2.

ECOLOGY
1

Definition of terms. 4. Synecology is the study of

1. Ecology is the study of many/different species . It
interrelationships of organisms involves studying the
to each other and with their relationship of the species with
environment. both biotic and abiotic
components of the ecosystem.
2. Environment constitutes the
surroundings of the organisms 5. Habitat - this is a specific
both living (biotic ) and non- place/locality with a particular
living (abiotic or physical) set of conditions where an
organism lives. They are
3. Autecology is the study of single generally categorized as aquatic
species. It involves studying the (water) and terrestrial (land)
relationship of the species with habitats.
both biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystem. 6. Biosphere/ ecosphere- this is
the part of the earth and the
atmosphere inhabited by living
organisms.

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7. Ecological niche- this is the 10. Ecosystem- it is a natural unit

position/ physical space where the composed of abiotic and biotic
organism lives and the role it plays factors whose interactions lead to a
(feeding relationships and other self-sustaining system e.g. a pond.
interactions with other species). 11. Biomass- this is the total dry weight
8. Population- refers to all members of of living organisms at a particular
a particular species in a particular feeding/ trophic level e.g. total dry
habitat at a particular time e.g. weight of maize crop per hectare or
population of lions in Tsavo zebras in a park.
national park. 12. Carrying capacity- refers to
9. Community- refers to all organisms maximum number of organisms an
belonging to different species that area can comfortably support
interact in the same habitat. It without depletion of available
therefore consists of populations. resources e.g. maximum number of
cattle a paddock can hold without
getting overgrazed.

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Application of knowledge gained from FACTORS IN AN ECOSYSYEM.

ecology
A. Abiotic/Physical/non-living factors.
i. Sustainable food production.
1. Light. It is obtained from the sun as
ii. Conservation of natural resources. the main source of energy. It is
iii. Pollution control. measured by a photographic light
iv. Control of pests and diseases. meter.

v. Prediction of climate change. Effects.

vi. Population control. i. It affects photosynthesis, flowering/

photoperiodism, germination (e.g. in
vii. Ecotourism- tourism to exotic or lettuce seeds), opening and closing of
threatened ecosystems to observe stomata; gaseous exchange in plants.
wildlife or help to conserve
nature. ii. It affects hibernation, synthesis of vitamin
D, migration, reproduction and vision in
animals.

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3. Wind- this is moving air. Measured

2. Temperature- It is measured by use of
by a wind vane(for direction) and
thermometer.
wind sock (for strength).
Effects.
Effects.
i. It affects biochemical reactions
because they are controlled by i. It affects evaporation and
enzymes/ affects enzymatic transpiration.
activities. ii. It facilitates spore, fruit and seed
 Low temperature inactivate enzymes dispersal.
while high temperature denature the iii. It is an agent of pollination.
enzymes. iv. Strong wind may break/ uproot
ii. It affects the rate of transpiration; trees.
evaporation, sweating, v. Wind may blow away/ bring rain-
photosynthesis, hibernation/ bearing clouds.
aestivation.
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vi. It influences migration of 4. Atmospheric pressure- this

animals. is the pressure exerted by the
vii. It influences predation air in the atmosphere. It is
through wafting of the measured by a barometer.
scent. Effects.
viii. It causes formation of waves i. Variation in atmospheric
in aquatic habitats pressure affects the amount
facilitating aeration. of oxygen available for
respiration and carbon (IV)
oxide in the atmosphere for
photosynthesis.
ii. Decreased atmospheric
pressure increases the rate
of transpiration.

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5. Humidity- this is the volume of Effects of humidity

water vapor in the atmosphere. i. Affects the rate of evaporation,
sweating and transpiration hence
When humidity is high there is affecting their distribution.
much water vapor in the 6. pH (hydrogen ion concentration)-
atmosphere and when it is low, Refers to the degree of alkalinity or
there is less water vapor in the acidity in aquatic habitats/soil
solution. It is measured by use of
atmosphere. It is measured by: BDH universal indicator paper/pH
meter.
i. Paper hygrometer.
Effects.
ii. Blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride i. Affects the distribution plants and
paper which turns pink when animals in soil and fresh water
hydrated. It turns pink faster in ponds.
humid atmosphere than in ii. Affects the degree of soil fertility.
relatively dry atmosphere.

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7. Salinity- refers to the degree  Influences the maintenance

of salt concentration in of osmotic pressure/
aquatic habitats/ water. osmoregulation in aquatic
 Based on salt concentration, animals hence distribution of
the aquatic environment is animals.
divided into:  It is determined by calculating
i. Fresh water habitats- have the percentage of salts in
no salt e.g. rivers, lakes, water or by acid base titration
ponds and wells. method.
ii. Marine habitats- have high
salt concentration e.g.
oceans.
iii. Estuarine habitats- with
fluctuating salt
concentration.
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8. Rainfall/ water vii. It is an agent of pollination in

 The main source of water is rain and some aquatic plants.
the amount of rainfall is measured by viii. It is required for fertilization in
use of rain gauge. Pteridophytes and Bryophytes;
Effects 9. Topography-this is the slope of
i. It is required for germination. land;
ii. It is a raw material for i. It affects distribution of crops.
photosynthesis.  Wind ward side receives more
iii. It acts as universal solvent. rainfall hence more and healthy
crops/ plants grow.
iv. It acts as a medium of transport of
substances.  The leeward side receives less rainfall
hence fewer and stunted crops/
v. It provides turgidity to cells/ plants grow.
support in herbaceous plants.
ii. North facing slopes in the
vi. It is an agent of fruit and seed southern hemisphere have more
dispersal. plants.
iii. It affects the rate of soil erosion.

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B. BIOTIC INTER- Adaptations of the prey.

RELATIONSHIPS/ i) They run faster/ have strong
INTERACTIONS. hind muscles (to escape the
1. PREDATION/ PREDATOR- predator).
PREY RELATIONSHIP/ ii) They camouflage with the
INTERACTION. environment (i.e. resemble
 A predator is an animal that the environment) hence not
hunts/ kills another (prey) for easily noticed by the
food e.g. a dog and a hare. predators.
 Preys have survival mechanisms iii) Some mimic the predators
in their habitats not to be eaten/ (i.e. they resemble the
killed. predators).
 Predators have survival
mechanisms to enable them
survive and reproduce/
propagate their lineage.
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iv) Some emit some chemicals/ Adaptations of the predator.

smell that turn off i) They run faster so as to
predators. capture the prey.
v) Some have good sense of ii) They camouflage with the
smell and sight to detect environment hence not
predators. easily noticed by the prey.
vi) Some (e.g. porcupines) have iii) Some mimic the preys.
quills/ spines, others (e.g.
grasshoppers) have spikes to iv) They have sharp eyesight to
fight off predators. locate the prey.
vii) Some have a wider vision/
view to locate the predator.

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v) They have strong sense of smell 2. Helps to control the

and sight to locate and identify population size of the predator
the prey. and prey e.g. an increase in the
vi) Some produce venom/ poison number of gazelles leads to an
that paralyze/ kill prey. increase in number of lions.
vii) Some have strong jaws/ claws/  As lion number increases,
sharp canines/ hawks (for hawks) they feed on the gazelles whose
to capture prey. members will decrease to such
a low level that the lions will
Effects/ economic importance of start to starve and die or
predation. migrate.
1. It brings about the biological
control especially to destroy
disadvantageous prey.
 Biological control- refers to the use
of natural enemies to regulate the
population of unwanted species.
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2. PARASITISM (ANTAGONISTIC/ Differences between predation and

ANTIPATHETIC SYMBIOSIS)- this parasitism.
is a kind of interspecific relationship/ i. In predation the whole
association where one member/ organism/large parts are used as
organism (parasite) benefits while the food while in parasitism, tiny
other (the host) is harmed/ loses. parts/tissues are used as food.
 There are two types of parasites, endo/ ii. In predation the whole organism
internal parasites (found inside the body dies while in parasitism organism
of organism) e.g. liverfluke, roundworm, does not die.
tapeworm) and ecto/ external parasites
(found outside the body of organism) e.g. iii. In predation, one predator feeds on
ticks, fleas, mites). many preys while in parasitism many
parasites feed on one.
 For example a tick (parasite) sucks blood/
nutrients from a cow (host) causing the Similarities between predation and
cow to be anaemic, transmit diseases, parasitism.
destroying the skin, causing it to be i. In both, one organism uses another
malnourished. organism as food.
ii. In both, one benefits and the other
suffers.
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3. SYMBIOSIS- this is a close b) The bacteria found in human

relationship between two digestive system/ gut/ colon- the
organisms of different species human beings provide shelter to
where the two mutually benefit bacteria while bacteria help to
from each other. synthesize/ manufacture vitamin K
 Examples include: and B12 (or ensures microbial
balance).
a) Bacteria in the rumen/ gut of
herbivores- the bacteria help thec) The nitrogen fixing bacteria
herbivores to digest cellulose (Rhizobium sp) on root nodules of
and herbivores provide shelter leguminous plants- plants provide
to the bacteria. food and shelter to bacteria while
bacteria convert/ fix atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrates/ ammonium
compounds which are absorbed by
plants.
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d) Mycorrhiza (association between fungus and
roots of coniferous/ forest trees- Mycorrhiza Types of competition.
absorbs mineral salts for plant use while trees a. Intraspecific competition-
provide food/ organic materials to fungi) Competition among members
e) Lichen (association between blue green algae of the same species
and fungus)- blue green algae provides
nutrients/ carries out photosynthesis while Signs of intraspecific competition
the fungus absorbs water and provides a point in plants.
of attachment for algae. i. Thin and tall plants.
4. COMPETITION- This is an association ii. Yellow and pale green plants.
where two/ more organisms depend on the
same limited resources e.g. food, light, water, iii. Low yield.
mates and shelter.
 Example zebra and gazelle competing for grass.
 In competition organisms which are poorly
adapted die or migrate while the organisms
which are well adapted survive hence the species
increases competition can be interspecific; or
intraspecific.

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b. Interspecific competition- Competition among Study question.

members/organisms of different species. Explain why the carrying capacity of
• If two different species occupy the same wild animals is higher than that of
ecological niche, sooner or later one will outdo/ cattle in a given area.
eliminate the other. This is called competition  Wild animals have different feeding
exclusion principle. habits e.g. some are grazers while
• The organism that outdoes/ eliminates the other others are browsers hence there is
has better structural and behavioral adaptations minimum competition for food and
e.g. high rate of multiplication. Organisms space.
without such adaptations migrate or die.  Cattle have the same feeding habits
• To avoid competition exclusion principle the (all are grazers) hence there is
organisms need to occupy different ecological competition for food hence fewer
niches. cattle can be supported in a given
• Competition helps to regulate/control area.
population size of organisms.
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5. SAPROPHYTISM. iv) Are used in food processing industries for

production of yoghurt, cheese, vinegar.
 This is a relationship where organisms obtain
nutrients from dead organic matter causing v) Used in curing tea and tobacco and making
silage.
decomposition. These organisms are called
saprophytes e.g. bacteria and fungi. vi) Genetically engineered bacteria are used as a
source of proteins, for production of enzymes
 They release enzymes that digest the dead in detergents and for manufacture of
decaying matter and the products are directly hormones e.g. insulin.
absorbed into the tissue of the saprophyte. vii) Symbiotic bacteria in ruminants and rodents,
secrete cellulose enzyme that digests cellulose.
Importance/ role of saprophytism/ saprophytes/
Harmful effects
decomposers in the ecosystem.
i) They cause decay hence spoilage of food
Beneficial roles leading to food poisoning.
i) They break down dead organic matter ii) Parasitic bacteria e.g. Streptococcus sp,
facilitating recycling of nutrients/ improve soil Pneumoniae sp, Vibrio cholera cause plant and
animal diseases.
fertility.
iii) Denitrifying bacteria reduce soil nitrates to
ii) Some e.g. Rhizobium and Azotobacter are free nitrogen thus reducing soil fertility.
involved in nitrogen fixation/ convert
nitrogen to nitrates for plant use.
iii) Treatment of sewage and production of © Sam obare 10-Jan-21
biogas.
17

NITROGEN CYCLE. ii. Biological- Nitrogen fixation by non-

 This is the cycling of nitrogen and its symbiotic bacteria and free living micro-
compounds in nature. Nitrogen is used organisms found in the soil e.g. Azotobacter
in manufacture of proteins. sp, Clostridium sp, and some algae e.g.
Nostoc, blue green algae, chlorella,
Steps/cycle Anabaena (which fix nitrogen into
A. Nitrogen fixation- atmospheric ammonia which is then converted into
nitrogen converted into nitrates/ nitrates).
ammonia for plant use/absorption iii. Non- biological/ Lightning- During
through biological and non-biological thunderstorm the lightning energy combines
nitrogen fixation. atmospheric nitrogen with oxygen to form
i. Biological- Nitrogen fixation by Nitrogen (IV) oxide. Nitrogen (IV) oxide
symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium later dissolves in rain water to form weak
in the root nodules of the legumes nitric acid and nitrous acid. The nitric acid
(which convert nitrogen gas into combines with metal ions in the soil to form
ammonia which are then converted nitrates.
into ammonium compounds).

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B. Absorption by plants- plants E. Nitrification- Ammonium

absorb nitrate ions or ammonium compounds are converted into
ions directly from the soil and nitrites by nitrifying bacteria
them to make amino acids/plant e.g. Nitrosomonas and
proteins through the process of Nitrococcus . Nitrites are then
photosynthesis (hence nitrogen is converted into nitrates by
incorporated into the plant nitrifying bacteria e.g.
protein). Nitrobacter. Nitrification
C. Feeding- by animals on plant enriches the soil with nutrients.
proteins and assimilate them to F. Denitrification- Nitrates in the
form animal proteins. soil are converted into nitrites,
D. Ammonification/petrification/d ammonia or free nitrogen gas by
eath and decay- When animal denitrifying bacteria e.g.
and plants die they and their Pseudomonas denitrificans and
wastes and droppings are acted Thiobacillus denitrificans.
upon by saprophytic bacteria and • Denitrification deprives soil of
fungi to form ammonium fixed nitrogen gas and releasing
compounds. free nitrogen into the air.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
 Free nitrogen in Fixation by free living micro-
the atmosphere. organisms e.g. Clostridium,
Denitrification
Azotobacter
by Fixation by symbiotic
pseudomonas, organisms e.g.
Thiobacillus Nitrogen fixation Rhizobium
by lighting.

Nitrates
(NO3) Absorption Plants Feeding Animals

Nitrification by
Nitrobacter

Death followed by decay by saprophytic

Nitrites
bacteria and fungi
(NO)
(ammonification/petrification)

Nitrification by
Nitrosomonas Ammonia
(NH3)

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Role of nitrogen cycle- Helps to ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM.

regulate the atmospheric nitrogen.  The sun is the main source of this
i. It acts as a source of energy for energy which is contained in food
decomposers. eaten.
ii. It allows free nitrogen in the  Energy flow is the flow of chemical
atmosphere to be incorporated energy in feeding relationship/from
into the tissues of organisms. one feeding level to the other.
 Plants absorb the light energy from
iii. It enriches the soil with nitrogen the sun and use it in manufacture of
for plant use. food for themselves and consumers
Role of decomposers/saprophytes in hence it is incorporated into the
nitrogen cycle. plant tissues hence plants are called
primary producers.
i. Their action results into release
of nutrients into the soil. N/B-The role of producers is to
manufacture food to be used by
themselves and all other organisms in
the ecosystem.

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 Primary consumers obtain the energy  A small portions of energy is passed

from plants/primary producers e.g. from one trophic level to the next
plants, therefore the number of organisms in
 Secondary consumers e.g. herbivores a given trophic level must be more
obtain the energy from the primary than the succeeding trophic level.
consumers,  This is because some energy is lost
 Tertiary consumers e.g. leopard obtain through:
energy from the secondary consumer. i. Respiration,
 Quaternary consumers (scavengers) e.g. ii. Excretion,
vulture obtain energy from the iii. Excreation/defecation/egestion,
tertiary consumer.
iv. Decomposition,
 When living organisms die they are
broken down/decomposed by v. Unedible materials not
decomposers (saprophytes) e.g. consumed.
bacteria and fungi.
 The feeding level (producers to
consumers) is called feeding/trophic
level.

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FOOD CHAINS Methods of determining the

 A food chain is a linear type of diet of organisms.
representation of the flow of a) Dissecting the organism
energy from the producers to and analyzing the
consumers and to the
contents of the digestive
decomposers.
system/gut.
 Examples include:
b) Observations as they
a) Grass Grasshopper Bird
feed.
b) Napier grass Goat Man
c) Examining the droppings.
 The arrow points to the eater.
d) Studying their
dentition/beaks.
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FOOD WEBS a) a. Name the food

 A food web consists of relationship above.
many food chains.  Food web
Example 1 b) How many trophic levels
are shown in the diagram
above?
 Three

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Example 2 a) Construct a food chain ending with

crocodile as a quaternary consumer.
 Microscopic plants mosquito
larvae small fish large fish
crocodiles
b) Name the organism in the food web that
has only one predator.
 Large fish
 Mosquito larvae

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Example 3 a) Write down the food chains in which the

guinea fowls are secondary consumers.
 Grass → Grasshoppers → Guinea
fowls
 Grass → Termites → Guinea fowls
b) What would be the short term effects on the
ecosystem if lions invaded the area?
 Lions would compete with leopards for
food/prey
 Gazelle numbers would reduce
 Grass would increase
c) Name the organism through which energy
from the sun enters the food web.
 Grass

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Example 4 a) Name the process through which energy

from the sun is incorporated into the
food web.
 Photosynthesis
b) State the mode of feeding of the fish in
the food web.
 Carnivorous
c) Name the two ecosystems in which the
organisms in the food web live.
 Terrestrial and aquatic

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d) What would happen to the f) The biomass of producers in the

organisms in the food web if bird L ecosystem was found to be greater
migrated? than that of the primary
 The number of snails would consumers. Explain.
increase hence more food for bird N  So that the producers are able to
whose population would increase. support the primary consumers.
The number of algae and green This is because energy is lost
plants would reduce as they are through respiration.
eaten by the large number of snails.
e) From the information in the food
web, construct a food chain with
the large fish as the tertiary
consumer.
 Algae Insect larvae
Small fish large fish
 Algae zooplankton
Small fish large fish

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Name the producers in the ecosystem.

Example 5
(i)

 Phytoplanktons
(ii) Name two organisms which are both
secondary and tertiary consumers.
 Hawk; and water snake
(iii) State two short term effects of
immigration of insects in the
ecosystem.
 Decrease in phytoplanktons
 Increase in population of small fish

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(iv) Which organism has Example 6

the least Biomass in Given that:
the food web? Explain.
i. Small fish feed on planktonic crustaceans
 Hawk; and worms.
 Reason – it is a top ii. Insect larvae feed on planktonic algae.
predator. Amount of
energy decreases in iii. Large fish feed on small fish.
successive trophic levels iv. Birds feed on small fish, planktonic
or energy is lost through crustaceans and worms.
respiration; egestion/ v. Worms feed on insect larvae.
excreation,
vi. Planktonic crustaceans feed on
undigested/unconverted
planktonic algae.
food
a) Construct a food web from the above
information.
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30

Large fish Birds

v

Insect Worms Planktonic

Small fish
larvae crustaceans

Planktonic algae

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b) Name the organisms that d) Explain why primary

compete for food. productivity decreases with
 Small fish and birds. increase in depth in water
/aquatic habitat.
 Birds and large fish.
 Decrease in light intensity.
 Planktonic crustaceans, small
fish and insect larva.  Decrease in temperature.
c) How does man interferes
with the above
ecosystem?
 Carrying out fishing.
 Polluting the water body.
 Irrigating using the water
from the lake.

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PYRAMID OF NUMBERS. Constructing pyramid of numbers

 A pyramid of number is a diagram i. Use data provided/collected.
which represents the total number of ii. From the data identify and draw
organisms at different feeding/trophic the most suitable food chain.
levels.
iii. Indicate the numbers at each
 It shows the relationship between the trophic level in the food chain.
number of organisms occupying the
trophic levels. iv. Choose a most suitable scale from
the data.
 Usually the greatest in number are
producers followed by consumers in v. Using the chosen scale, draw a
decreasing order. horizontal rectangular bar to
represent the number of
 At each trophic level energy is lost in producers as the base of the
respiration and thus fewer organisms pyramid.
can be supported at a succeeding
level. vi. Progressively draw horizontal bars
to represent other trophic levels.

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Example. a) Construct a possible food chain

for the dam.
 The following table shows the
estimated number of Microscopic algae mosquito
larvae small fish large fish
organisms recorded in a farm.
crocodiles
 Small fish- 3,500
 Microscopic algae- 12, 000
 Crocodiles-100
 Large fish- 950
 Mosquito larvae- 8, 900

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b) Construct a pyramid of numbers

from the given data.
Scale: 1cm represents 1000 organisms
Crocodiles

Large fish

Small fish

Mosquito larvae

Microscopic algae
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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c) Explain the shape of the pyramid Inverted/irregular pyramid of

obtained. numbers.
 The number of organisms decreases up  It is obtained when the number of
the trophic levels. organisms does not decrease in
 This is because energy is lost in form of succeeding trophic levels e.g.
respiration in succeeding trophic levels 1. Many caterpillars feeding on one
meaning that fewer numbers can be tree which in turn are fed on by
supported up the trophic levels. birds.
Limitations of pyramid of numbers. 2. Monkeys feeding on one mango
i. Producers vary in size yet they are tree which are in turn fed on by
given the same status. several fleas/parasites.
ii. It is difficult to draw the pyramid of
numbers to scale because the numbers
vary.
iii. It is difficult to determine the trophic
levels of some organisms because some
occupy more than one trophic level.

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

 Example 1,partially inverted pyramid of numbers.
36

Birds

Caterpillars

One tree

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 Example 2, Fully/Completely inverted pyramid of numbers.
37

Fleas

Monkeys

1 mango tree

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PYRAMID OF BIOMASS.  In a stable ecosystem, the biomass of

 This is a diagram drawn to represent any trophic level should become
the dry mass of organisms at different more than the successive level in
feeding/trophic levels. order to support the successive level.
 Primary producers/plants have largest  The ecosystem should be ecologically
biomass because they are producers i.e. balanced i.e. the components in the
obtain the energy directly from the sun ecosystem are available in a steady
and use it to manufacture food from manner such that there is no
which other organisms depend on depletion of any of them.
directly or indirectly.  In the aquatic ecosystem, the
 Tertiary/Quaternary consumers have pyramid of biomass is
the lowest biomass because they occupy partially/completely inverted because
the highest trophic levels. some aquatic organisms have
alternative preys.
 As the trophic levels are ascended, most
of biomass is lost in form of faeces,
urine and as heat during respiration.

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Example

Secondary
consumers (100g)

Primary consumers (1000g)

Primary producers (5000g)

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Example b) Construct a pyramid of biomass

from the given data.
 The table below gives
information about the Scale: 1cm represents 500 grams
aquarium which is ecologically
balanced.
 Insect larvae- 500g

 Fish -1, 200g

 Water plants- 5, 000g

 Bacteria – 10g

a) Construct a suitable food

chain.
Water plants insect
larvae fish
bacteria
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c. Explain the shape of the d. State two roles of green plants

pyramid of biomass. in a fish aquarium other than
 It is partially inverted because providing food for fish.
although the insect larvae have i. Generate oxygen.
less biomass can sustain the fish ii. Remove carbon (IV) oxide.
due to the large number and
many eggs laid by the insects.
 Fish will also depend on
alternative prey.

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POPULATION. Factors influencing population

 This is a group of organisms
growth rate.
belonging to the same species 1. Availability of food.
in a particular habitat e.g. a 2. Space.
population of buffalos in a
national park. 3. Diseases.
Characteristics of a population. 4. Predators
1. Population density- refers to 5. Pests.
the number of organisms per
unit area.
2. Population dispersion- refers
to the spread/distribution of
organisms.
3. Population growth rate-
refers to the rate of increase
in numbers.
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Population growth.
 When population data is
plotted against time, a
sigmoid (s-shaped) curve is
formed.
 It is divided into 4
regions/phases namely:
A. -Lag phase
B. -Log/exponential phase
C. -Decelerating phase
D. -Plateau phase
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Phases of sigmoid curve 2. B-log/exponential phase- There

1. Lag phase- The rate of is rapid/faster population
population growth is low/no growth rate because:
change in population because: i. The organisms have fully
i. The reproducing individuals adjusted to the environment.
are few/have not given birth. ii. The number of reproducing
ii. Organisms have not adjusted organisms is high/organisms
to the environment. have sexually matured..
iii. Organisms still maturing. iii. There are enough resources
e.g. food and space/no
competition.
iv. There are no diseases.
v. Birth rate higher than death
rate.

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45

3. Decelerating phase- There is  At this point population stops

reduced growth rate because: growing and the habitat is said to
i. Competition as a result of have attained carrying capacity.
increase in Ways through which food regulates
population/overcrowding/space/ population growth.
food limiting.  More food causes population
ii. Accumulation of wastes. increase due to high rate of
iii. Disease outbreak reproduction and immigration
leading to competition for food
iv. Death rate higher than birth rate. causing death or emigration
4. D-plateau phase- There is no reducing the population.
increase/change in population
because:
i. Aged/old organisms.
ii. Death rate equal to birth rate.
iii. Limited resources.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
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METHODS OF POPULATION  Sampling methods include:

ESTIMATION. 1. Quadrat method.
Reasons for population estimation.
2. Line transect.
1. To help draw a pyramid of
numbers. 3. Belt transect.
2. To establish the 4. Capture-recapture method.
population/total number of
organisms of a particular
species.
 The methods include:

A. Direct counting/head
counting/census.
B. Aerial photography count.
C. Sampling methods.

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1. QUADRAT METHOD.
 A quadrat is a square frame of
1m x 1m but can be subdivided
into smaller squares using a
string.
 The method is suitable when
estimating the population of
small plants e.g. grass, herbs and
small slow moving animals.

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Procedure of using a quadrat.  1st -20 organisms

i. Select the area e.g. play  2nd -2 organisms
ground.  3rd – 100 organisms
ii. Estimate the size of the area  4th – 0 organisms
e.g. 5000m2 .
 5th – 50 organisms
iii. Throw the quadrat at random,
count the number of  6th – 8 organisms
organisms of the same species
within the quadrat and record
iv. Throw as many times as
possible and record.
v. Calculate the average number
of organisms in each quadrat.
vi. Use the average to estimate the
population in the field/area.

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Average Limitations of quadrat method

20+2+100+0+50+8 =30 1. Randomness is not assured.
2. It is tedious/laborious and time
8 consuming if the area is large.
 Therefore: 3. Cannot be used on large plants
1m2 =30 organisms and most animals.

5000 m2 =?
= (5000 x 30)
organisms
=150,000
organisms

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2. LINE TRANSECT v. Place the quadrat at the 1st

METHOD. station ensuring that the
 It involves the use of straight
line passes though the
line/rope and a quadrat. centre of the quadrat.
 It is suitable to estimate the
vi. Count the number of
population of small plants. organisms of the same
species in the quadrat and
Procedure record.
i. Identify the area/field to be vii. Repeat the procedure in all
studied. stations and record.
ii. Estimate the size in square viii. Calculate the average and
metres. estimate the population as
iii. Take a long rope/line and in quadrat method.
stretch across the area/field.
iv. Select equal stations along
the rope/line.
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3. BELT TRANSECT iv. Count the number of

METHOD. organisms of the same species
 It involves the use of two parallel
between the ropes and record.
lines/ropes which are 1 m apart. v. Repeat the procedure several
 It is used to estimate the
times, record and calculate
population of herbs and shrubs. the average.
Procedure vi. Use the average to calculate
the total number of
i. Identify the area/field. organisms in the field.
ii. Estimate the size in square
metres e.g. 5000m2
iii. Stretch/lay down 2 ropes of
known length parallel to each
other but 1m apart.

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Example - Therefore, 20m2=160 organisms

- If the length of the ropes/belts is 5000 m2 = ?
20m, then the area of the belts is (20 = 5000 x 160
x 1)= 20 square meters
20
- If the average number of organisms
is 160, then 20 square meters = 160 = 40,000
organisms organisms.

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4. CAPTURE- RECAPTURE 4. Allow them to mix freely for

METHOD. 24 hours.
 The method involves capturing, 5. Recapture the organisms.
marking, recording, releasing them 6. Record the total number of
after marking them. organisms in the 2nd capture
 It is suitable in estimating the (SC) and the number of
population of highly marked organisms (SCM).
mobile/constantly moving organisms 7. Use the formula to calculate
e.g. crabs, birds, fish, grasshoppers. the total population/number
Procedure. of organisms in the habitat
1. Select the habitat. (TP).
2. Capture as many animals as
possible of the same species.
3. Count them, mark using
indelible ink and release them
(FCM).
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
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FCM = SCM Materials used to capture the animals

TP SC 1. Mosquito nets.
TP x SCM =SC x FCM 2. Fish/seine nets.
TP = SC x FCM 3. Sweep nets.
SCM 4. Specimen bottles.
Where: Marking techniques/methods and tools
TP- Total population 1. Use of light colored paint that is
SC- Second capture quick to dry e.g. cellulose, colored
nail varnish.
FCM- First capture and marked
2. Use of tags.
SCM- Second capture but
marked 3. Tiny brush/ spot marker.
 The marking technique should not
harm the animal or alter its behavior.

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Example - Population = FCM X SC

- A fish farmer wanted to know the
number of fish in a pond. He
collected 10 fish from the pond and
SCM
labeled each by a tag label on its fin TP = 10 X 50 = 500
and returned the ten fish to the
pond to mix with other fish. When
4 4
he later collected 50 fish from the = 125 fish
pond, he found only 4 of them had
labels. Estimate the total number of
fish in the pond (show your
working).

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ASSUMPTIONS OF 4. There is no migration in and

CAPTURE-RECAPTURE out of the habitat/study area.
METHOD. 5. The marking technique does
1. The marked/released not affect the behavior of the
organisms mix freely with the organism.
rest of the population. 6. There is a uniform/random
2. The marked/released distribution of animals in the
organisms have enough time habitat/study area.
to mix freely with the rest.
3. There is no death/ variation/
reproduction in population
during the study period/ the
population does not vary
during the study period.

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

 ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS TO
VARIOUS HABITATS.
57

A. XEROPHYTES. Adaptations.
 Xerophytes are plants with 1. They have small and narrow
adaptations to withstand dry leaves/needle-like leaves and
conditions e.g. those found spines to reduce the surface area
in arid and semi arid areas over which transpiration occurs
 These areas have the 2. The leaves have thick, waxy and
following features:
shiny cuticle to prevent
1. Low humidity. overheating/ reduce the distance
2. Unpredictable and poorly of light penetration.
distributed rain.
3. The leaves have sunken stomata
3. Very high temperatures. which accumulate moisture in
4. Strong winds. pits/depressions thus lowering
the diffusion gradient reducing
the rate of transpiration.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
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4. Some have folded leaves 7. Xerophytes leaves and stems

hence not exposing stomata are succulent due to the
to environmental factors presence of parenchyma cells
thus reducing the rate of to store water which is used
transpiration. during drought.
5. Some xerophytes show 8. They have few/ reduced
reversed stomatal rhythm number of stomata that
i.e. they open the stomata lower the rate of
during the night and close transpiration.
during the day to prevent 9. Have hairy leaves to trap
excessive water loss through moisture reducing
transpiration during the day. concentration gradient
6. Some xerophytes shed their hence reducing the rate of
leaves during drought to transpiration.
reduce the surface area
exposed to transpiration.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
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10. Some have deep roots to B. MESOPHYTES.

absorb water from deep in  These are plants that grow
the soil while some have under normal conditions of
superficial roots (roots well aerated soil and water
which grow horizontally supply.
close to the surface) to
absorb water after light or  The conditions in those areas
short showers of rain. include:
11. Some xerophytes have short i. Adequate rainfall.
life cycles to escape ii. Relatively high humidity.
drought, hence some iii. Moderate to high
survive as seeds or temperature.
underground storage
organs. iv. Less wind.
v. Shallow water table.

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Adaptations 5. Their leaves have transparent

1. The leaves have thin cuticle to reduce cuticle and epidermal cells to
the distance travelled by gases/ for faster allow light penetration to the
diffusion of gases to the palisade cells and increase the
photosynthetic/palisade cells/ and rate of transpiration.
increase the rate of transpiration. 6. Their leaves have air spaces in
2. The leaves have broad lamina to spongy mesophyll for gases to
increase the surface area for absorption diffuse easily into the palisade
of light and carbon (IV) oxide and cells/ for efficient gaseous
transpiration. exchange.
3. They have mosaic arrangement of 7. Palisade cells contain
leaves to avoid overlapping and over numerous chloroplasts with
shadowing to increase the surface area chlorophyll next to the upper
for absorption of gases and light. epidermis to receive maximum
light for photosynthesis.
4. They have stomata on the upper and
lower leaf epidermis for efficient
gaseous exchange and transpiration.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
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C. HYDROPHYTES. Types of hydrophtytes

 They are plants found in fresh water,  There are three types of hydrophytes:
marshy/swampy areas. i. Floating hydrophytes- they float on
 They take up excess water and therefore the surface and the roots are freely
need to lose more water through hanging in water.
transpiration. ii. Emergent hydrophytes- the root
 Their habitats have the following system is anchored to the bottom
characteristics: of the pond but the leaves are
i. Low O2 concentration. above the surface of water.
ii. Low light intensity. iii. Submerged hydrophytes- they are
fully immersed in water.
iii. Low mineral salt concentration
content.
iv. A lot of water.
v. Waves and currents.

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Adaptations of hydrophytes. 4. They have poorly developed roots

1. Emergent and floating hydrophytes that lack root hairs to reduce
have broad leaves with numerous absorption of water.
stomata on the upper surface to increase 5. They have aerenchyma tissue/ large
the surface area for transpiration and for air filled tissues for buoyancy and
efficient gaseous exchange. for gaseous exchange.
2. Submerged hydrophytes have highly 6. Flowers of emergent and floating
dissected leaves into thread-like straws hydrophytes are raised above the
to increase surface area for absorption of water to allow pollination.
maximum light and carbon (IV) oxide 7. The leaves of submerged hydrophytes
for photosynthesis and gaseous have numerous and sensitive
exchange. chloroplasts that photosynthesize
3. Floating hydrophytes have long fibrous under low light intensities.
roots to absorb mineral salts. 8. Leaf lamina is thin for faster diffusion
of gases.
9. Leaves lack cuticle to allow for water
loss.

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D. HALOPHYTES. How do halophytes suffer from

 They are plants that are able to physiological drought?
tolerate and grow in very salty soils  The surrounding soil/water
or water. Their habitats are medium is hypertonic (contains
characterized by: high salt concentration) as
i. High concentration of mineral compared to the cell sap of the
salts. halophytes. This prevents the
absorption of water through
ii. Low concentration of dissolved
osmosis thus plants suffer from
gases.
physiological drought.
iii. Low light intensity.
iv. Currents and waves.

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5. Some hydrophytes e.g.

Adaptations of halophytes.
mangrove have
1. Their root cells have high salt pneumatophores (breathing
concentration to absorb water by roots) for gaseous exchange.
osmosis.
6. They have tissues which are
2. They have water storage tissues/ tolerant to dehydration.
succulent tissues that store water to
7. Submerged halophytes have
dilute the cell cytoplasm.
sensitive chloroplasts which
3. Some have salt glands on the leaves carry out photosynthesis under
to get rid/ remove excess salts. low light intensity.
4. They have large air spaces/
aerenchyma tissue in their leaves,
stems and fruits to provide buoyancy
and for gaseous exchange.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
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Example Identify with reasons the habitats of

The table below shows stomatal the plant from which the leaves were
distribution on leaves A and B and obtained:
their surface area. Use the a) Leaf A
information to answer the questions Habitat- Aquatic
that follow.
Reasons:
i. Stomata are located on the
upper surface ( to increase the
rate of transpiration).
ii. The leaf has a large surface
area (to provide a large surface
area for transpiration).

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b) Leaf B. POLLUTION
Habitat- Terrestrial/ normal dry - It refers to release of substances
land. of forms of energy into the
Reasons. environment by human activities
in such quantities whose effects
i. More stomata on the lower
are either harmful or unpleasant
surface/ fewer stomata on the
to human and other living
upper surface.
organisms.
ii. Smaller surface area (to reduce - Those substances are called
the surface area for pollutants. A pollutant is a
transpiration). substance/ a waste that
contaminates air, water and soil.

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A. AIR POLLUTION. ii) Sulphur (IV) oxide causes

 Refers to release of substances to the respiratory infections e.g.
air in amounts that destroy the bronchitis, Pneumonia and
environment and are harmful to heart failure.
human health and other organisms. iii) Nitrogen (IV) oxide is
Causes and effects. carcinogenic thus causes
1. Release of chemical substances cancer.
containing Sulphur (IV) oxide, iv) They interfere with gaseous
hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen (IV) exchange in animals.
oxide from volcanic activities- v) Hydrogen sulphide is
i) They cause acid rain which; poisonous when inhaled hence
 Alters/ changes/ lowers the soil it causes death.
pH thus affecting plants and other
living organisms in the soil.
 Causes leaching of minerals/
nutrients.
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2. Carbon (IV) oxide and carbon (II) 3. Smoke and fumes from
oxide from the combustion of factories and engines
garbage and organic fuels- they  They reduce visibility on the
cause green house effect/ global roads.
warming which raises the ocean
levels resulting in the flooding of  They block the stomata of leaves
lowlands/ interfering with weather affecting photosynthesis and
patterns/ excessive evaporation transpiration.
from water bodies leading to  They cause eye irritation,
unexpected heavy rains. headaches and breathing
 Carbon (II) oxide causes respiratory difficulties.
poisoning / suffocation because it  Thy contain carbon (IV) oxide
combines with haemoglobin to form which is a respiratory poison.
stable compound
carboxyhaemoglobin which does not
dissociate easily reducing the capacity
of haemoglobin from carrying
oxygen.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
 69

4. Dust from cement and lime factories, 6. Lead from combustion/ burning
quarries and road construction- it of leaded petrol by motor vehicles.
blocks the stomata of leaves hence  It enters the blood stream thus
affecting photosynthesis and damaging the body organs e.g. brain,
transpiration. liver and kidneys.
 It can cause respiratory diseases/ affects  It affects the nervous system causing
respiratory system. mental disorders/ poor mental
 It reduces visibility and irritates the eyes. development.
5. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from  It blocks the stomata hindering
aerosols (e.g. pesticides, herbicides, gaseous exchange and photosynthesis
dry cleaning agents)-they cause causing death of the plant.
irritation to respiratory organs and
poisoning of water plants.
 They also deplete ozone layer leading to
more penetration of ultraviolet (UV) rays
which cause skin cancer and affect crops.

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7. Aerosols e.g. pesticides, insecticides, Control of air pollution

fungicides, perfumes, air freshener and 1. Use of CFC free aerosols, perfumes
spray paints. and appliances.
 The main pollutants of aerosols are copper, 2. Use of unleaded fuels in vehicles.
lead and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
3. Use of ear muffs in factories and
 Copper causes irritation of respiratory industries.
organs and poisoning of water plants and
fish. 4. Use of renewable sources of energy
e.g. biogas and electricity.
 Chlorofluorocarbons deplete ozone layer
leading to increased penetration of ultra 5. Use of biological methods instead of
violet (UV) rays that cause skin cancer in using pesticides and herbicides.
humans. 6. Legislation i.e. enforcement of laws
8. Noise from vehicles, machines in on environmental pollution.
factories, aeroplanes. 7. Factories to be constructed away
 It interferes with hearing in animals. from residential areas
 It causes stress, headache and abortion.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
71

8. Exhaust pipes should have filters to B. WATER POLLUTION.

remove impurities/ solid particles Refers to release of substances to water
from the released gas. source in levels that are harmful to
organisms.
9. Educating the public on the need
of and how to control air Causes and effects
pollution. 1. Release of untreated sewage into
water bodies- it contains faeces and
10. Scrubbing/ filtration of the gases
nitrogenous wastes.
emitted from factories to remove
acidic gases e.g. nitrogen (IV) oxide  Sewage contains pathogens that cause
water borne diseases e.g. cholera,
and Sulphur (IV) oxide.
Typhoid, amoebic dysentery.
11. Ban smoking in public places.  Sewage contains nitrogenous wastes/
nitrates that cause eutrophication
which reduces oxygen in water thus
causing death of aquatic organisms
© Sam obare through suffocation.
10-Jan-21
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Eutrophication. 2. Release of domestic and industrial

 This is the enrichment of water bodies by wastes into water bodies- they contain
nutrients e.g. phosphates and nitrates from poisonous substances/ chemicals that
inorganic fertilizers, organic manure and kill the aquatic organisms and enter the
untreated sewage. food chain and accumulate to toxic
levels.
 This promotes excessive growth of algae/
algal bloom. 3. Hot water -from industries discharged
into water bodies.
 The algal growth leads to reduction of light
penetration into the water thus affecting Effects.
primary productivity causing death of a) Heat reduces the amount of dissolved
aquatic plants/ autotrophs. gases e.g. oxygen and carbon (IV)
 As the aquatic plants and algae die, they oxide killing the organisms due to lack
further increase organic matter increasing of oxygen or lack of photosynthesis.
the action of decomposers. b) Heat raises the respiratory rate to
 The decomposers deplete oxygen from water, abnormal levels causing
causing the death of aquatic organisms. malfunctioning in the organisms.
c) Hot water may kill the living
organisms by denaturing enzymes.

© Sam obare 10-Jan-21

 © Sam obare

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73

4. Oil spillage in water bodies from oil iii. Oil layer leads to reduced light
tankers and offshore oil refineries penetration thus affecting
from oil tanker accidents, offshore oil photosynthesis.
wells and damaged warships. iv. Oil also stick together feathers of
Effects of oil aquatic birds making it difficult for
i. Oil spreads on the surface of water the birds to fly.
reducing oxygen supply into the water v. Oil clogs the respiratory surfaces of
leading to suffocation and death of aquatic animals killing them.
aquatic organisms.
ii. Oil also blocks the stomata thus
affecting photosynthesis and gaseous
exchange of phytoplanktons thus killing
them.
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74

5. Agro-chemicals- e.g. fertilizers, b) The heavy metals accumulate in

herbicides, pesticides washed into bodies of organisms and affect
water bodies through erosion. functioning of body organs e.g. brain,
Fertilizers contain nitrates and kidney and liver.
phosphates while pesticides contain
c) The heavy metals enter the food
heavy metals e.g. mercury and
chains and accumulate along the
copper and Chlorofluorocarbon
chains becoming poisonous at higher
which is not easily broken down/
trophic levels.
non biodegradable.
d) Nitrates and phosphates in fertilizers
Effects.
cause eutrophication and change in
a) The heavy metals affect respiratory water pH.
activities of aquatic organisms.
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75

6. Lead from pipes and tanks in Control of water pollution.

domestic water supply systems. 1. Treatment and proper disposal of
 Lead affects the physiological sewage.
functioning of body organs.
2. Treatment of industrial waste
 It also damages the nervous system
resulting in mental problems. before disposal and cooling of hot
water from the industries before
7. Soil erosion.
discharging it into water bodies.
 It causes siltation of water bodies
making water unfit for human 3. Caution when transporting oil in
consumption and unsuitable habitation ships and when mining petroleum
for certain animals. found in ocean deposits.
 Silt/ soil particles clog the respiratory 4. Biological and cultural control of
surfaces of plants and animals thus weeds, pests and diseases.
affecting gaseous exchange.
 Soil particles/ silt reduce light 5. Use of organic manure instead of
penetration thus reducing the rate of inorganic fertilizers.
photosynthesis in aquatic plants.
76

6. Prevent soil erosion through Study question.

terracing, construction of Sewage contains saprophytic
gabions and reaforestation. organisms and organic materials. The
7. Disposal of litter/ garbage in graph below shows changes occurring
designated places but not/ away in a river for some distance
from water bodies. downstream, from a point of
8. Use of biodegradable herbicides untreated sewage discharge.
and pesticides.
9. Educate farmers on the use of
correct amounts of agro
chemicals.
10. Banning the use of phosphate –
based detergents.
11. Replacing lead pipes with plastic
pipes.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
 © Sam obare 10-Jan-21

77
Point of discharge of untreated sewage

20
Amount/quantity

15

Oxygen concentration

10
Fish

5 Organic material

5 10 15

Distance downstream (km)

78

1) Suggest the reasons for the 3) Explain why there was a

increase in oxygen after 10 km gradual fall in the amount of
downstream. (2mks) organic matter released into the
 Removal of bacteria by river river shortly after the point of
flow increased plant growth discharge of untreated sewage
that released more oxygen. into the river. (2mks)
2) Account the relationship  Saprophytes decompose organic
between oxygen and fish. (2mks) matter for food hence they drop.
 As the concentration of 4) Ammonia is produced by the
oxygen decreases, the process taking place in the
population of fish also sewage treatment works and
decreases and vice versa. should be removed before
released into the river. Explain
 This is because fish require why this is important. (2mks)
oxygen for respiration without
which they suffocate and die.  Ammonia is highly toxic and
alkaline which can interfere
with the pH.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
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79

C. SOIL POLLUTION. 3. Solid wastes e.g. plastics, glass, rubber,

 Refers to release of substances into soil metals and non-biodegradable
in levels that are harmful to organisms materials-
Causes and effects  They form breeding grounds for
mosquitoes, rats and flies which are
1. Acid rain-increases the soil pH thus disease vectors.
affecting plants and other organisms
in the soil.  They limit soil aeration and microbial
activity thus making soil infertile.
 It causes leaching leading to loss of
soil fertility.  Some e.g. glass bottles can injury to
animals.
2. Aerosols- they contain heavy metals
(e.g. lead and mercury).  They also destroy the aesthetic value of
land.
 The chemicals kill micro organisms in
the soil thus reducing soil fertility; 4. Inorganic fertilizers- they reduce the
pH of soil thus affecting plants and soil
 The heavy metals enter the food chain organisms thus reducing microbial
and accumulate to high levels causing activity reducing soil fertility.
death.
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5. Oil from overturned oil tankers, Control of soil pollution

burst oil pipelines, garages and oil
refineries. 1. Famers to use organic manures
 It covers the ground thus affecting instead of inorganic fertilizers.
soil aeration thus reducing the 2. Use of biological methods to
microbial activities.
control pests and diseases.
6. Chemicals e.g. acids and strong
bases/ alkalis- they cause changes 3. Recycling of solid wastes e.g.
in soil pH thus affecting plants and plastics.
soil micro-organisms which thus
lowers rate of decomposition/ 4. Biodegradable wastes e.g. plant
fertility. materials and food remains should
 They also cause leaching of be disposed in a compost pit.
nutrients/ mineral salts thus
lowering fertility. 5. Transporting petroleum products
using pipeline to prevent spillage.
7. Radioactive emissions- they cause
cancer, mutations and death. 6. Enactment of laws on land
pollution.

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7. Proper handling and HUMAN DISEASES

deposition of non-  A disease is a disorder in a tissue, organ,
biodegradable wastes e.g. organ system during which its functions are
controlled burning, burying not carried out normally.
deep in the soil. A. BACTERIAL DISEASES
8. Wastes e.g. clothes and papers  They include:
should be burned in 1. Cholera.
incinerators. 2. Typhoid.
9. Control of radioactive 1. Cholera.
emissions.
 It is caused by Salmonella typhi.
Mode of transmission .
 Ingestion of water or food contaminated
with faeces/urine of infected people.
 Incubation period- 2 weeks
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Symptoms. iv. Proper treatment of sewage.

i. Fever and headache. v. Personal and environmental hygiene.
ii. Diarrhoea. vi. Washing of fruits before eating them.
iii. Abdominal pain. vii. Treatment of infected people.
iv. Vomiting. viii. Vaccination.
v. Loss of appetite Study questioin
vi. Dry cough and dehydration. Why is flooding likely to lead to cholera
Prevention and treatment outbreak?
i. Proper disposal of urine and faeces.  Flood water may mix with human waste
contaminated with cholera bacteria Vibrio
ii. Treatment/chlorination/boiling of cholerae . The flood water may then
drinking water. contaminate food and water and the
iii. Proper storage and cooking of food. contaminated water/food is ingested
causing cholera infection.
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B. PROTOZOAN DISEASES Incubation period- 7-10 days.

 They include: Symptoms
1. Malaria. i. High fevers.
2. Amoebic dysentery. ii. Profuse sweating.
1. MALARIA iii. Frequent chills and shivers.
 It is caused by plasmodium. iv. Headache, muscle and joint pains.
 There are 4 species of plasmodium and v. Lack of appetite.
each cause different type of malaria. They vi. Vomiting.
include:
vii. Anaemia.
i. Plasmodium vivax
viii. Convulsions and death in severe
ii. Plasmodium ovale cases.
iii. Plasmodium falciparum
Mode of transmission- Plasmodium is
transmitted from infected person through a
vector called female anopheles mosquito. © Sam obare 10-Jan-21
84
Prevention/control and treatment.
Reasons why it is difficult to eradicate
i. Taking prevention medicine before
travelling to malaria prone areas. malaria.
ii. Sleeping under treated mosquito nets. i. The plasmodium parasite and Anopheles
iii. Use of mosquito repellants e.g. mosquito can undergo mutation and
creams and mosquito coils and with time develop resistance to the drugs
insecticides.
and insecticides.
iv. Draining of stagnant water to destroy
the breeding grounds of mosquitoes. ii. The warm tropical conditions provide
v. Clearing bushes around the houses extremely suitable breeding conditions
where mosquitoes hide.
for multiplication of mosquito.
vi. Pouring of oil on stagnant water to
prevent oxygen penetration hence iii. There are large reservoirs of parasites
killing mosquito larvae. present in other animals/hosts e.g. birds
vii. Use of biological method e.g. using and monkeys.
fish to feed on mosquito larvae.
viii. Treatment by use of malaria drugs. iv. Individual countries face financial
ix. Destruction of plastic containers that constraints.
hold water. 10-Jan-21
© Sam obare
85

2. AMOEBIC DYSENTERY Control/prevention

 It is caused by Entamoeba histolytica. i. Personal and
Mode of transmission. environmental hygiene.
 Through ingestion of contaminated
ii. Proper disposal of faeces.
water and food. iii. Drinking water should be
Symptoms treated/ chlorinated/
boiled.
i. Formation of ulcers by producing a
tissue dissolving enzyme hystolysin iv. Proper treatment using
in the colon leading to diarrhoea. amoebicides.
ii. Faeces contain blood.
iii. Dehydration.
iv. Abdominal pain.
v. Severe pain when passing stool.
vi. Fever.

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86

C. PARASITIC WORMS. Symptoms/effects of parasite on

They include: host
1. Round worms (Ascaris lumbricoides). i. General malnourishment of
the host.
2. Schistosoma.
ii. They feed on blood causing
1. Round worm (Ascaris lumbricoides)- It anaemia.
infects the small intestines in pigs and man. iii. Heavy infestation can cause
 It causes ascariasis disease. intestinal blockage.
Mode of transmission. iv. Interference with digestion by
 The adult lays eggs in the small intestines entering the bile duct,
of the pigs and human beings that are pancreatic duct and appendix
passed out with faeces and may be v. Abdominal discomfort.
swallowed by a new host through vi. They may cause irritation in
contaminated water and food. the trachea and may damage
 Also direct infection from faeces to the lungs.
mouth in children.

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87

Adaptive characteristics of round C. Structural adaptations of Ascaris

worms (Ascaris lumbricoides). lumbricoides.
A. Physiological adaptations of 1. They have a thick elastic cuticle to
Ascaris lumbricoides. protect them against digestion by
digestive enzymes of the host
1. It has two hosts (i.e. pigs and enabling them survive in the
human beings) hence increasing alimentary canal.
the chances of survival.
2. They have muscular pharynx
2. They have tissues tolerant to low through which they suck digested
oxygen concentration food from the host’s intestines.
characteristics in the gut.
B. Reproductive adaptations of
Ascaris lumbricoides.
1. They produce large number of eggs
to increase the chances of survival
even when some are destroyed.
2. The eggs have a protective shell to
survive harsh environmental
conditions.
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88

Prevention/control and treatment of 2. Schistosoma.

round worm.  This is a parasitic flat worm and

i. Proper sewage disposal. causes schistosomiasis disease.

 It is found in fresh water e.g.
ii. Personal and environmental
lakes, rivers, dams and rice
hygiene e.g. washing hands after growing fields.
visiting the toilet.
 Snails are vectors for schistosoma
iii. Treatment/chlorination/boiling
Mode of transmission.
of drinking water.
 Ingestion of water containing the
iv. Proper cooking of food. larvae/ infective stage called
v. Treatment by use of drugs. cercaria.
 The parasite can also penetrate
through the skin into the blood
stream where it goes to the liver
where it matures to an adult
worm.
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89

Effects on the host. Adaptive characteristics of schistosoma

i. Damage and irritation to the skin 1. The parasite has suckers for
as it penetrates causing itching. attachment onto the host hence not
ii. Once in blood the adult releases a easily dislodged.
chemical which cause fever. 2. Has two hosts (i.e. snail as secondary
iii. Adult worms have spines which host and man as final host) to increase
tear the blood vessels, intestines chances of transfer to different hosts.
and urinary bladder causing blood 3. The cercaria larvae and eggs have
to appear on urine/faeces and glands that secrete lytic enzymes which
finally leading to anaemia. soften the tissue to allow for
iv. Damage to the liver and kidney. penetration into the hosts.
v. Abdominal pain and Diarrhoea. 4. Some larval forms e.g. cercaria are
encysted and can remain dormant and
vi. Death if untreated. viable until they come into contact
with human beings.

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90

5. The parasite reproduces through Prevention/control and treatment of

larval forms (i.e. miracidia, cercaria, schistosoma.
and rediae in snails) making it i. Proper disposal of faeces and urine
difficult to eradicate the parasite in latrines/ flush toilets (but not
and also increases the chances of into rivers, dams and water bodies).
transmission and survival.
6. The adult worm in blood ii. Chemically treating/ boiled
producers a chemical substances drinking water to kill eggs and
which protect it against the host’s larval forms.
defense mechanism. iii. Avoid swimming, bathing in water
infested with snails.
7. The male forms a groove/canal/
gynecophoric canal in which it iv. People should wear protective shoes
carries the female. This ensures and clothes and avoid waking bare
that the eggs produced by females footed in swampy areas.
are fertilized before they are shed v. Spray fresh water bodies with
into blood vessels. molluscides to kill snails.
vi. Proper treatment using de-wormers.
© Sam obare 10-Jan-21
 3. REPRODUCTION IN
1
PLANTS AND ANIMALS.
 Reproduction.-This is the process 3. It brings about formation of
by which organisms give rise to seeds, spores and larvae which
offspring of their kind/species. reduce intra specific
Importance of reproduction. competition.
1. Procreation- It increases the 4. It is involved in development
number of organisms in a species. of resistant stages in the
2. Quality improvement- It increases lifecycle of some organisms.
genetic variety and therefore helps
the species to adapt to changing
environmental conditions.

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2

Types of reproduction. Disadvantages of asexual reproduction.

A. Asexual reproduction- in this type an i. The undesirable qualities can be passed
already existing individual develops into a on to the offspring.
new free existing individual and does not
involve the fusion of male and female ii. There is no genetic variation hence
gametes. offspring may not be able to withstand
changing environmental conditions.
Advantages of asexual reproduction. iii. Faster growth and development may
i. Good/ favorable qualities/ characteristics result in overcrowding and competition
of the parent are retained. where only a few members survive.
ii. Plants mature faster/ short life cycle/ iv. It reduces the strength and vigour
faster reproduction. gradually/ there is no hybrid vigor;
iii. It does not depend on two parents/ it does
not depend on pollination, fertilization and
seed and fruit dispersal.
iv. It exploits the parental favorable
conditions.
v. There is large store of food supply.

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3

B. Sexual reproduction- it Disadvantages of sexual

involves the fusion of male and reproduction.
female gametes (reproductive 1. It takes a long time.
cells) to form a zygote
(fertilized egg). 2. Harmful characteristics can be
passed from parents to offspring.
• The fusion of male and female
gametes is called fertilization. 3. Fewer offspring are produced at a
time.
Advantages of sexual
reproduction. 4. It involves two organisms that
must mate.
1. It leads to variation due to
crossing over which leads to
hybrid vigor and better
adaptations of organisms to the
environment.
2. Introduction of useful traits/
characteristics.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 CELL DIVISION.
4

 This refers to the division or  In the body/somatic cells chromosomes

multiplication of the cells. Cell division occur in pairs hence called homologous
leads to growth and formation of chromosomes (which have the same shape
reproductive cells/gametes. and size.
 The cell is able to do all these because it  Along the length of the chromatid there are
contains chromosomes found within structures called genes.
the nucleus.  Genes are found in the protein molecules
CHROMOSOMES. called DNA (deoxy ribonucleic acid)
 They are thread like structures found in  Chromosomes are able to form exact copies
the nucleus of animal and plant cells. of themselves. This is called duplication
 It is made up of two parallel strands  There are two types of cells in the human
called chromatids. body, namely:
 The two chromatids (pair of chromatids) i. Body/somatic cells.
are connected at a point called ii. Reproductive cells/gametes.
centromere.

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5

Sister chromatids
Homologous chromosomes

Centromere

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6

Types of cell division Stages of mitosis

 There are two types of cell division 1. Interphase (I)
namely: 2. Prophase (P)
A. Mitosis. 3. Metaphase (M)
B. Meiosis. 4. Anaphase (A)
5. Telophase (T)
A. MITOSIS.
 This is the process in which a cell
divides into two daughter cell each
having the same number of
chromosomes as parent cell.
 It takes place in somatic/body cells.

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7

1. Interphase. Centrioles Nucleolus

 This is a resting stage and
chromosomes are not visible but
appear as threads called
chromatin.
 Chromosomes duplicate to
produce two sister chromatids.
 There is synthesis of new
organelles e.g. golgi apparatus,
centrioles, mitochondria,
ribosomes.
 There is build up of energy to Nuclear
use in cell division. Chromatin membrane
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
8

2. Prophase.
 The two chromatids shorten
and thicken, join at the
centromere hence appear as
visible chromosomes.
 Homologous chromosome pair
up.
 The centrioles move to the
opposite sides/ends of the
animal cell and spindle fibres
begin to form.
 The nuclear membrane begins
to break down while the
nucleolus disappears.

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9

3. Metaphase.
 The nuclear membrane
disappears hence chromosomes
are free in the cytoplasm.
 The chromosomes arrange
themselves at the
centre/equator of the cell.
 The chromosomes are attached
to spindle fibres at the
centromere.
 This is important to ensure
even distribution of
chromosomes between the
daughter cells.

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10

4. Anaphase.
 Chromatids separate at
the centromere and
migrate to the opposite
poles of the cell due to
shortening of the spindle
fibres.
 The spindle fibres begin
to disappear.
 In animal cells the cell
membrane begins to
constrict.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
11

5. Telophase.  The chromosomes

 The chromatids collect become less distinct and
together at the ends of regain their threadlike
the cell and duplicate to (chromatin) appearance.
form chromosomes. N/B. In animal cells,
 The nuclear membrane division of cytoplasm is by
forms around each set of constriction of cell
chromosomes. membrane while in plant
cells a cell plate forms
 The cytoplasm divides within the cytoplasm and
into two leading to the grows to separate the two
formation of two cells.
daughter cells.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Early Late telophase
telophase

12 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

13 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
14

Significance/ importance of B. MEIOSIS

mitosis.  This is the process of cell
division which reduces the
1. It leads to growth of an number of chromosomes in a
organism. cell by half.
2. It is the basis of asexual  This forms
reproduction/it is involved in gametes/reproductive cells.
asexual reproduction.  It involves two divisions
3. It ensures that the genetic/
resulting into four daughter
cells.
chromosomal constitution of
 It takes place in reproductive
the offspring remains the same organs e.g. testes, ovaries,
as that of the parent. anther e.t.c.
4. It leads to replacement of
damaged or dead cells.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
15

Principle of meiosis. 1ST MEIOTIC DIVISION.

 It consists of 2 successive  It leads to separation of
divisions: homologous
i. 1st meiotic division- chromosomes.
homologous  The stages include:
chromosomes separate 1. Interphase I.
from each other.
2. Prophase I.
ii. 2nd meiotic division-
chromatids separate. 3. Metaphase I.
4. Anaphase I.
5. Telophase I.

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16

1. Interphase 1
 Chromosomes appear as
chromatin and
replicate/duplicate.
 The cell builds up the
energy used in meiosis.
 There is synthesis of new
organelles.

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17

2. Prophase 1  As prophase continues, chromatids

 The nucleolus disappears. of the two homologous
chromosomes coil around each
 Centrioles become arranged at the other and remain contact at points
opposite sides of the cell. called chiasmata (singular-
 Chromosome condense and shorten chiasma). This is called chiasma
hence become visible. formation.
 Spindle fibres begin to form.  During separation of homologous
 Homologous chromosomes lie side chromosomes, the chromatids
by side in the process called separate at chiasmata and exchange
synapsis and forming pairs called the genetic materials. This is called
bivalent. crossing over which leads to
variation.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

18 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
19

iii. Metaphase I.
 The nuclear membrane has
disappeared and spindle fibres
are fully formed.
 The homologous chromosomes
still as bivalents arrange
themselves at the centre/
equator of the cell.
 They attach to the spindle fibres
by their centromeres.

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20

iv. Anaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes
separate.
 They move to the opposite
sides of the cell due to
shortening of the spindle
fibres.

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21

v. Telophase I.
 The spindle fibres
disappear.
 The cell divides into two.
 Each cell goes into a
short resting stage
(interphase II) directly
goes into prophase II.

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22

i. Prophase II.
 The new spindle fibres are
formed.
 Chromosomes become visible.
 There is no crossing over.

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23

ii. Metaphase II.

 The chromosomes arrange
at the centre of the cell.
 They attach to the spindle
fibres by their centromeres.

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24

iii. Anaphase II
 The sister chromatids
separate from each other and
move to the opposite sides of
the poles.
 This is due to shortening of
the spindle fibres.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

25

iv. Telophase II.

 The spindle fibres disappear.
 The nucleolus reappears and
the nuclear membrane is
formed around each set off
chromosomes.
 The sister chromatids
duplicate and form
chromosomes. They uncoil
and regain their thread like
form.
 The cytoplasm divides
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
26 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
27 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
28

Significance of meiosis. Similarities between mitosis

1. It leads to gamete and meiosis.
formation. 1. Both take place in plant and
2. It ensures that each gamete animal cells.
has half the number of 2. Both involve division/
chromosomes as those found multiplication.
in the original cell/ it helps
to restore a constant diploid
chromosomal constitution in
a species after fertilization.
3. It leads to new combinations
of genes in gamete cells. This
leads to variation due to
crossing over.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND
MEIOSIS.
29

Mitosis . Meiosis .
1. Two daughter cells are formed. 1. Four daughter cells are formed.
2. The number of chromosomes is retained/ 2. The number of chromosomes is halved/
diploid cells are formed. haploid cells are formed.
3. Daughter cells are identical to the mother/ 3. Daughter cells are not identical with the
parent cell. parent/ mother cell.
4. Homologous chromosomes do not associate 4. Homologous chromosomes associate with
with each other. each other.
5. There is no chiasma formation hence no 5. There is chiasma formation hence crossing
crossing over/variation. over/variation.
6. Occurs in somatic cells leading to growth. 6. Occurs in reproductive cells leading to gamete
7. Takes place in only one nuclear division of formation.
four stages. 7. Takes place in two nuclear divisions each with
four stages.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Asexual reproduction.
30

 Asexual reproduction is the 1. Binary fission in amoeba,

production of offspring from a single plasmodium and bacteria.
organism without the fusion of  The first step in binary fission is molecular
gametes. division where there is internal
Types of asexual reproduction. reorganization of the molecules necessary
1. Binary fission. for structural construction.
2. Spore formation/sporulation.  The molecules are re-aggregated and
utilized in the formation of the new cell.
3. Budding in yeast.
 The nucleus undergoes mitotic division to
give rise to two nuclei with the same
number of chromosomes.
 The cytoplasm then starts dividing into two
cells which separate from each other.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

31

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

32

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

33

2. Spore formation /sporulation.  The horizontal hyphae are called stolons and
 A spore is a small reproductive unit which is the vertical hyphae are called
usually microscopic and unicellular. sporangiosphores.
 When detached from the parent organism and  The tips of sporangiosphores swell to form
under favorable conditions, a spore germinates sporangia (singular- sporangium).
and grows into new individuals.  Sporangium contains many spores and as the
 It occurs in bacteria, fungi (e.g. Rhizopus/ sporangium matures and ripens it turns
Mucor/Mould, yeast, mushroom), mosses and black.
ferns.  When the sporangium is fully mature, it
Note- Spores are produced in large numbers to bursts and releases the spores which are
increase the chances of survival and growth. dispersed and grows into new mycelium.
a) Rhizopus/ Mucor/ Mould.  Spores are dispersed by wind, insects and
animals.
 Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus which grows on
a substrate e.g. bread, rotting fruits and other
decaying matter.
 The vegetative body/ whole organism is called
mycelium which consists of many branched
threads called hyphae.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
34

Process of reproduction in Process of reproduction in

Rhizopus/ Mould/ Mucor mushroom.
 The fungus reproduces asexually by  The fungus reproduces asexually by
sporulation/ producing spores. sporulation/ producing spores.
 Spores develop from a single cell in  Spores develop in the gill which
the sporangium, which bursts on bursts on maturity releasing spores.
maturity releasing spores.  Spores are dispersed by air
 Spores are dispersed by air currents/ wind, falling on suitable
currents/ wind, falling on suitable medium they germinate to form
medium they germinate to form new generation.
new generation forming a
mycelium.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Sporangiosphore

35 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

36

Study question. c) State the mode of

A student left a piece of bread on an open place reproduction exhibited by
accidentally. 3 days later he observed some black the organism named above.
substance developing.  Sporulation/ spore
a) Suggest the identity of the black substance that formation.
grew on the bread. d) State the kingdom to which
 Rhizopus. the organism belongs.
b) Explain how the black substance was formed.  Fungi
 Spores of bread mould deposited on the damp
bread which germinated into hyphae.When
mature the hyphae grew into
sporangiosphores. Sporangia developed on
the tip of the sporangiosphores containing
the spores.The sporangia matured and dried
up and turned black.

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37

3. Budding in yeast.
 Yeast is an example of a fungus
 This is a form of asexual
reproduction in which a new
individual is produced as an
outgrowth (bud) of the parent cell
and is later released as self
supporting individual and identical
copy of the parent plant
 It occurs in yeast under favorable
conditions e.g. plenty of sugar,
moisture, oxygen and optimum
temperature.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

38

Process of budding/ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS.

reproduction in yeast.  It involves the formation of male and female gametes
 Yeast reproduces asexually by which fuse to form a fertilized egg called zygote.
budding.  Gametes are produced in reproductive structures
 The parent cell forms an called flowers.
outgrowth/ projection/ bud Parts of a flower.
followed by division of nucleus
into two.  It is attached to the stem of a plant through the
pedicel/flower stalk. The top part of the pedicel
 One of the nuclei moves into the is called receptacle. All the floral/flower parts are
new bud which grows and attached to the receptacle.
develops into a new cell.
 The flower/floral parts are divided into four groups
namely:
i. Calyx/sepals.
ii. Petals/corolla.
iii. Stamens/androecium.
iv. Carpels/pistil/gynoecium.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Structure and function of a flower.
39

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

40

FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT 2. Stamen/androecium-

PARTS OF A FLOWER. They form the male part of
1. Sepals/Calyx- Sepals the flower. Stamen consists of
collectively form calyx which are anther and filament.
leaf-like structures. Stamens collectively form
Androecium.
 Sepals protect the inner parts of
the flower in the bud/before the  The anther produces pollen
flower opens from pest attack and grains which contain male
from drying. gametes and the filament holds
the anther in position.
 Some flowers e.g. hibiscus have
sepal-like structures below the  One stamen consists of 4
sepals that are called epicalyx. pollen containing sacs which
are fused to form anther.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

41

3. Carpels/pistil/gynoecium- This is 4. Petals/corolla- Petals

the female part of the flower. Carpel collectively form the corolla.
consists of stigma, style and ovary.  They are large and brightly
Carpels collectively make up pistil colored and conspicuous to attract
(gynoecium). insects for pollination.
 Inside the ovary, there are several
ovules. The egg cell or female gamete is
formed within the ovule.
 The stigma receives the pollen grains.
The style holds the stigma in position.
 Note: Calyx(sepals) and
corolla(petals) are called non-
essential parts while androecium
(stamens) and pistil/ gynoecium
are called essential parts of the
flower.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
42 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Pore

Anther
Connective

Filament

43 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Fig. stamen
44 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Fig. Pistil
Stigma

Style

Ovary

45 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 TYPES OF FLOWERS
46

1. Gamepetalous flower- the Types of unisexual/ incomplete flowers.

corolla/petals are fused.
a) Staminate flower-has only
2. Polypetalous- the
corolla/petals are separate. stamens/androecium/male parts only.
3. Complete b) Pistillate/carpellate flower- has
flower/bisexual only pistil/carpels/female parts.
flower/hermaphrodite
flower- a flower with all c) Dioecious plant- plant with
floral parts. unisexual flower separately but on
4. Unisexual flower/ different individual plants e.g. pawpaw
incomplete flower- this is plant.
a flower with either male or
female parts only. d) Monoecious plant -plant with
unisexual flower separately but on the
same plant e.g. maize plant.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

47

5. Epigynous/inferior ovary/flower- the 11. Polycarpous gynoecium/ pistil-

ovary is located below other floral parts e.g. the pistil has two or more carpels.
apple flower. 12. Apocarpous gynoecium/ pistil-
6. Hypogynous/superior ovary/flower- refers to polycarpous pistil with free
ovary is located above other floral parts e.g. carpels e.g. rose flower.
hibiscus flower. 13. Syncarpous gynoecuim/ pistil-
7. Perigynous ovary/flower- all floral polycarpous pistil with fused carpels
parts are located at the same level e.g. rose e.g. hibiscus flower.
flower. 14. Actinomorphic/regular flower-
8. Monocarpous gynoecium/ pistil- the a radially symmetrical flower and can
pistil has one carpel. be divided into two equal halves by
9. Solitary flower- flower which occurs any vertical section through the
singly. centre.
10. Inflorescence- consists of flowers that 15. Zygomorphic/irregular flower –
grow in clusters. bilaterally symmetrical flower and can
only be divided into two equal halve
only in one particular plane.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Epigynous flower/inferior ovary
48

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Hypogynous flower /superior ovary
49

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

50

Perigynous flower Monocarpous flower

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

51

Apocarpous flower Syncarpous flower

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

52

Solitary flower

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Inflorescence
53

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 POLLINATION
54

 This is the transfer of pollen grains from 2. Cross pollination- transfer of

the anther to the stigma of a flower on the pollen grains from the anther to
same or on a different plant of the same
species. the stigma of another flower of
Types of pollination. different plant but of the same
species. This leads to cross
1. Self pollination- transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of fertilization.
the same flower or from the anther of Advantages of cross pollination.
one flower to the stigma of another
flower on the same plant. This leads to i. It causes genetic variation hence
self fertilization. better adaptations of organisms to
Disadvantages of self-pollination. harsh environmental conditions.
i. Lack of variation.  Pollination is brought about by agents
ii. Loss of hybrid vigor. which include:
iii. Undesirable characteristics are 1. Insects.
retained/ transmitted to the offspring.
2. Wind.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
55 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
56 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
57

Adaptations of insect pollinated 5. Anthers produce pollen grains

(entomophilous) flowers. which are large, spiky/ sticky to
attach/ stick to the insect’s body.
1. The flowers are large, conspicuous
with brightly colored petals, 6. The stigmas are small, sticky and
inflorescence or bracts (modified occur inside the flower so that
leaf e.g. in bougainvillea) to attract pollen grains from the body of
insects. insect stick onto them.
2. They have nectary guides that direct 7. They have special shaped corolla
insects into nectaries which secrete tube to enable insects land.
nectar.
3. They are scented and produce nectar
to attract insects.
4. Anther are located inside the flowers
to ensure that they get into contact
with insect.

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58

Adaptations of wind pollinated 4. Pollen grains are small, light and

(anemophilous) flowers e.g. maize. smooth and hence can easily be
1. The flowers are small with blown by air currents without
inconspicuous petals,dull coloured sticking together.
bracts or inflorescence. 5. The pollen grains are dry so that
2. They lack nectaries and are not sweet they are easily picked up and
scented, lacking the scent bait to blown over greater distances by
attract insects. wind.
3. Have stigma which are large, long, 6. Flowers are irregular in shape
feathery and hang outside the flowers with male parts exposed for
to increase the surface area for easy transfer of pollen grains by
trapping pollen grains in air. wind.
7. Anthers are large and loosely
attached to the filament so that
the slightest air movement can
shake them to disperse the
pollen grains.
© Sam obare
25-Feb-21
59 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INSECT AND WIND POLLINATED
FLOWERS.
60

Insect pollinated Wind pollinated

1. Flowers are large with brightly 1. Flowers have dull petals.
colored petals/corolla. 2. They are unscented.
2. They are usually scented. 3. They do not produce nectar
3. They produce nectar. 4. They have large and feathery
4. They have small and sticky stigma stigma hanging outside the
found inside the flower. flower.
5. Anthers are small and firmly 5. Anthers are large and loosely
attached to filament. attached to the filament.
6. Fewer pollen grains are 6. Many pollen grains are produced.
produced.
7. Pollen grains are small, smooth
7. Pollen grains are large, heavy and and light so that they float in air.
sticky so that they stick to insects.
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61

Features and mechanisms that 3. Protogny- this is a situation where the

promote cross pollination/ hinder stigma matures earlier and is ready to
self pollination and fertilization. receive pollen grains before the anthers
1. Monoecism- plants have the male are ripe enough to shed the pollen
and female flower parts at different grains e.g. maize.
parts of the same plant e.g. maize 4. Self - sterility or incompatibility -
plant. This is where pollen grains from the
 There are risks of self pollination but anthers fail to germinate on the stigma
they have natural mechanisms of of the same plant e.g. maize. This
preventing self-pollination. ensures that self fertilization does not
occur.
2. Protandry- this is a situation where
the male parts/ stamens mature
earlier and anthers release pollen grains
before the stigma is mature enough to
receive them e.g. in sunflower.
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62

5. Dioecism- plants have male and

female flowers on different plants
e.g. pawpaw plant.
6. Heterostyly- this is where the
stigma is above the anthers so that
pollen grains do not reach them.
Ways in which plants promote self
pollination.
1. Having both male and female parts
on the same flower.
2. Anthers and stigma mature at the
same time.
3. Flowers remain closed and open
after fertilization.

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63

Fertilization in plants.
 Fertilization is the fusion of a male
nucleus and female nucleus to form a
zygote.
 In the male gamete is contained in
the pollen grain produced in the
anther while the female gamete (egg
cell) is found in the ovules found
within the embryo sac.
 The synergids provide nourishment
to the egg cell.

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64

The process of fertilization in  As the pollen tube continues to

flowering plants. grow downwards, the generative
 Pollen grain lands and sticks onto the nucleus divides mitotically into two
stigma. male gamete nuclei.
 The surface of the stigma produces a  The pollen tube grows through the
sticky chemical substance which ovary wall, reaches the ovules and
stimulates the pollen grains to enters the embryo sac through the
germinate and form a pollen tube. micropyle.
 The pollen tube grows down the style,  At this stage, the tip of the pollen
carrying with it the male gametes tube bursts open and the tube
(tube nucleus and generative nucleus) nucleus disintegrates to release the
and it gets nutrients from the two male nuclei which enter
surrounding tissues. embryo sac.
 As the pollen tube germinates, the
tube nucleus occupies a position at the
tip of growing pollen tube while the
generative nucleus follows behind the
tube nucleus. © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 © Sam obare
25-Feb-21
65

 One male nucleus / one of the male Changes /events that take place after
nuclei fuses with the egg cell nucleus fertilization.
and forms the diploid zygote. The  The zygote undergoes mitotic division to
other male gamete nucleus fuses with from the embryo which differentiates into
the two polar nuclei to form a the plumule (which grows to from a
triploid endosperm nucleus. The shoot) and radicle (which grows to
process is called double fertilization. form a root).
 The triploid primary nucleus
Roles/ functions of pollen tube undergoes mitosis to form endosperm
1. It is a pathway through which male tissue for storage of food.
gametes reach the embryo sac to enhance  The fertilized ovary develops into a fruit, the
fertilization. ovary wall becomes the fruit wall (pericarp).
2. It prevents other pollen grains from  The ovules develop into seeds.
germinating/ developing into pollen  The integuments form the testa/seed coat.
tubes hence preventing multiple  Style, stigma and stamens dry up and fall off.
fertilization.  The calyx persists or it may dry up and fall
off.
 The style leaves a scar on the fruit wall.
 Embryo sac

66 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

67 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
68

Study question.  Flower Q produced seeds while P

 The diagram below represents an did not. Account for the results.
experimental set-up used by  The flower/plant is self
students to investigate a certain sterile/not successfully self
process. pollinated.
 The covering prevents
pollination in flower P while
flower Q received pollen grains
from other plants/ cross
pollination leading to
fertilization.

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69

FRUIT AND SEED FORMATION.  The integuments form a

a) Development of the seed testa/seed coat which surround
the cotyledons.
 The diploid zygote undergoes
mitosis to form an embryo. The  The testa has a scar called hilum
embryo has three parts: plumule which is the point of attachment
(young shoot), radicle (young to the placenta
root) and one or two cotyledons.  The embryo then completely
 The triploid primary endosperm
separates from the endosperm by
nucleus undergoes mitosis to a membrane leaving an opening
form the endosperm tissue. called micropyle which allows
entry of water into the seed.
 The ovule becomes a seed and the
ovary becomes the fruit.  It loses water, dries and hardens
ready for dispersal.

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70

b) Development of fruit. Differences between a seed

 The ovary forms the fruit. and fruit.
 The ovary wall develops to form the 1. A seed is covered by a
pericarp which differentiates into testa/seed coat while a fruit is
epicarp/exocarp, mesocarp and covered with pericarp.
endocarp. 2. A seed has one scar/hilum
 Some fruits e.g. pineapples and bananas while a fruit has two scars
develop without fertilization. This is (where it was attached to the
called parthenocarpy fruit stalk and style.
 A true fruit is formed from the ovary 3. A seed is formed from ovule
e.g. mangoes and beans. while the fruit is formed from
 A false fruit is formed when other ovary.
flower parts e.g. receptacle enlarges and
encloses the ovary or ovaries e.g. apple,
pineapple, straw berry.

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71
Coleorhiza
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
72

Study questions. 2. Name three structures

1. Name four changes that occur that wither off after
in the flower after fertilization. fertilization.
 Ovary form a fruit.
 Petals/ corolla.
 Ovule develops into a seed.
 Stamens (filament and
anther).
 Ovary wall forms pericarp.
 Style.
 Integuments form a seed
coat/ testa.
 Zygote forms embryo.

 Primary endosperm nucleus

develops into endosperm.

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73

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. b) Drupe- Has thin epicarp,

 They are broadly classified as
fleshy and fibrous mesocarp,
succulent fruits and dry fruits. hard stony endocarp
enclosing a seed/ contain
1. SUCCULENT FRUITS- one seed for example
They are juicy/fleshy. They mangoes, coconut and
include: avocados.
a) Berry- Has fleshy/
succulent pericarp (epicarp,
mesocarp and endocarp)
with many/ several seeds e.g.
tomatoes, oranges, mangoes,
bananas, pineapples, passion,
pumpkin, .
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 a) Berry.
74

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 b) Drupe.
75

Seed
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
76

2. DRY FRUITS- They have low b) Indehiscent fruits-They

moisture content. They are further do not split open and release
classified into Dehiscent fruits and the seeds even if they are
Indehiscent fruits. dry.
a) Dehiscent fruits- They are
dry fruits that split open and
release seeds when mature.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Types of dehiscent fruits.
77

1. Legumes/pod- Has two

lines of weaknesses/sutures
hence split and open into
two halves e.g. beans, peas,
crotalaria.

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78

2. Capsules- Has a dry pericarp and

dehisces along many lines of
weaknesses/sutures e.g. Cotton,
Datura stramoniun, poppy.

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79

3. Schizocarp- A ripe fruit

breaks up into small one
seeded parts/fragments
called mericarps e.g. castor
oil and desmodium.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Types of indehiscent fruits
80

1. Caryopsis- In this the

seed coat and the
pericarp are fused to
form the testa e.g. maize
grain wheat grain, rice
grain e.t.c.

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81

2. Nuts- A nut is one

seeded fruit whose
pericarp is stony/hard
and separate from seed
coat e.g. cashew nuts.

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82

3. Cypsela- It is one seeded

fruit where the seed is free
from the pericarp e.g. Black
jack (Bidens pilosa).
 It is produced by many
composite flowers.
 The calyx persists in form of
spines or hairs that help in
animal dispersal.

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83

PLACENTATION.
 This is the arrangement of
seeds/ovules in the
ovary/seed.
Types of placentation.
1. Marginal placentation-
The placenta appears as one
ridge/ridge and the
seeds/ovules are arranged in
one row e.g. beans in a pod.

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84

2. Basal placentation-
In this the placenta is
formed at the base of
the ovary and seeds
attached to it e.g. in
sunflower.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 85

3. Parietal placentation-
Seeds are attached to the
placenta on the periphery
of the fruit wall e.g.
pawpaw, passion fruits.

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86

4. Axial/ axile placentation- In this

the seeds/ovules are attached to the
placenta located at the centre e.g.
tomatoes, oranges, lemons, banana.

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87

5. Free placentation- In
this, seeds/ovules are
almost free in the fruit
e.g. tomatoes.

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88

FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL. Methods of fruit and seed

 Dispersal is the process by which seeds dispersal.
and fruits are spread from parent plant to a  They include:
new location. A. Wind dispersal.
Advantages of dispersal. B. Water dispersal.
i. It prevents overcrowding that leads to C. Animal dispersal.
competition for light, water, space etc.
D. Self mechanism/self
ii. It ensures that seeds reach new explosive mechanism.
environments which may be suitable for
their growth.
Disadvantages of dispersal.
 Some seeds/fruits may be dispersed to
areas unsuitable for germination.
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89

A. Wind dispersal. 2. Seeds and fruits are small and light

 In this, wind acts as an agent of fruit
(e.g. Nandi flame seed) to be easily
and seed dispersal. carried by air currents.
Adaptations of seeds and fruits to 3. Some fruits have open/perforated
wind dispersal. capsules attached on long stalks
which are swayed by wind
1. Some seeds have developed hairy scattering the seeds (e.g. sycamore
structures, feather-like seeds).
projections (e.g. cotton seed),
wing-like structures (e.g.
Jacaranda seed, Nandi flame
seed) which increase their
surface area to be carried away
by wind/ to be blown about by
wind.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Examples of seeds dispersed by wind.
90

g. Milk weed seed

h. Sycamore seed

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91

B. ANIMAL DISPERSAL- 4. Some fruits are brightly colored (e.g.

 Animals are used as agents of dispersal. tomatoes) to attract/be easily seen by
animals.
Adaptations of fruits/seeds to animal
dispersal. 5. Some seeds have a hard/ tough testa
(seed coat) with sticky/ mucoid/ slimy
1. Some fruits have hooks/spikes (e.g. secretions (e.g. passion seeds and guava
black jack) to stick/attach to the animal’s seeds) making them resistant to digestive
body. enzymes hence pass out through the gut
2. Some fruits are succulent/ fleshy/juicy undigested/pass out with faeces.
(e.g. tomatoes, oranges) hence they 6. Some fruits have sweet smell/aroma/are
attract animals which eat them and carry scented (e.g. bananas) to attract animals.
them away from the parent plant.
3. Some fruits are in clusters (e.g. straw
berries)/large/ conspicuous ( e.g.
avocado) to attract/be easily seen by
animals.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Examples of fruits/seeds dispersed by animals.

92

Tomato fruit

Avocado fruit

Black jack(Bidens pilosa)

Lemon/orange
93

C. WATER DISPERSAL- 3. Some fruits (e.g. water lily)

 Water acts as an agent of
produce seeds whose seed
dispersal. coats trap air bubbles making
them float on water.
Adaptations of seeds/fruits
to water dispersal. 4. Fruits and seeds e.g. coconut
have water proof pericarp and
1. Some fruits and seeds are seed testa respectively hence
light to float on water. remain afloat without
2. Some fruits (e.g. coconut) sinking/soaking.
have fibrous spongy
mesocarps to accumulate/
trap air making them buoyant
or for floating on water.

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94

D. SELF DISPERSAL
MECHANISM/ self explosive
mechanism/ explosive
mechanism- Some fruits (e.g.
legumes/pods) have lines of
weakness (sutures) which split open
when dry scattering/ throwing away the
seeds.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS.
95

 It involves fusion of male gamete/sperm A. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION.

and female gamete/egg/ovum forming a  It occurs in amphibians (e.g. frogs/
zygote/fertilized egg. toads) and fish
 Male gametes/sperms are formed in the
 It takes place in water. The female lays
testes while female gametes/ova are eggs and the male sheds sperms on the
formed in the ovaries. eggs as they are laid to fertilize them.
 The nucleus of sperm fuse with the This leads to fertilization outside the
nucleus of ovum to form a diploid zygote. body.
This process is called fertilization.
Types of fertilization.
A. External fertilization in amphibians and
fish.
B. Internal fertilization.

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96

 Many/ large number of eggs  The eggs are laid in a jelly like
are laid to increase the chances substance which:
of survival because some eggs i) Protects the eggs.
could be eaten by animals of
attacked by bacteria. ii) Prevents the predators from
feeding on the eggs.
 During mating season in frogs
and toads, the males croak at iii) Separates the eggs from each
night to attract the females. other allowing good aeration.
 While mating the males mount iv) Attaches the eggs to water
on female and sheds sperms as plant and makes them
female lays eggs. This is to buoyant.
increase the chances of
fertilization.

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97

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

98

B. Internal fertilization. Disadvantages of internal

 It takes place in reptiles, birds fertilization.
and mammals. 1. Pregnant mother are
 Male and female gametes fuse/ susceptible to predators
fertilization takes place inside 2. Mothers may die during
the body of female. giving birth
 The female produces fewer 3. The disease affecting the
number of eggs than males mother may be transmitted to
because there are higher the young ones
chances of fertilization as the 4. Young ones may deplete the
sperms are deposited into the mother’s nutrients
female body and protection of
gametes and fertilized eggs/
zygotes are higher.

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99

Study questions. 2. Give reasons why frog eggs

1. Explain why a female frog have the jelly-like substance.
lays many eggs.  For protection.
 This is to increase the chances of  Prevents the predators from feeding
survival because many eggs may die on the eggs.
through predation, drying. Some  Separates the eggs from each other
eggs may rot due to bacterial attack allowing good aeration.
and others fail to be fertilized.
 Attaches the eggs to water plant and
makes them buoyant.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Differences between external and internal fertilization.

100

External fertilization Internal fertilization

1. It occurs outside the body. 1. It occurs inside the body of
female animals.
2. Many eggs are laid. 2. Fewer eggs are released.
3. There is usually less contact 3. There is close contact between
between males and females. males and females through
copulation.
4. Fertilized and unfertilized eggs
4. Both fertilized and unfertilized are enclosed hence highly
eggs are exposed to danger e.g. protected inside the body of
predation, desiccation. females.

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101

REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS. c) Viviparity- the embryo develops

 Fertilization occurs internally and within the mother and obtains
the egg is either laid or develops nourishment directly from the
within the female’s body in the mother’s body. The young ones are
uterus/ womb. born alive e.g. human beings.
a) Oviparity- the embryo develops  In some mammals, embryo
outside the body of females e.g. in develops to a certain stage and then
duck-billed platypus. released into a structure called a
pouch where it develops fully e.g. in
b) Oviviparity- the embryo kangaroo.
develops within the female’s body
and is nourished by the egg yolk.
The young ones are born alive e.g.
some fish and reptiles.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.
102

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

103 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
104 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
105

Adaptations of parts of female 3. Uterus/womb- It has

reproductive system. muscular walls (myometrium)
that contract facilitating
1. Ovary- it has secretory cells that parturition.
secrete female sex hormones e.g.
oestrogen and progesterone.  The muscular walls are also able
to expand as the embryo develops
 It has a germinal epithelium which and return to its original size after
produces the eggs/ ova. birth.
2. Fallopian tube/ oviduct- this is  It has endometrium/inner wall
where fertilization takes place. with dense network of capillaries
 It is funnel shaped to receive the to facilitate implantation and
ovum after ovulation. nourishment of the embryo.
 It has cilia which waft the ovum
moving it towards the uterus.
 It has smooth muscles which contract
to help in movement of the ovum.
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106

4. Cervix- It is a muscular ring Ways in which sperms move within

which close to keep the fetus the female reproductive system.
within the womb. i. By help of a tail in the fluid medium
 It secretes a plug of mucus which of the female reproductive system.
prevents entry of pathogens into the ii. They are attracted by the chemical
uterus during pregnancy. produced by the ovum.
5. Vagina/birth canal and iii. Muscular/peristaltic contraction of
vulva- the vagina is tubular/ uterine walls.
hollow thus allows passage of the
foetus during parturition. Ways in which the ovum moves
within the fallopian tube.
 The walls of vulva have vestibular
glands (Bartholin's glands) i. The cilia beats/wafts the egg
that secrete mucus when the female facilitating movement.
is sexually for lubrication of vagina ii. By contraction of smooth muscles
during copulation. of the fallopian tube.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 25-Feb-21

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

107

Foreskin
Glans
© Sam obare
 Foreskin

108 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Adaptations of parts of male
reproductive system
109

1. The penis is made up of spongy tissue  The testes also have

and blood vessels which fill with blood interstitial cells which
causing it to erect to facilitate copulation. produce male hormones called
androgens. The main
2. The testes are protected by scrotum
androgen is testosterone.
and are made up of several and highly
coiled seminiferous tubules which 3. The Epididymis is highly
provide a large surface area for sperm coiled to provide a large
production. surface area for storage of
sperms.
 The testes have sertoli cells that
nourish the sperms. The testes are located
to hang outside the body to provide a
cooler environment for sperm production.

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110

4. The Seminal vesicle 6. The Cowper’s gland (located

(connected to the sperm below the prostate gland) secretes
duct a short distance from an alkaline fluid to neutralize the
where the sperm duct acidity along the urethra (caused by
enters the urethra)secretes pH variations of urine).
an alkaline fluid which  The alkaline fluid and sperms form
contains nutrients for the semen.
sperms.
7. The Sperm duct/ vas deferens
5. The Prostate gland (is is tubular connecting the
located at the junction epididymis and urethra and is used
between the sperm duct and for passage of sperms/ acts as
urethra) secretes an alkaline ejaculatory duct.
fluid to neutralize the
vaginal fluids and activate 8. The Urethra is tubular to expel
the sperms. urine and semen (hence said to
have urino-genital role).

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Spermatozoa (sperms)
111

©Sam obare 25-Feb-21

112

ADAPTATIONS OF THE SPERM 4. The long tail which lashes side

CELL. by side to propel the sperm
1. The head contains a large haploid forward.
nucleus which carries genetic 5. The shot neck has centrioles for
material. controlling axial filaments
2. Acrosome contains lytic enzymes,
which digest the membranes of the
egg for the sperm to penetrate and
effect fertilization.
3. The middle piece contains
numerous mitochondria which
provide energy for the propulsion of
the sperm to reach the egg.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Ovum/egg cell/female gamete.
113

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

114

ADAPTATION OF AN 4. It has large cytoplasm

OVUM/EGG CELL. which contains stored food
1. It has follicle cells to substances that nourish the
nourish the ovum. embryo before implantation.
2. It has vitelline 5. It has cell membrane
membrane which thickens which encloses contents of
after penetration of the first the egg and allows selective
sperm preventing entry of movement of substances in
other sperms. and out of ovum.
3. It has nucleus which
contains genetic material
and fuses with the nucleus of
sperm to form zygote.

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115

Development of the ovum.  During puberty primary

 Egg formation in the ovary is
follicles develop into Graafian
called oogenesis. follicle that contains mature
ovum.
 Egg formation begins in the
ovary of the foetus before  Ova are at different levels of
birth. At birth, there are about development such that one
70,000 potential eggs in the Graafian follicle matures every
ovary of a baby girl but only month.
500 ova eventually develop  At ovulation the Graafian
after puberty. follicle bursts to release the
 At birth eggs are enclosed by a
mature egg surrounded by a
layer of primary follicles which layer of follicle cells.
provide nourishment.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Mature ovum

116 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Differences between the sperm and ovum.
117

Sperm. Ovum.
1. It has a tail and 1. It lacks a tail and
acrosome. acrosome.
2. It is smaller in size. 2. It is relatively larger in
size.
3. It has less food reserve.
3. Has more food reserve.
4. It is motile/mobile 4. It is immotile/non-
5. Has prominent nucleus motile
and negligible 5. Has large amount of
cytoplasm cytoplasm
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
118

The process of fertilization in man.  The vitelline membrane then

 Fertilization is the fusion of male undergoes a change which stops any
and female gametes and it occurs in other sperm from entering the
the oviduct/fallopian tube. ovum.
 When the sperm comes into  Once the head is in the cytoplasm,
contact with the egg, the acrosome it bursts to release the male nucleus
bursts open and releases lytic which fuses with the female nucleus
enzymes, which dissolve the to form a diploid zygote.
vitelline/ egg membrane and also  After ovulation, the ovum can
disperse the follicle cells remain viable for 8-24 hours before
surrounding the egg cell. it dies while the sperms can remain
 The acrosome forms a fine filament viable for 2-3 days within the
that is used to penetrate the egg female reproductive system before
hence head of the sperm enters the they die.
ovum and the tail is left outside the
ovum.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

119 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
120 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
121

The significance of producing a large Reason why fertilization must

number of sperms yet it is only one take place in the fallopian
that fertilizes the ovum. tube/ oviduct but not in the
 This is because many die before reaching uterus.
the ovum due to:  The ovum can take up to 7 days
1. Inappropriate temperature for to travel through the oviduct to
production in the testes and storage the uterus. By then it would be
in the epididymis. dead because it survives for 8-
24 hours after release from the
2. Inappropriate pH (e.g. acidity) in the ovary.
female reproductive tract.
3. Others deplete their energy before
reaching the ovum because the
distance between the vagina and
oviduct is long.
4. The egg produces a chemical that
inactivates the sperms.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
122 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
123

Changes that take place after  The attachment of the

fertilization. blastocyst to the wall of the
uterus/endometrium is called
(a) Zygote. implantation.
 It moves along the oviduct to the
 After implantation the
uterus by help of cilia and blastocyst develops into
contraction of the oviduct smooth embryo.
muscles.
 The embryo uses the villi to
 It undergoes mitotic division
absorb nutrients from the
forming a hollow structure with endometrium.
several cells called blastocyst.
 The villi and endometrium
 The blastocyst develops fingerlike
develop into placenta
projections called villi which attach
it to the endometrium.

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 The movement of the zygote from FORMATION OF PLACENTA.

the oviduct until it is implanted
lasts for about 7 days.  During implantation, the
blastocyst differentiates into 3
 Sometimes the zygote fails to
layers;
move down the oviduct to the
uterus but instead gets implanted 1. Chorion- the outermost
into the walls of the oviduct. This membrane which develops
is called ectopic pregnancy chorionic villi which grow
which is deadly if it is not into the endometrium.
surgically removed as soon as
 During early stages of embryo
possible.
development the villi form
(b)Uterus sites for exchange of materials
 The uterus lining/ endometrium between the embryo and
thickens. maternal blood vessels in the
 There is increased blood supply. uterine lining.

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125

2. Amnion- which surrounds the b) Umbilical artery – which

embryo forming amniotic cavity brings blood to the placenta
in which the embryo lies. from the foetus with high
 The amnion secretes amniotic fluid amount carbon (IV) oxide and
which fills the amniotic cavity. nitrogenous wastes e.g. urea
but low nutrients and oxygen.
3. Allantois- together with
chorionic villi and endometrium  Carbon (IV) oxide in the foetal
it forms the placenta which is blood diffuses across the
connected to foetus by placenta into maternal blood,
umbilical cord. it accumulates in the uterine
vein which transports it away
 The umbilical cord has: from the uterus.
a) Umbilical vein- which carries
blood into the foetus rich in
oxygen and nutrients.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

126 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
127

Role of amniotic fluid. 4. Prevents the foetus from

1. Protects the foetus against drying.
mechanical damage/ 5. It ensures constant
injury/acts as a shock temperature within the
absorber. womb.
2. Provides a medium for 6. Equalize pressure around the
foetus to move about/ foetus.
suspends the embryo Materials that are not
providing it with support. allowed to pass through the
3. It is a source of nourishment placenta.
for the foetus within the 1. All blood cells.
first 3 months of pregnancy.
2. Plasma proteins.
3. Most bacteria.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

128

Materials that pass from foetus 3. Vitamins.

to mother. 4. Mineral salts.
1. Carbon (IV) oxide. 5. Hormones.
2. Nitrogenous waste products/ 6. Water.
urea.
7. Antibodies and antigens.
Materials that pass from mother
8. Drugs, alcohol and some
to foetus.
chemicals from cigarette.
1. Oxygen
2. Digested food substances
(glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids, glycerol)
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
129

Role of the placenta Adaptations of the placenta to its

function. / How is the placenta
1. It allows passage of nutrients from the suited to its functions?
mother to the foetus for growth and
development. 1. Has numerous capillaries/highly
vascularized to increase
2. It allows diffusion of gases between the concentration gradient for
mother and foetus. efficient exchange of materials.
3. It secretes hormones e.g. progesterone, 2. It has a thin membrane for faster
oestrogen, human chorionic diffusion of materials/reduce the
gonadotrophin (HCG) distance travelled by substances.
4. Prevents destruction of delicate blood 3. It has numerous (chorionic) villi
vessels of the foetus and prevents entry to increase the surface area of
of pathogens into the foetus. diffusion of substances.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

130

4. It has selective membrane Note.

which allows selective  The foetal blood does not mix with
diffusion of substances. maternal blood in the placenta
5. It is glandular to secrete because there is no direct
hormones e.g. connection between the foetal
progesterone, oestrogen. blood system and that of the
mother. This is important because:
6. Has counter current flow
of maternal and foetal 1. It ensures that no agglutination
blood to maintain steep occurs in foetal red blood cells
concentrated gradient due to incompatible blood
groups of the mother and foetus,
hence efficient diffusion of
both ABO and Rhesus antigens.
substances.

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131

2. It ensures that the foetus delicate TERMS RELATED TO

blood vessels are not REPRODUCTION.
destroyed/do not burst by the 1. Gestation period: this is a
high pressure in the mother’s/ period between conception and
maternal circulatory system. birth.
3. It prevents the transfer of 2. Miscarriage: This is natural
pathogens from mother into termination of pregnancy before
foetus. completion of six months. The
4. It prevents the transfer of waste baby will not survive.
products from maternal blood 3. Abortion: Intentional
into the foetus termination of pregnancy either
chemically or physically.

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132

4. Premature birth: If birth occurs after 6. Siamese twins: these are identical
7 months but before the full term, the twins who develop without separating
birth is called premature birth. completely so that they are born with
 The baby can survive if it has attained a some parts fused
certain weight or else it will be cared for 7. Dizygotic or fraternal twins:
in incubators. These are as a result of simultaneous
5. Monozygotic or identical twins: release of two or more ova, which are
These are as a result of a fertilized egg that fertilized independently.
divides into two independent parts in the  Such twins may be of the same or of
early stages of development, which different sex. They are genetically
proceed to develop into two separate
embryos. different and have the same degree of
resemblance as that of other brothers
 Such twins are of the same sex. They are and sisters born at different times.
genetically identical and are completely
alike.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

133 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
134 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
135 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 PREGNANCY/GESTATION PERIOD.
136

 This is a period between conception and birth.  The heart and blood vessels are among the
It lasts for 9 months (38-40 weeks). first organs to form in the embryo because
 The signs of pregnancy include: blood is needed in all the developing body
parts to supply oxygen, nutrients and also
1. Laboratory test for the presence of Human remove metabolic wastes.
Chorionic Gonadotrophin hormone (HCG)
in blood.  The corpus luteum (yellow body) in
the ovary persists and continues to secrete
2. Failure of menstruation after sexual progesterone during the first 4 months of
intercourse. pregnancy.
3. Morning sickness/ nausea/ vomiting.  After 4 months, the placenta takes over
4. Gradual enlargement of breasts. producing the hormone. Therefore even if
the ovaries are removed after 4 months,
 During this time, the zygote develops into an
there would be no effect on pregnancy.
embryo and further into foetus (at 3
months when all organs and tissues are
fully developed), the foetus then develops
into a baby ready to be born.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
137

 Progesterone keeps pregnancy by  At 9 months, the head is directly above

maintaining a thickened and highly
vascularized inner lining the cervix/facing downwards and
(endometrium) hence providing dilation of cervix hence a sign of near
nourishment to the foetus. parturition.
 Menstruation should stop during  During pregnancy, the pregnant
pregnancy to ensure that the inner wall
(endometrium) remains intact which is mother should avoid the following
essential for the development of the which may damage the foetus:
foetus.
i. Vigorous physical exercises.
 If menstruation occurs it will lead to
miscarriage. ii. Smoking (cigarette).
 The pregnant mother should have a iii. Intake of alcohol.
balanced diet with plenty of proteins
for growth and development of
embryo, calcium and phosphorus
for bone formation and iron for
formation of haemoglobin.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 PARTURITION/BIRTH.
138

 It is brought about by Dilation of  This is accompanied by some pains

cervix and strong contractions hence called labour pains.
of the uterus and abdominal  Oxytocin also stimulates milk let down
walls. by the mammary glands.
 At delivery the pituitary glands also  The placenta also secretes Relaxin
secrete prolactin hormone hormone prior to labour which causes
which stimulates the secretion of the ligaments within the pelvic girdle to
milk by the secretory cells of the loosen, providing a more flexible
mammary glands. passage for the baby during delivery.
 The contraction of the myometrium
 Towards the end of pregnancy, the is accompanied by dilation of the
level of progesterone falls. This cervix, rapture of amnion and
causes the pituitary gland to chorion releasing the amniotic fluid.
secrete oxytocin hormone.
 Oxytocin stimulates the
myometrium to contract providing
the force to expel the foetus from
the uterus.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
139

 The contraction of uterus pushes  After birth, the baby cries

the foetus downwards, head first immediately because of fall in body
through the widened cervix into the temperature. Crying is important
birth canal. because it stimulates the breathing
 After birth the umbilical cord is tied system and expands the lungs so
and cut to separate the baby from that the baby starts breathing.
the placenta. The placenta is later
expelled as after birth.
 Incase of difficult in normal
delivery, surgical operation is done
on the abdominal and uterine walls
for delivery of the baby. This is
called caesarean delivery.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 PARENTAL CARE.
140

3. It contains antibodies which provide

 It is the attention given to the new passive immunity to the foetus.
born by providing food/ milk
4. Reduces chances of infections since
protection and providing favourable no preparation is needed.
conditions for growth.  Various stimuli e.g. cry of the baby,
 At delivery the pituitary glands also smell, suckling and sight of the baby
stimulates hypothalamus of the
secrete prolactin hormone which mother to send impulse to the
stimulates the secretion of milk by the pituitary gland which secretes
secretory cells of the mammary glands. oxytocin hormone.
 Oxytocin hormone stimulates
 Mother's milk is the best food for the contraction of muscles of mammary
offspring because: glands allowing milk let-down to the
nipple where the baby sucks from.
1. It does not require mechanical
 Milk let-down is inhibited by
breakdown for it is in a liquid form distraction, embarrassment, anxiety
that is easy to swallow. of fatigue.
2. It contains all nutrients required for
growth and in the right amounts. © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 ROLE OF HORMONES IN DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY
SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS.

141

 The presence of vagina and penis is used to 1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)- which
differentiate between a baby boy or girl. stimulates synthesis and maturation of sperms.
These physical characteristics are called 2. Luteinizing hormone (LH)/interstitial cell
primary sexual characteristics. stimulating hormone (ICSH)- stimulates the
 At puberty (at age of 12 years in girls and interstitial cells to produce male hormones called
14 years in boys), other features develop androgens and the main androgen is
that distinguish males and females. Testosterone.
 They are controlled by oestrogen hormone  Testosterone stimulates the development of
in females and androgens in males hence secondary sexual characteristics which include:
called secondary sexual a) Deepening of voice.
characteristics.
Secondary sexual characteristics in b) Growth of beards and hair in pubic area
males. c) Enlargement of testes and penis.
 In males secondary sexual characteristics d) Broadening of shoulders.
begin to show at the age of 14 years. The e) Enlargement of muscles around the chest and
sex hormones / gonadotrophins produced shoulders.
are:
f) Production of sperms.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

142

Secondary sexual characteristics in b) Follicle stimulating hormone

females. (FSH)- which stimulates the ovary
to release the hormone oestrogen.
 In females secondary sexual characteristics Oestrogen stimulates the
begin to show at the age of 10-12 years. development of Graafian follicle in
the ovary and development of
The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary secondary sexual characteristics.
gland to release gonadotrophins which  Secondary sexual characteristics in
include: females include:
a) Luteinizing hormone (LH)- which i) Enlargement of pelvic girdle.
stimulates mature Graafian follicle to ii) Widening of hips.
release a mature ovum in the process iii) Growth of hair in pubic and armpit
called ovulation. regions.
iv) The ovaries mature and start
releasing eggs and the girls begin to
menstruate.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 B. ROLE OF HORMONES IN MENSTRUATION IN
FEMALES.
143

 Gamete production in females is cyclical Role

after every 28 days hence called  After/ at the onset of menstruation, (the
menstrual cycle. anterior lobe of) pituitary gland secretes
 It begins with menses i.e. discharge of Follicle Stimulating Hormone
blood and tissue debris from the uterus (FSH) which:
which takes place for 5-7 days. Before 1) Causes/ stimulates the Graafian
menses the females experience follicle to develop in the ovary. The
abdominal pain, back pains and nausea. graafian follicle contains the ovum.
 The events of menstrual cycle involves 2) Stimulates the ovary tissues to secrete
the ovaries (ovarian cycle) and in the Oestrogen hormone.
uterus (uterine cycle) controlled by
pituitary gonadotrophins.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

144

 Oestrogen hormone has the following  Luteinising hormone has the

effects: following effects:
1) Brings about/ causes/ stimulates 1) It stimulates the maturation of
repair and healing of endometrium/ Graafian follicle.
uterine lining (after menstruation).
2) It stimulates or causes
2) Its concentration increases to a level
which stimulates the (anterior lobe
ovulation/stimulates the Graafian
of the) pituitary gland to secrete follicle to burst releasing the ovum.
Luteinizing hormone. 3) It stimulates the remains of
3) Its concentration increases to a level Graafian follicle to form a yellow
which stops further secretion of body (Corpus luteum) in the ovary.
Follicle stimulating hormone. 4) It stimulates the corpus luteum to
secrete progesterone.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
145

 Progesterone has the following effects:  Degeneration of corpus luteum

1) It stimulates thickening of reduces the amount of progesterone.
endometrium/ inner lining of uterine  The sudden drop in secretion of
wall in readiness for implantation. progesterone causes the
2) As the level of progesterone increases it endometrium to slough off/
inhibits the pituitary gland from menstruation occurs. The cycle is
secreting follicle stimulating hormone. then repeated.
3) Further increase in progesterone level
inhibits the pituitary gland from
secreting Luteinizing hormone.
4) Further increase in progesterone level
causes the corpus luteum to
degenerate.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

146

 Ovulation and hormonal  The hormone is excreted

imbalance causes a rise in through urine. The presence of
temperature during this hormone in urine is used to
menstruation. confirm pregnancy during a
 During pregnancy the implanted pregnancy test.
embryo produce another
hormone called human
chorion gonadotropic
hormone (HCG) which is sent
to ovary to sustain corpus
luteum.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

147 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
148 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 Study question
149

 The figure shows changes that take a) Name the hormone whose
place during menstrual cycle in concentrations are represented by
humans. curves F and G.
 F- Oestrogen.
 G- Progesterone.
a) State the effects of the hormones
named in (a) above on the lining of
the uterus.
 Oestrogen-Promotes healing and
repair.
 Progesterone -Causes thickening and
increased blood supply
/vascularisation.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
150

c) (i) Name the hormone which is d) State the fertile period during the
released by the pituitary gland in menstrual cycle.
high concentration on the 14th  12th-16th.
day of the menstrual cycle.
e) State the dietary requirements that
 Luteinizing hormone.
maintain the menstrual cycle.
(ii) State two functions of the  Iron for the formation of
hormone named in (c) (I ) above. haemoglobin.
 Causes / stimulates
 Vitamin K for blood clotting to
ovulation. prevent prolonged bleeding.
 Stimulates graafian
 Vitamin C to heal the uterine wall
follicle to become corpus
and absorption of iron.
luteum.
 Stimulates corpus luteum
to release progesterone.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
151

f) State the factors that change the menstrual Symptoms

cycle.
1. Night sweat.
 Change in diet. 2. Random hot flashes during the day.
 Stress. 3. Changes in mood that shows depression.
 Disease infection. 4. Fatigue.
 Emotions. 5. Vaginal dryness.
Menopause 6. Loss of minerals e.g. Calcium. This
leads to softening of bone, a condition
 This is the permanent end of menstruation called osteoporosis.
and fertility. It may begin between the age of
40 and 50.
 It is a gradual process signified by :
i) Decrease in number of graafian follicles,
ii) The follicles become less sensitive to
follicle stimulating hormone,
iii) Secretion of oestrogen declines.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES.
1. HIV and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome)
152

a) Cause.Caused by the HIV c) Symptoms.

(Human Immunodeficiency i. Swollen lymph glands.
Virus).
ii. Diarrhoea, fever, sweating and
b) Mode of transmission. body fatigue.
 Sexual intercourse with an infected iii. Sudden weight loss.
person.
iv. Persistent cough.
 Sharing of contaminated needles
with infected people. v. Generalized skin infections.

 Blood transfusion with infected

blood.
 From infected mother to child
during birth or through breast milk.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

153

Prevention and control of HIV and 4. Screening of blood before

AIDS transfusion.
1. Abstaining from sexual 5. Use of antiretroviral (ARV)drugs
intercourse before marriage. by those affected.
2. Correct and consistent use of 6. Sex education to enlighten the
male and female condoms. public on socio-economic effects
3. Have one faithful sexual HIV/ AIDS.
partner/ avoid multiple sexual 7. Public health interventions to
partners curb/ stop the spread of HIV.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

154

8. Avoid risky cultural practices e.g. 11. Avoid sharing surgical and piercing
female genital mutilation, instruments e.g. ear piercing and sharing
traditional male circumcision and of needles by drug users.
wife inheritance. 12. Promote male circumcision to reduce
9. Use of bottle feeding instead of the risk of contracting HIV.
breast feeding for babies. 13. Encourage people to know their HIV
10. Enforce laws that make it an status hence minimize the spread.
offence to spread HIV intentionally.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

155

Study question 4. Commercial sex/ prostitution due to

unemployment.
a) Give the possible reasons
why HIV/AIDS is still 5. Pervasive behavior e.g. homosexuality and
rampant despite a lot of rape.
awareness creation. 6. Long incubation behavior of HIV makes people
complacent.
1. Many adolescents engage in sexual
activity through excitement, wrong 7. Many traditionalists have opted not to believe
advice, peer pressure, or ignorance. HIV hence continuation of wife inheritance,
traditional circumcision tattooing etc.
2. Many people especially youths misuse 8. Presence of quack , bush doctors and conmen/
their leisure time through engaging in women who cheat people about cure drugs or
erotic dances, reading and watching miracle cures of HIV/AIDS condition.
pornography.
3. Lack of strict policy on drug abuse.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

156

b) Offer possible solutions to c) A child born of a HIV

these problems. positive mother tested HIV
1. Avoid bad company. positive after birth.
However , after a few
2. Proper use of leisure time by avoiding months the child tested
reading erotic magazines, watching HIV negative. Explain.
pornography and not attending night
clubs.  At birth, the child tested HIV positive
because of the presence of HIV
3. Abstain from misuse of drugs/ drug antibodies which passed through the
addiction. placenta. After a few months the
4. Public awareness of HIV/AIDS e.g. lack antibodies are removed from the blood
of cure, no miracle cure of the disease. hence the child tested HIV negative.
5. Abstaining from commercial/
indiscriminate sexual behavior.
6. Avoiding risky behaviors e.g. wife
inheritance.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 2. Syphilis.
157

 It affects the genital organs of both Symptoms.

males and females.
1. Painless sore appearing on
 Caused by the bacterium Treponema
pallidum. or around the sex organs.
Transmission. 2. Skin rashes.
1. Through sexual intercourse 3. Flu like symptom i.e.
with infected person. Fever, sore throat, bone
2. Transfusion with infected and joints pain.
blood.
3. Transmission from infected 4. Headache.
mother to the child during 5. Insanity.
birth or through the
placenta before 7th month Prevention.
of delivery
i. Avoid indiscriminate sex.
ii. Use of condoms.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 3. Gonorrhoea.
158

 It is a disease affecting genital organs 4. Yellow or green discharge in

caused by the bacterium Neisseria males.
gonorrhoea. 5. Tenderness and pain in the
Transmission testicles in males.
1. Sexual intercourse with 6. Inflammation of the foreskin
infected person. in males
2. During birth when a mother is Control and prevention
infected. 1. Public education on dangers of
Symptoms. indiscriminate sex.
1. Pain when passing urine. 2. Use of condoms during sexual
intercourse.
2. Bleeding in between the
periods in women. 3. Treatment using antibiotics.
3. Females have unusual
vaginal discharge which is
watery, yellow or greenish
in color.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 4. Genital herpes.
159

 It is caused by the virus Symptoms.

Herpes simplex. 1. Lesions on the skin and
Transmission. mucous membrane of
the mouth/ buccal
1. Sexual intercourse cavity, vaginal canal and
with an infected conjunctiva in females.
person.
2. Painless lesions on the
2. Kissing infected head of the penis
person. Control and prevention.
3. Sharing of 1. Avoid indiscriminate sex
contaminated needles and contaminated
and syringes. needles and syringes.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 5. Hepatitis B.
160

 It is a condition that describes Symptoms.

inflammation of the liver. i. Loss of appetite.
 It is caused by a virus which attacks ii. Jaundice.
liver cells eventually causing damage in
the liver. iii. Headache and muscle ache.
Transmission. iv. Vomiting.
i. Sexual contact with an infected v. Dark urine .
person. Prevention.
ii. Sharing contaminated instruments i. Screening of blood before
used by barbers and dentists. transfusion.
iii. Sharing contaminated syringes and ii. Avoiding indiscriminate sex.
needles (by drug addicts).
iii. Avoiding sharing needles.
iv. Blood transfusion with infected
blood. iv. Using condoms during sexual
intercourse.
v. Kissing an infected person.
vi. Infected mother to unborn child.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21
 6. Trichomoniasis.
161

 Caused by a protozoa called Control and prevention.

Trichomoniasis vaginalis.
1. Use protective methods
Transmission during sexual
i. Through sexual intercourse. intercourse/ avoid
ii. Contaminated clothes or indiscriminate sex.
beddings. 2. Avoid sharing linen/
Symptoms. clothes.
1. Yellow smelly discharge in 3. High personal hygiene in
females. the genitals.
2. Burning sensation when
urinating.
3. Itching in the urethra and
vagina.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 7. Candidiasis.
162

 Caused by a fungus, Candida albicans. Control and prevention.

Transmission. i. Avoid indiscriminate sex.
 Through sexual contact with ii. Using condoms during sex.
infected person. iii. Proper hygiene (e.g. wiping
Symptoms. oneself from front to back after
i. Itching and burning sensation in using the toilet, use of pure
the genital area. cotton and loose pants in
females).
ii. White discharge from the vagina
which does not smell. iv. Proper treatment using
antibiotics.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 4. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.
1
Definition of terms. 3. Differentiation – It refers to
1. Growth- this is the modifications of cells to perform
irreversible/permanent quantitative specific functions.
increase in the size of an organism. It  Differentiation is important
is brought about by multiplication because cells become specialized
and elongation of cells in the process to enable the organism perform
of cell division. specific functions.
 It is measurable e.g. increase in height, 4. Morphology refers to the body
length, width e.t.c. form of an organism. Morphology
2. Development- this is the is as result of growth and
qualitative growth which involves development.
differentiation of cells and formation  In animals, growth takes place all
of new tissues to be able to perform over the body but in plants it takes
specialized functions. place in specialized/localized
 It is not measurable but can be assessed regions called meristems.
through complexity e.g. development
of leaves, flowers and roots.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 2
Differences between growth Processes involved in growth.
and development. 1. Assimilation -Cells of
 Growth is quantitative while organisms make/synthesize
development is qualitative. new cellular substances from
 Growth is measurable while food nutrients hence increase
development can only be assessed in mass.
through increased complexity. 2. Cell division (mitosis)- that
lead to increase in the number
of cells.
3. Cell expansion - that leads
to enlargement an increase in
the volume and size of the
organism.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 Differences in growth between plants and animals.
3

Plants Animals

i. Growth occurs at i. Growth occurs throughout

specific/localized parts. the animal body.
ii. Growth takes place ii. Growth takes place in early
throughout the life cycle. stages and stops at maturity.
iii. Growth is mainly influenced iii. Growth is mainly influenced
by environmental factors. by hormones.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 Measurement of growth.
4
 Growth can be estimated by  Dry mass has limitation in
measuring some aspect of an estimating growth because it kills
organism e.g. volume, height the organism hence cannot be
and mass and in unicellular used over a period of time to
organisms, the number of cells estimate growth.
over a period of time.  If the measurements so obtained
 Dry mass is the best indicator of are plotted against time, the
growth because it gives the actual curve obtained is a growth
amount of living matter in an curve (S-shaped curve /sigmoid
organism. curve).
 Fresh mass is dependent on the
amount of water present in an
organism hence it is not the best
indicator of growth.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 5
Limitations of measuring 5. Use of dry mass involved killing
growth using the above the organism.
parameters. 6. The use of mass or size may be
1. Difficulty in choosing the right inaccurate because different
growth parameter. parts of an organism mature at
2. The use of a single growth different times.
parameter does not take into 7. Irregularities in the growth of
account growth in other an organism due to fluctuation
directions. in the environment / diet.
3. Volume cannot be used for
those organisms with irregular
shape.
4. Mass of an organism is usually
affected by variation in the fluid
content of the organism.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

© Sam obare 6 16-Jun-21
 PARTS OF A SIGMOID CURVE.
7
a) Lag phase - region A. ii. Cells have adjusted to the new
 Growth is slow because: environment.
i. The number of cells dividing iii. Food and other factors are not
are few. limiting hence cells are not
ii. The cells have not yet adjusted competing for resources.
to the surrounding iv. The rate of cell increase is higher
environmental factors. than the rate of cell death.
b) Exponential phase (or log
phase) - Region B.
 There is rapid/ exponential growth
because:
i. There is increase in the number of
dividing cells.
© Sam obare 16-Jun-21
 8
c) Decelerating phase - Region d) Stationary (plateau) phase -
C. Region D.
 Growth is slow because of the  There is no growth/ growth is
following: constant because:
i. Most cells are fully differentiated. i. The rate of cell division equals
ii. Fewer cells are still dividing. the rate of cell death.
iii. Shortage of oxygen and nutrients ii. Cells have fully differentiated
due to high demand by increased hence no increase in number of
number of cells. cells.
iv. Space is limited due to high
number of cells.
v. Accumulation of metabolic waste
products which inhibit growth.
vi. Limited acquisition of carbon (IV)
oxide in plants.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 Structure of a seed.
9

Coleorhiza

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 10

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 PARTS OF A SEED.
11
1. Seed coat- This is the outer 2. Hilum - This is the point where
covering of the seed formed the seed had been attached to the
from the integuments of embryo seed stalk or funicle.
sac. 3. Micropyle. This is a pore
 It consists of : which allows water and air into
i. Testa- thick outer layer. the embryo.
ii. Tegmen- inner transparent 4. Endosperm- this is the swollen
membranous layer. part of the seed which stores
Role/ function of seed coat food for growing radicle
(testa and tegmen) and plumule. It is prominent
in monocot seeds.
 Protect the seed from bacteria,
fungi and other organisms which
may damage it.

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 12
 Some seeds store food in the ii. Plumule (embryonic shoot)- it
cotyledons e.g. dicot seeds hence are grows to form a shoot.
called non- endospermic seeds.  It is connected to the cotyledon by
 Seeds that store food in the endosperm the epicotyl.
are called endospermic seeds e.g.
 The tip of the plumule is protected
monocot seeds like maize, wheat,
by the coleoptile.
rice e.t.c.
iii. Radicle (the embryonic root)-
5. Embryo- it is made up of:
it grows to form a root.
i. One or two seed leaves
(cotyledons)- they store food for  It is connected to the cotyledons by
the growing plumule and radicle (in the hypocotyl.
dicots). Dicot seeds have 2  The tip of the radicle is protected
cotyledons while monocot by the coleorhiza.
seeds have 1 cotyledon.

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 SEED DORMANCY.
13
 This is a period when seeds fail to Importance/significance of
germinate even if all the favorable seed dormancy.
environmental conditions for 1. It provides the seeds with
germination are provided. enough time for dispersal so
 This is because the embryo may that they can germinate in a
not undergo further development suitable environment.
before germination. 2. It enables seeds to survive
 The seed performs its during adverse environmental
physiological processes slowly conditions without depleting
and utilizes little food. their food reserves.
3. Provides time for the embryo
to develop until favorable
conditions are available e.g.
availability of water.

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 14
CAUSES OF SEED DORMANCY. b) External/environmental
a) Internal conditions in a conditions/ conditions
seed. outside a seed.
1. Underdeveloped embryo/ i. Absence/ lack of certain light
embryo not fully developed. wavelength e.g. lettuce seeds.
2. Hard/impermeable seed ii. Low/freezing temperature
coat/testa which prevent entry which lowers their enzymatic
of air and water e.g. wattle activities.
seeds.
3. Presence of chemical/growth
inhibitors which inhibit
germination in seeds e.g.
abscisic acid.
4. Very low concentration of
hormones and enzymes.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 15
WAYS OF BREAKING SEED 6. Scarification (physical breaking/
DORMANCY. weakening of the seed coat) through
1. Allowing time for the embryo to boiling, roasting and cracking e.g.
mature. wattle seeds.
2. Increasing concentration of hormones 7. Removal of mucilage.
e.g. cytokinins and gibberellins which 8. Chemical treatment.
stimulate germination.  Scarification can also be achieved
3. Soaking in water. naturally by saprophytic bacteria and
4. Providing favorable environmental fungi or by passing through the gut of
conditions, e.g. water, oxygen and animals.
optimum temperature.  Some seeds e.g. wattle seeds are
5. Providing the light wavelength that exposed to heat for a long time before
stimulate production of hormones germination because they have hard
(e.g. gibberellins). seed coat.

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 16
SEED VIABILITY. SEED GERMINATION.
 This is the ability of the seed to  This is the process by which the
survive and develop into a new plant. seed develops and grows into a
 Seed viability is lost due to denatured seedling.
enzymes. The process of germination.
Factors affecting seed viability  At the beginning of germination
1. Maturity of the seed- only mature water is absorbed into the seed
seeds can germinate. through the micropyle in the
2. Storage conditions- if seeds are process called imbibition causing
exposed to unfavourable conditions the seed to swell.
e.g. high temperatures, enzymes  The cells of the cotyledons become
are denatured affecting viability. turgid and active.
3. Storage time- some seeds, if kept
for a long time they lose viability.
© Sam obare 16-Jun-21
 17
 Absorbed water activates enzymes,  The radicle grows into a root and plumule
dissolves food and leads to the into a shoot.
 The radicle is the first to emerge from the
hydrolysis/ breakdown of stored
seed through the micropyle, it bursts
food materials/ substances stored the seed coat and grows to form a root.
in the otyledons.  It grows downwards between soil particles
 The soluble food materials are with its tip protected by a root cap.
transported to the growing radicle  Root hairs develop behind the root cap.
and plumule of the embryo.  The plumule then breaks through the
surface and develops into a shoot.
 At the growing points glucose is
Reasons why the radicle develops first
used for respiration to provide before the plumule.
energy for growth and amino acids i. To provide anchorage to the seedling.
are used for synthesis of new ii. To provide the seedling with water and
cellular materials. mineral salts.

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 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR GERMINATION.
18
 They include: B. OXYGEN.
A. Environmental factors e.g. water,  It is required for oxidation of food
oxygen and optimum temperature. substances in respiration to provide energy
B. Internal/physiological factors e.g. for cell division and growth.
enzymes and hormones .  Seeds in waterlogged soil or seeds buried
A. WATER. deep into the soil will not germinate due to
1. Water activates enzymes involved in lack of oxygen.
germination. C. TEMPERATURE.
2. Provides a medium for enzymatic activity  Optimum temperature is required for
3. It hydrolyzes stored food substances. optimum enzymatic activity hence
facilitating germination.
4. It dissolves the stored food substances.  The optimum temperature is usually At
5. It softens the seed coat (which swells and very low temperature (below 0oC) the
bursts to facilitate emergence of radicle). temperatures are inactivated hence there is
6. It acts as a medium of transport of no germination.
dissolved food substances to the growing  At very high temperatures (above 47oC)
regions of radicle and plumule. the enzymes in seeds are denatured/
destroyed hence there is no germination.

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 19
D. ENZYMES. E. HORMONES.
i. They catalyze hydrolysis if  These include gibberellins and
stored/ insoluble food into cytokinins.
soluble substances.  They act as growth regulators and
 Food is stored in seeds in form of also counteract the effect of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins germination inhibitors.
which are in insoluble form.
 Carbohydrates are broken down into
glucose by the diastase enzyme,
fats into fatty acids and glycerol by
lipase, and proteins into amino
acids by protease.
ii. Enzymes are also necessary for
the conversion of hydrolyzed
products to new plant tissues.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 EXPERIMENT 1.
20
Aim
 To show that water is necessary for
germination.
Procedure
 Set the apparatus as shown below.
 Keep the jars in room temperature for 5
days.
Observation and explanation.
 In A, the seeds germinated because water
was available.
 In B, the seeds may start to germinate
then dry up due to lack of water.
 In C, the seeds do not germinate due to
lack of water.
Note
 The loose cotton wool plug ensures free
circulation of air.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 EXPERIMENT 2.
21
Aim: To show that oxygen is necessary for
germination.
Procedure
 The experimental setup is as shown below.
 In Jar A, the test tube contains pyrogallic.
 In Jar B, the test tube contains water.
 The jars are left at room temperature for five
days.
Observation and explanation.
 There was no germination in jar A because
pyrogallic acid absorbed oxygen necessary for
germination. The seeds could not respire thus
did not germinate.
 The seeds in jar B germinated because oxygen
necessary for germination was available.
 The seeds in C did not germinate due to the
absence of oxygen. This is because boiling drives
out oxygen, oil layer prevents entry of oxygen
from the surrounding atmosphere.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 EXPERIMENT 3.
22
Aim: To show that seeds require optimum
temperature to germinate.
Procedure.
 Set up the experiment as follows:
i. Jar A is placed in a refrigerator set at 4 °C.
ii. Jar B is placed in a water bath set at 30 °C.
iii. Jar C is placed in a water bath set at 40
°C.
iv. Jar D is placed in an oven set at 60 °C.
 The jars are left for five days.
Observation and explanation.
 There was no germination in jars A and D.
This is because in jar A temperature was low
which inactivated the enzymes.
 There was germination in jar B and C because
temperature was optimum for germination.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 STUDY QUESTION 1.
23
 In an experiment to investigate the Time (min) Beans seeds Acacia seeds
effect of heat on germination of seeds, 0 50 0
eleven bags each containing 50 bean 2 50 0
seeds was placed in a water bath 4 46 1
maintained at 90oC. After 2 minutes, a 6 35 2
8 10 28
bag was removed and the seeds
10 1 36
contained were planted. The number
12 0 41
that germinated was recorded. The
14 0 44
procedure used for the beans was
16 0 47
repeated for Acacia/wattle seeds. The
18 0 48
results obtained were as shown in the 20 0 50
table below.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 QUESTIONS
24
1. Which one of the two types of seeds was  The bean seeds have a weak testa
more sensitive to heat influence on which quickly soaked and allows
germination? Give reasons for your water into the seed.
answer.  Since water was hot the high
 Bean seeds. This is because more temperature denatured the
seeds germinating on exposure to enzymes.
hot water for a short time.  The longer the seeds were
2. Explain why the ability for the: exposed to this temperature the
(i) Beans seeds to germinate declined with more the enzymes were
time of exposure to heat. denatured. The bean seeds
exposed for 12 minutes have all
enzymes denatured, the cells die
and no germination took place.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 25
ii) Acacia seeds to germinate improved i. 100oC.
with time of exposure to heat. At 1000C comparatively fewer/no bean
 Acacia seeds have a tough testa seeds will germinate but more/all
which requires a longer time of acacia seeds will germinate.This is
contact with water to be because enzymes in bean seeds
softened. The hot water hastened could be denatured and the seed
the softening process. coat in acacia softened.
 The seeds exposed in hot water ii. 5oC.
for 20 minutes had the most At 50C no acacia seeds will germinate
optimum time for softening of and all or most of bean seed will
testa hence leading to best germinate.This is because the seed
germination percentage. coat of acacia could not be softened.
3. Explain the results that would be
expected if the temperature of water
was maintained at:
© Sam obare 16-Jun-21
 STUDY QUESTION 2.
 An experiment was carried out to determine the 26
growth rates of bamboo and a variety of maize c) Give a reason for your answer in
plants in two adjacent plots. The average height (b) above.
and average dry weight of plants from the two  It had accumulated more weight
populations were determined over a period of
and therefore greater dry weight
twenty weeks. The data is as shown in the table
below. d) Between weeks 14 and 18, the
a) Between which two weeks did the greatest average height of the maize plants
increase in weight occur in: remained constant while average
i. Bamboo plants. dry weight increased. Explain this
 4 and 6. observation.
ii. Maize plants.  The cells have fully divided hence no
 12 and 14. further growth, there is further
b) Which of the two types of plants had a higher development resulting into the
productivity by the end of the experiment? reproductive parts ; hence an
 Bamboo increase in the dry weight.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 Bamboo Maize
Age in Average Average Average Average
weeks height weight height weight
(Metres) (Grams) (Metres) (Grams)
2 1.3 52 0.3 20
4 4.0 182 0.5 29
6 8.2 445 0.8 57
8 12.1 682 1.2 78
10 13.9 801 1.7 172
12 14.1 957 1.9 420
14 14.3 1025 2.1 704
16 14.4 1062 2.1 895
18 14.6 1127 2.1 926
20 14.6 1229 2.1 908
© Sam obare 27 16-Jun-21
 TYPES OF GERMINATION.
28
A. EPIGEAL GERMINATION.  The hypocotyl then straightens and
 The cotyledons are lifted/ brought elongates carrying with it the two
above the ground and the hypocotyl cotyledons which open and expose the
elongates. It occurs in dicot seeds. plumule
Process of epigeal germination.  They cotyledons then turn green and
 The radicle grows out through the
leafy and begin to photosynthesize/
micropyle and grows downwards into manufacturing food for the growing
the soil to provide anchorage to the seedling.
seedling and absorb water and  The plumule which lies between the
mineral salts. cotyledons grows into first foliage
 The hypocotyl curves and pushes
leaves which start manufacturing
upwards through the soil protecting food.
the delicate shoot tip and pulling  After the foliage leaves start to
cotyledons. photosynthesize then the cotyledons
wither, shrink and fall.
© Sam obare 16-Jun-21
 29
Functions of cotyledon before
development of first foliage
leaves.
1. Site for hydrolysis of stored food.
2. Site for respiration to provide
energy for cell division and
formation of new tissues.
3. Protection of the
embryo/plumule.
4. Photosynthesis before the first
foliage leaves appear.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 B. HYPOGEAL GERMINATION.
30
 The cotyledons remain below  Coleoptile then breaks to
the ground. release the plumule which
Process of hypogeal forms the first foliage leaves
germination. and starts to photosynthesize.
 The radicle protected by  After the seedlings begin to
coleorhiza grows down into the photosynthesize, the endosperm
soil to provide anchorage to begins to shrink.
the seedling and absorb
water and mineral salts.
 Epicotyl elongates carrying the
coleoptile which pushes the
soil and appears above the
ground.

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 31
Differences between epigeal
and hypogeal germination.

Epigeal Hypogeal
germination germination
The cotyledons The cotyledons
are brought above remain below the
the ground. ground
The hypocotyl The epicotyl
elongates elongates Coleorhiza

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 Changes in the dry mass of endosperm,
embryo and total mass of germinating seed.
32

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 33
 There is a decrease in the dry mass  There is a decrease in the total
of the endosperm between day 0 mass of the seed/whole grain
and day 12 because the stored between day 0 and day 8 because
food in the endosperm is the embryo uses up the food
being hydrolyzed / broken reserves as it grows/ stored
down and used by the food is oxidized to provide
developing embryo. energy for germination.
 There is an increase in dry mass of  There is an increase in total mass of
the embryo between day 0 and day the whole seed after day 8,
12 because the seed absorbs because photosynthesis starts
water and the embryo starts as first foliage leaves appear,
to develop. providing food for synthesis
of new materials.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 GROWTH IN PLANTS
34
 In plants, growth takes place in Types of meristems.
localized parts called meristems. 1. Apical meristems- they are
 A meristem is group of located at the tips of shoots and roots
undifferentiated cells in plants and are responsible for primary
capable of continuously dividing
through mitosis. growth.
 Meristems consist of 2. Vascular cambium- located
meristematic cells with the between phloem and xylem in stems
following characteristics: and roots and are responsible for
i. Are small in size. secondary growth/ thickening.
ii. Have thin cell walls. 3. Cork cambium- located below the
iii. Have a dense/large bark.
cytoplasm. 4. Lateral buds- located above the
iv. Have a large central nucleus. leaf and give rise to lateral/ side
v. Have no vacuoles. branches.

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 35
Primary growth in plants. a) Region of cell division-
 This is growth that takes place at consists of meristematic cells
the tips of shoot and root due to that actively divide.
active mitotic division of  Each cell divides into two, one
meristematic cells. cell remains meristematic while
 This leads to increase in length of the other moves to the region of
shoot and root. cell elongation.
 In primary growth there are three b) Region of cell elongation-
distinctive regions, namely: the cells become enlarged to
a) Region of cell division.
their maximum size.
 Vacuoles start forming and
b) Region of cell elongation.
enlarging.
c) Region of cell differentiation.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 36
c) Region of cell differentiation- Study question.
the cells attain their permanent size, The figures below indicate the appearance of
with large vacuoles and thickened. cells at different regions at the apical
 The cells differentiate into tissues meristems. Rearrange them into three regions:
specialized for specific functions.
 Examples of tissues formed at the
region of cell differentiation include
epidermis, phloem, xylem, cambium,
cortex.
 Behind the region of cell
differentiation there are permanent
tissues.
a) Zone of cell division- B
b) Zone of cell elongation- A and D
c) Zone of cell differentiation- C

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 Cross section of a root

Longitudinal section of a root tip

© Sam obare 37 16-Jun-21
 Longitudinal section of a shoot tip Cross section of a shoot tip

© Sam obare 38 16-Jun-21

 EXPERIMENT.
39
Aim: To determine the region Other requirements.
of growth in a seedling i. Germinating bean seedlings.
Equipment ii. Pins.
i. Wire/ thread/ string. iii. Cork.
ii. Marker pen. iv. A boiling tube.
iii. Dye/ water proof ink. v. Moist cotton wool.
iv. Pen.
v. Book.
vi. Blotting paper.
vii. Tissue paper/ piece of cloth.
viii. Ruler (marked in mm).

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 40
Procedure Observations and explanation.
 Get a bean seedling with a straight root.  The widest interval is found at the
 Dry the seedling using blotting paper. region just behind the tip.
 Place the radicle against the ruler  This is the region of greater
marked in millimetres. growth/cell elongation and
 Dip the fine thread in waterproof ink. differentiation.
 Using the ink-soaked thread, mark the  Cells farthest from the tip undergoes
radicle at equal intervals. maturation and differentiation.
 Pin the seedlings onto a cork and
suspend it with the radicle pointing
down into a boiling tube containing
moist cotton wool.
 Allow the seedling to grow for 2 days
and observe the intervals between the
marks.
 Record your observations in a book.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 41

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 STUDY QUESTION
42
 In an experiment to investigate the Concentratio Percentage of Mean root
effect of sodium chloride on the n of sodium spinach seeds length (mm)
growth rate in a spinach seedling, chloride which started
seeds were treated with different (mol/l) to grow roots
concentrations of sodium chloride. The
results are as recorded below. 0.00 99.98 17.70
0.06 98.20 15.60
0.12 92.0 10.20
0.18 54.0 7.60

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 43
a) From the results in the table b) Apart from a ruler, state two other
above, explain the effect of equipment one would need to
increasing the concentration of determine the rate of growth in
sodium chloride. (3mks) roots. (2mks)
 Increased sodium chloride
 Thread/ string /wire.
concentration increases osmotic  Marker pen.
pressure in the surrounding  Book.
solution/ makes the  Pen.
surrounding solution hypertonic  Dye/waterproof ink.
to the cell sap of seedling cells.  Blotting paper.
 Cells take in less water/ lose  Tissue paper/ piece of cloth.
water to the surrounding
solution through osmosis
reducing growth enzymatic
activity thus reducing growth.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 44
c) With a reason, state one part d) State the likely on the seedling
of the seedling the students of increasing the
would focus on to determine concentration of sodium
the effect of sodium chloride chloride to 2.20 mol/l (1mk)
on growth. (2mks)  The seedling will wither/dry/
 Rate of growth or increase in die.
length of the shoot tip/ apex.
 This is because it is a region
of active cell division/
growth.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 SECONDARY GROWTH/ THICKENING IN
PLANTS.
45
 Secondary growth in dicots results in  The intervascular cambium and vascular
increase in width/ girth due to the cambium form a continuous cambium
activity of cambium (vascular and cork ring.
cambium).  The new cells obtained on the outer side
 Monocot plants lack cambium hence it of cambium differentiate to form
does not undergo secondary growth. secondary phloem and those to the
outer side differentiate to form
 However there is increase in diameter
secondary xylem.
due to enlargement of primary cells.
 More secondary xylem is formed than
Process of secondary growth in secondary phloem and intervascular
dicots. cambium also cuts the parenchymatous
 The vascular cambium divides to cells forming medullary rays which
produce new cambium cells between allow transport of water and solutes
the vascular bundle called inside the stem.
intervascular cambium.
© Sam obare 16-Jun-21
 46
 As a result of increase in the  The cork cambium divides to
volume of secondary tissues, produce new cells on either
pressure is exerted on the side. The cells on the inner side
outer cells of the stem. This of the cork cambium
leads to stretching and differentiate into secondary
rapturing of epidermal cells. cortex and those on the outer
 In order to replace the side become cork cells.
protective outer layer of the  Cork cells are dead with
stem, a new band of cambium thickened walls. Their walls
cells are formed in the cortex become coated with a
called cork cambium/ waterproof substance called
phellogen suberin.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 47
 The cork cells increase in number  During rainy season xylem vessels
and become the bark of the stem. and tracheids are formed in large
This prevents loss of water, infection numbers. The cells are large, have
from fungi, damage from insects and thin walls and the wood has light
acts as insulatory layer. texture.
 At certain points along the stem the  In the dry season, the xylem and
cork cells become loosely packed tracheids formed are few in number.
forming lenticels for gaseous They are small, thick walled ad their
exchange. wood has dark texture.
 The rate of secondary growth in the  This leads to two distinctive layers
stem varies with seasonal changes. within the secondary xylem hence
called annual rings.
 It is possible to determine the
number age of the tree by counting
the number of annual rings.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 48

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 49

Annual
rings

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

ROLE OF GROWTH HORMONES IN PLANTS
50
A. AUXINS e.g. IAA (Indoleacetic 6. They initiate cell division and
Acid) differentiation in cambium
1. They stimulate cell division and enhancing secondary growth.
elongation (leading to primary 7. They stimulate formation of callus
growth. tissue which causes healing of
2. They stimulate tropic responses/ wounds (in association with other
growth in plants. hormones).
3. They stimulate growth of adventitious 8. Some synthetic auxins are used as
roots in stem cuttings selective weed killer/ herbicide (by
4. They induce parthenocarpy, i.e. inducing distorted growth of plants
development of fruit from ovary and excessive respiration causing
without fertilization death of the plant).
5. They inhibit growth of lateral/ side
branches from lateral buds enhancing
apical dominance.
© Sam obare 16-Jun-21
 STUDY QUESTIONS
51
1. State three ways in which 2. Explain how auxins are utilised
effects of auxins is applied as selective weed killers in
in flower farming. agriculture.
 Selective weed killers contain auxins
 Faster maturity of flower/ earlier which are absorbed by the weeds more
flower formation/ earlier than desirable/ beneficial plants.
flowering.  This makes the weeds to grow
 Prunning/ decapitating shoot tips abnormally/ die out ahead of beneficial
to allow sprouting of lateral buds plants.
hence more yield.
 Stimulates formation/development
of adventitious roots.
 Keeping flowers fresh/ avoid
withering.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 52
B. GIBBERELLIC ACID/ C. CYTOKININS/KINETINS.
GIBBERELLINS. 1. They promote growth when they interact
1. They stimulate rapid cell division and with auxins.
elongation in dwarf plants.
2. They stimulate fruit formation (by 2. They stimulate cell division in the
inducing the growth of ovaries into presence of auxins.
fruits after fertilization). 3. Break dormancy in some plants.
3. They promote formation of side
branches from lateral buds and breaks 4. Promote flowering.
dormancy in buds. 5. Promote formation of adventitious roots.
4. They inhibit formation/ sprouting of 6. Promote stomatal opening hence
side branches from stem cuttings.
increased gaseous exchange and
5. They retard the formation of
abscission layer hence reduce leaf fall. transpiration.
6. They break seed dormancy by 7. Stimulate lateral bud development in
activating enzymes involved in shoots.
breakdown of food substances during
germination. 8. Induce cell enlargement in leaves when in
high concentration.
© Sam obare 16-Jun-21
 53
D. ETHYLENE/ETHENE. E. ABSCISIC ACID.
1. Causes ripening of fruits.  It’s effects are inhibitory in nature.
2. Stimulates formation of abscission 1. It causes seed dormancy.
layer leading to leaf and fruit fall. 2. Inhibits development of lateral
buds/branches.
3. Stimulates lateral bud development.
3. Retards stem elongation.
4. Promotes germination of certain
4. High concentration of abscisic acid causes
seeds by breaking seed dormancy. stomatal closure by interfering with
5. Promotes flowering in plants, for potassium ion uptake.
example in pineapples. 5. Causes formation of an abscission layer that
6. Inhibits plant growth and may cause encourages leaf and fruit fall.
plant death. F. FLORIGENS- they promote flowering.
G. TRAUMATINS- they cause healing of
wounds in plants.

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 54
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF 10. Synthetic auxin 2, 4-D is used as a
PLANT GROWTH HORMONES IN herbicide.
AGRICULTURE. 11. Florigen is sprayed on young flower
1. Induce root growth in stem cutting. buds to promote flowering.
2. Used as selective weed 12. Ethylene is used to ripen fruits such
killers/herbicides. as oranges, bananas and tomatoes.
3. Encourage apical dominance. 13. Abscisic acid is sprayed in mature
4. Encourage sprouting of side plantations to promote fruit fall for
branches. easy harvesting.
5. Breaking seeds dormancy. 14. Seeds are treated with gibberellins to
6. Induce parthenocarpy.
break seed dormancy.
7. Promotes flowering.
15. Certain natural dwarf varieties of
plants are treated with gibberellins to
8. Induce fruit fall.
produce taller varieties.
9. Accelerates ripening of fruits.

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 APICAL DOMINANCE.
55
 This is the inhibition of development of Study question 1.
lateral/side branches due to the presence of In an experiment the shoot tip of a young
apical bud. tomato plant was decapitated as shown in the
 If an apical bud which normally contains high diagram below.
concentrations of auxins is removed, more
lateral/side branches develop
 This shows that high concentrations of
inhibit/hinder sprouting of lateral buds and
therefore hinders growth of many branches.
 This forms the basis of pruning in agriculture
where more branches are required for
increased harvest particularly on crops like
coffee and tea.
 The failure of lateral buds to develop in the
presence of an apical bud is due to the diffusion
of auxins from the shoot apex downwards
inhibiting the development of lateral buds.
© Sam obare 16-Jun-21
 56
a) State the expected results after 2 weeks. Study question 2
 Auxiliary / lateral buds sprout /  An experiment was carried out to
branches will be formed. investigate the effect of hormones on
b) Give a reason for your answer in (a) growth of lateral buds of three pea plants.
above. The shoots were treated as follows:
 Decapitation removes the hormone i. Shoot A – Apical bud was removed.
/ auxins / IAA which is produced in ii. Shoot B – Apical bud was removed and
the terminal bud / the stem tip. The gibberellic acid placed on the cut shoot.
removal of the hormone / auxins / iii. Shoot C – Apical bud was left intact.
IAA promote development of  The length of the branches developing
auxiliary /lateral buds/branches. from lateral buds were determined at
c) Suggest one application of this regular intervals. The results obtained
practice? are as shown in the table below.
 The pruning of coffee/tea/hedge..
d) What is the importance of this practice?
 More yield/Production/Bushy
edge.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

Time in days Length of branches in millimeters

Shoot A Shoot B Shoot C

0 3 3 3

2 10 12 3

4 28 48 8

6 50 9 14

8 80 120 20

10 118 152 26
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 58
a) Account for the results obtained in  Shoot C: The shoot tip which
the experiment. remained intact contains IAA
 Shoot A: The tip of the shoot which inhibits growth/
which was removed contained development of lateral buds,
indole acetic acid (IAA), which hence little change of length of
causes apical dominance/ lateral branches.
inhibits growth/ development of
more lateral buds; hence lateral
buds sprouted/grew.
 Shoot B: The gibberellic acid
which was added on the cut
promotes formation of lateral
branches of stems, hence the fast
growth of branches.

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 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN ANIMALS.
59
 Growth in animals occurs in all parts of Process of growth in arthropods
the body and stops at maturity. All cells  Intermittent growth is a result of the
in animals except the nerve cells divide. shedding of the exoskeleton/
 Animals therefore exhibit continuous moulting/ecdysis.
growth e.g. in chordates and  After moulting growth occurs rapidly
discontinuous/intermittent leading to increase in size. This is because
growth e.g. in Arthropods. the tough exoskeleton is shed allowing
 Members of phylum Arthropoda have the larvae to take in air/ water leading
exoskeletion made of chitin which to rapid growth thus increasing in size of
inhibits growth. To allow growth, organism.
exoskeleton has to be shed in the process  The growth rate slows down as the new
called moulting/ecdysis. exoskeleton is secreted and it hardens
 A plot of the growth rate at various after exposure to air thus limiting
stages reveals a period of rapid growth growth.
and a period of no growth.
 The stages between moults are
represented by the flat portions and are
known as instars.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 Length in mm

Instar

Moulting

Time in days
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 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INSECTS.
61
 Growth and development in Importance of metamorphosis.
insects occur in the process i. Helps to allow time for
development to take place.
called metamorphosis. ii. Helps to reduce competition for
 Metamorphosis refers to resources because different
developmental changes that take stages have different niches.
iii. Helps to avoid and survive
place in an organism until the unfavourable environmental
adult stage is attained. conditions which would affect
life processes.
 They exhibit intermittent/
Types of metamorphosis.
discontinuous growth curve. A. Complete metamorphosis.
B. Incomplete metamorphosis.

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 62
A. COMPLETE  The larva moults and develops into a
METAMORPHOSIS e.g. in pupa (chrysalis). During pupal stage
butterflies, moths, the organism is found in a cocoon which
helps it to survive in extreme conditions.
houseflies.
 During pupal stage,
 It has four stages i.e. Egg —► differentiation/development takes place.
larva—► pupa —► adult.  The pupa develops into adult which
Several eggs are laid and are not feeds and grows and attains physical and
enclosed in egg case/ ootheca. sexual maturity i.e. males and females
 Eggs hatch into larvae which can mate and the females are able to lay
eggs.
are different from the adult.
 The larva feeds on the decaying
matter and increases in size hence
has rapid growth. At larval stage,
rapid cell elongation takes place
i.e. it is a growing stage.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

© Sam obare 63 16-Jun-21
 Egg

Larvae

Adult

Pupa

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 65
B. INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS e.g.
in cockroaches.
Differences between
 Has three stages i.e. Egg — nymph —adult. complete and incomplete
 Fewer eggs are laid enclosed in egg Complete
metamorphosis.Incomplete
case/ootheca. metamorphosis metamorphosis
 The eggs hatch into nymphs which are similar 1. It has 4 stages i.e. 1. It has 3 stages i.e.
to adults but smaller and sexually immature. egg, larva, pupa and egg, nymph and adult.
 The nymphs and adults feed on the adult.
same(occupy the same ecological niche) 2. Eggs do not have egg 2. Eggs have egg
leading to competition. case/ ootheca. case/ootheca.
 Nymph moults into adult.
3. Many/ several eggs 3. Fewer eggs are laid.
Advantage of incomplete metamorphosis. are laid.
 Absence of larval and pupal stages shortens the
lifecycle of an organism. This helps to avoid
adverse environmental conditions that would
affect its life processes.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

© Sam obare 66 16-Jun-21
 ROLE OF HORMONES IN METAMORPHOSIS.
67
 In insects metamorphosis is controlled  When the larva matures, the corpus
by hormones. allatum disintegrates hence the level
 The hormones are produced by three of juvenile hormone drops.
glands namely;  Low level of juvenile hormone
i. Corpus allata (singular Corpus stimulates intercerebral gland in
allatum) in the brain. the brain secretes moulting
ii. Intercerebral gland in the stimulating hormone (MSH).
brain .  The moulting stimulating hormone
iii. Prothoracic glands in the
stimulates the prothoracic gland to
thorax. secrete moulting hormone
(ecdysone).
 During larval stages of the insect the
 Ecdysone/ moulting hormone causes
corpora allata produces juvenile metamorphosis/ causes the larval
hormone which inhibits stage to change into pupa and pupa
metamorphosis by stimulating into adult.
formation of larval cuticle hence
moulting does not go beyond the
larval stage.

© Sam obare 16-Jun-21

 INTERCEREBRAL CORPUS ALLATUM
GLAND IN THE BRAIN IN THE BRAIN

SECRETES
SECRETES
MOULTING
STIMULATING
HORMONE

STIMULATES
JUVENILE HORMONE
PROTHORACIC
GLANDS
INHIBITS/HINDE
SECRETES RS
CAUSES/INFLUENCES
MOULTING
HORMONE METAMORPHOSIS
(ECDYSONE)
CAUSES/INFLUENCES

MOULTING
© Sam obare 68 16-Jun-21