of wind on photosynthesis

✓ The maximum increase in dry weight per square meter per day observed

in rice in

✓ Los Baños, Laguna is about 30 g. If their mineral content accounts for

10% of the dry matter, the net increase in organic matter would be 27g/

m2/day.

✓ To obtain 27 g of organic matter (dry weight /m2), it is necessary for the

plant to assimilate 39.6 g of CO2/m2.

✓ Now consider the amount contained in one cubic meter of air above the

rice crop.

✓ If air contains 300 ppm CO2, that is equal to 0.59 mg CO2 per liter of

air.

✓ Therefore, there is 590 mg of CO2 in one cubic meter of air.

✓ Remember that rice plants in a sq m can assimilate 39.6g of CO2 in a

day, if we visualize 1 m thick air layer above the rice crop, and that all

of the CO2 is assimilated, this air layer would have to be replaced 67

times by fresh air to provide the necessary volume of CO2 to produce 27

g of dry weight/ m2/day.

✓ The replacement of air above the rice crop with fresh air is important to

the photosynthetic efficiency of the crop.

✓ If the air were not replaced, it would quickly become depleted of CO2.

✓ Air movement is accomplished primarily through wind and turbulence.

✓ The movement of air through turbulence has been computed 104 times

faster than normal diffusion would be.

✓ Normally, moderate winds and turbulence are important to the

production of high yields

B. RESPIRATION

✓ Defined as an enzyme-catalyzed reaction involving the transformation of

organic substrate into carbon dioxide and water accompanied by the release of

energy.

✓ Two of the most important processes carried out by green plants are

photosynthesis and respiration.

✓ Photosynthesis, which takes place in the chloroplasts, is constructive and

reductive, while respiration is degradative (destructive) and oxidative.

✓ All humanity and animal life is dependent on the ability of plants to utilize solar

energy and to store it to provide material for respiration.

✓ Every organism must extract energy from the organic fuel molecules that it

either manufactures or captures from the environment.

✓ These fuel molecules are transported to all the cells of a complex organism,

where they can be broken down to provide the energy for cellular work.

✓ Cells use different catabolic pathways to extract energy from the fuel molecules

they manufacture or ingest: aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.

✓ The type of environment a cell inhabits may determine which catabolic

pathway it uses to break down fuel molecules.

✓ Cells that live in an environment where oxygen is plentiful use an aerobic

pathway, one that requires oxygen, whereas cells that inhabit waterlogged soils

or polluted water where oxygen is absent must use anaerobic pathways that do

not require oxygen.

a. The Process of Aerobic Respiration

✓ Plant cells extract energy from fuel molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and

other organic compounds) by using aerobic respiration.

✓ This process involves a long sequence of 30 or more chemical reactions, each

regulated by a specific enzyme.

 ✓ During aerobic respiration, energy is released as fuel molecules are

catabolized to CO2 and water.

✓ One of the most common pathways of aerobic respiration involves

breakdown of glucose.

✓ Glucose is generally regarded as the starting point for the respiratory

metabolism of carbohydrates.

✓ The overall process of respiration can be expressed by the equation below:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water
✓ Chemically, respiration is oxidation.

✓ In oxidation. Either oxygen is added to the material being oxidized or

hydrogen is removed from it.

✓ A substrate, or more specifically a respiratory substrate, is any organic plant

constituent oxidized partially (to more oxidized compounds) or completely

(to carbon dioxide and water) in respiratory metabolism.

b. Stages of Respiration

1. Glycolysis

✓ Occurs in cytoplasm

✓ Partial oxidation of a glucose

molecule (6-C) yields two

molecules of pyruvic acid (3-

C).

✓ In the process substrate

phosphorylation of the sugar

molecule results to a net

production of 2 ATP

Figure 4. Reactions of glycolysis

2. Krebs Cycle

✓ Also known as tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) because citric and

isocitric acids as intermediate compounds in the cycle have three

carboxyl groups.

✓ Pyruvic acids produced in the cytosol during glycolysis are imported

into the mitochondrial matrix which is the site of Krebs cycle.

✓ Pyruvic acid is first oxidized to acetyl co-enzyme A and

subsequently converted to CO2.

✓ For every glucose molecule (2 pyruvic acids) entering the

mitochondrion, the Krebs cycle generates 6 NADPH and 2 FADH2

and yield 2 ATP via substrate level phosphorylation.

Figure 5. Reactions of the Krebs cycle. Also shown on top is the

oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid to acetyl
coenzyme A.
3. Electron Transport System (ETS)

✓ Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

✓ NADH (from glycolysis and Krebs cycle) and FADH2 (from Krebs

cycle) are oxidized through electron transfer rather than oxidation

by O2 to yield ATP.

✓ ATP is generated in ETS via oxidative phosphorylation

c. Importance of Aerobic Respiration

1. It supplies the energy needed for the growth and maintenance of the

plant.

2. It provides carbon skeletons needed for the synthesis of a large number

of other essential plant products. These products include amino acids

for proteins, nucleotides for nucleic acids and carbon precursors for

porphyrin pigments (such as chlorophyll and cytochromes) and for fats,

sterols, carotenoids, flavonoid pigment such as anthocyanins, and

certain other aromatic compounds such as lignin.

d. Factors Affecting Respiration

1. Age and Tissue type

 Large, young tissues respire more strongly than old

 Developing tissues respire more than mature once

 Tissues undergoing metabolic processes respire more than resting

tissues
2. Temperature

 Enzymes activity doubles for energy 100C rise in temperature within

certain limits

 More rapid breakdown of respiration as temperature increases

above 350C due to destruction of enzyme by heat

 A harvested plant part that is stored is often a living tissue and unless

the product has been cooked or processed, the enzymes are active

and vital processes continue.

 Since respiration is a degradative process, it should be retarded

(slowed down/delayed) as quickly and as completely as possible to

prolong life.

 One way to retard respiration is to refrigerate the product.

3. Oxygen concentration

 Presence of oxygen is essential for oxidative metabolism

 With other factors being constant and not limiting, the rate of

respiration decreases as oxygen decreases.

 Lowering the oxygen concentration by increasing the concentration

of carbon dioxide or nitrogen is useful in storing certain fruit and

vegetable crops.

 This modified storage atmosphere slows down rapid respiration.

4. Soil condition

 Compacted or water-logged soils are generally poorly aerated.

  This condition reduces respiration in the roots resulting in poor

plant growth.

 Mineral nutrient deficiencies affect the respiratory enzymes,

indirectly causing a reduction in respiration

5. Light

 Plants that grow in low light intensities exhibit lower respiration

rates.

 Low light reduces photosynthesis, thus decreasing the amount of

carbohydrates available for respiration.

6. Carbon dioxide concentration

 High level (higher than normal atmosphere) inhibits respiration

 High concentration causes the stomata to close

7. Physiological status of plant or plant cells

 Dormant state respires less than active parts of the plant

8. Moisture Content of tissue

 Seeds with higher moisture content respire more than seeds with

drier tissues

Items Photosynthesis Aerobic respiration

Raw materials CO2, H2O C6H12O6, O2
End products C6H12O6, O2 CO2, H2O
Plant cells
Plant cells that
that have All plant ells
contain chlorophyll
these process
 Parts of cell
Chloroplast Cytoplasm, mitochondrion
involved
Light energy
NADPH/ATP
Energy stored in fuel
Pathway of energy stored
molecules NADH/ATP
energy in
energy for work in cell
carbohydrate
molecules

C. Translocation

✓ To maintain its metabolic activity, the plant needs to circulate to the various

plant parts a wide variety of compounds.

✓ In multicellular plants, the water and inorganic substances absorbed by the

roots have to be transported to the leaves.

✓ The sugars and other organic compounds synthesized there have to be

distributed to all parts of the plant, where they are used for growth and

maintenance, or stored.

✓ These parts include the parts that we harvest.

✓ To meet these needs, higher plants have developed two translocation systems,

the xylem and the phloem.

✓ The xylem provides the pathway by which the water and mineral nutrients

absorbed by the roots are distributed to all parts of the plant, including the

highest leaves.

✓ The phloem, on the other hand, provides the pathway by which the sugars and

other organic compounds produced in the leaves and some inorganic ions move

to the different parts of the plant.

✓ Sugars, which are synthesized during photosynthesis, move throughout the

plant, principally through the phloem tissue.

✓ Sucrose is the main photosynthesis being translocated.

✓ The movement can be downward, from leaves to roots, but lateral and upward

movement from leaves to buds or to fruits or to storage organs also occurs.

✓ Translocation takes place in the long sieve elements connected end to end to

form sieve tubes.

✓ The rate of translocation of sugars in the phloem is rapid, in some instances

more than a thousand times faster than simple diffusion of sugar through water.

✓ The rate of translocation has been measured in many plants and average values

of 1 to 6 g/cm2/hr have been found in developing fruits and tubers.

✓ Much of the carbohydrate translocated within plants is sucrose. This

disaccharide is formed by the linkage of glucose and fructose accompanied by

the removal of the molecule of water.

✓ Movement of materials in living plants has been observed to occur in different

ways, namely:

1. Ordinary diffusion, which transports ions and molecules slowly;

2. Cytoplasmic streaming, which transport molecules and ions within the

cytoplasm at a considerably faster rate than diffusion;

3. Mass flow translocation of material in the phloem;

4. Very rapid upward movement of water and mineral nutrients through the xylem;

5. Lateral transport of materials along the vascular rays radially from sieve

tubes into the cambium tissue and xylem.

 ✓ Translocation to a plant part can be reduced or completely stopped by pests,

diseases, or mechanical breakage (as in lodging).

Source – an organ or tissue that produces more assimilates than the

requirement of the said organ for its own metabolism and growth

exporter organ

Sink – importer or consumer of assimilate

Factors affecting translocation

1. Temperature

✓ Rate of translocation increases with temperature to a maximum and then

decreases due to hazardous effect of high temperature

2. Light

✓ Carbon dioxide assimilation increases as light intensity increases.

3. Metabolic inhibitors

4. Concentration gradient

5. Mineral deficiencies

✓ Sucrose movement can be aided by boron.

6. Hormones

✓ Associated with the active parts, hence growing parts (sinks) greatly

influence translocation

D. Transpiration

✓ Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of water vapor from aerial parts

of plants.

✓ It is basically an evaporative process.

✓ It involves two stages: (1) the evaporation of water from cell surfaces

(dependent on energy, the latent heat of vaporization, which is equal to 539

cal/gram), (2) the diffusion of water vapor out of the plant, mainly through the

leaves.

✓ The driving force of transpiration is the vapor pressure gradient between the

leaf interior and the atmosphere.

✓ There are three types of transpiration, namely:

1. Cuticular transpiration – loss of water takes place directly through the

cuticle of the leaf epidermis. In some plants, this contributes about 5-

10% of the water loss.

2. Lenticular transpiration - loss of water takes place through lenticels,

which are found in stems of trees and in some fruits.

3. Stomatal transpiration - loss of water takes place through stomata,

which are found on leaves. The leaves of most plants have stomata on

the lower surface, although certain species, especially grasses, have

them on both upper and lower surfaces. Stomatal transpiration can

account for more than 90% of the water loss from plants.

✓ Transpiration is often called a “necessary evil”.

✓ Evil because it can result in excessive loss of water from plants, as in periods of

low relative humidity and high temperatures.

✓ It is estimated that up to 99% of the water absorbed by plants is lost through

transpiration.
 ✓ For example, a corn plant absorbs about 200 liters of water during its growth

from the seedling stage to maturity, but only about 2 liters are present in a

mature plant.

✓ Internal water stress can reduce the rate of growth and the yield of crops.

✓ Worse, it can kill the plant.

✓ However, transpiration has benefits for crops.

✓ Transpiration helps in the mobilization of soil nutrients toward the roots.

✓ It aids in the translocation of mineral nutrients absorbed by the roots.

✓ It cools the plant, thereby maintaining a favorable plant temperature for growth

and development.

Factors affect transpiration

1. Solar radiation – it is the main source of energy for the evaporation of water;

visible radiation (light) can directly or indirectly induce the opening of

stomata. That’s why transpiration is high during the day, except in CAM

plants.

2. Temperature – an increase in temperature increases the capacity of the air to

absorb water vapor.

3. Relative humidity – as relative humidity becomes lower, transpiration

increases.

4. Wind – a gentle breeze increases the rate of transpiration compared to still air.

5. Soil moisture availability – when there is lack of water in the soil,

transpiration is reduced.
6. Carbon dioxide concentration – an increase in carbon dioxide concentration

induces partial closure of stomata. Thus, transpiration is reduced.

7. Plant adaptations such as modification of leaves into scales or spines, degree

of cuticular deposition, sunken stomata, closing of stomata during the day (in

CAM plants), presence of hairs on the leaf, solar tracking in which the leaf is

oriented such that its lamina is almost parallel to the rays of the sun thereby

reducing its heat load, etc.