Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts

Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts

1.1 Introduction

Structures whose major constituent components are steel are known as

steel structure while those with large proportion of timber components
timber structures. As it will be noted from subsequent presentations, there
are great many steel and timber structures in engineering practice

Steel and timber are used both in structural and non-structural members in
various civil engineering applications such as buildings of various types,
bridges, power transmission and communication towers, windmills, off-
shore oil and gas facilities, reservoirs and other storage structures, mines,
among others. In particular, steel may also be used as a cable system in
suspension- and cable-stayed structures such as suspension bridges,
cable-supported roofs and cable-stayed towers. Their structural
engineering applications of steel also extend to manufacture of space-
and aircrafts, ship structures

The main component of this coursework will be dealing with steel

structures. The various design concepts and detailing procedures for
timber are similar to those involved in steel structures and, thus, similar
computational and detailing operations are followed for their planning.
Steel structures are of so many types that it is difficult, if not impossible, to
classify them on the bases of their service, shape, size or methods involved
in their design. However, from structural point of view they can be broadly
categorized as either frame or skeletal types, or shell- and plate-type
structures.

Framed structures are the primary topic for discussion in this course work.
They consist of an assemblage of elongated or one-dimensional members
such as roof trusses, latticed towers, beams, columns, etc

Shell- and plate-type structures are mostly made up of steel sheets. In such
structures loads are mostly taken up by the sheet plates, which also serve
as covering materials. Tanks, aircrafts and shell-roof coverings are some
examples of shell structures

Areas of Application

While some of the main applications outlined below are also related to
timber, steel structural members have found, the widest use in the
fol1owing types of structures.

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Framework or skeletal systems

• The framework of industrial building and related structures like

crane girders, platforms, etc.
• Railway, highway, pedestrian and other large- and small-span
bridges.
• Very tall multi-story buildings, exhibition pavilions, roofs, floors,
domes, sports-facility
• Sheds, as well as building components such as staircases, fire-
escape facilities, etc
• Special-purpose buildings such as airport terminals and railway
stations, aircraft hangars, shipyards, railway platforms
• Special structures. such as, for example, power transmission
pylons, television and radio as well as telecommunication
towers, headwork for mines, underground tunnels, oil derricks,
hydraulic engineering works such as dam gates and spillway
structures, cranes, etc
Shell and plate structures
• Gas holders and tanks for the storage and distribution of
gases
• Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of water, fuels and other
liquids
• Bins and bunkers for the storage of loose materials like
cement, grain. Etc
• Special structures such as blast furnace air heaters, gas
scrubbers.
• Large diameter steel piping employed at iron and steel works
coke and by-product works, hydroelectric power plants and
oil and gas pipe lines.
• Ship bulls, airplane fuselage, tank armor, etc.

Steel is finding diverse application in the construction industry. The

following pictures will reveal a number of such applications in various kinds
of constructions.

Structural steel can be used to constitute the complete framing system in

a high-rise building. Either medium-sized, such as the hotel building or very
tall buildings, such as the office building can be constructed from steel
(see Fig. 1.1).

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Fig. 1.1 Multi Story Buildings

Special purpose buildings such as airport terminals, railway stations,

exhibition pavilions, conference halls, aircraft hangars, shipyards, railway
platforms, in which large space should be covered with out obstruction of
columns, are constructed from structural steels trusses (see Fig. 1.2 and Fig.
1.3).

Fig. 1.2 Exhibition Halls (Long Span Roofs)

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Cross section

Fig. 1.3 Aircraft Maintenance Hangars

Steel is a preferred choice when it comes to industrial structures as it also

provides large column-free space with fewer framing elements. Fig. 1.4
shows the model of such an industrial building facility making use of steel
framing.

Fig. 1.4 Industrial Building (columns, beams, and roofs)

Another area where steel and timber find their use is in bridge
construction. There are various kinds of bridges where structural steel can
be used effectively and efficiently. in suspension- and cable-stayed
bridges, steel plays a predominant role at least as the cabling system.
Some of the main types of steel bridges are plate girder bridges, truss arch
bridges, cable stayed and suspension bridges (see Fig. 1.5).

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a) Plate Girder Bridge b) Truss Arch Bridge

c) Cable-stayed Bridge d) Suspension Bridge

Fig. 1.5 Use of Steel in Bridge Construction

Several industries and communication facilities call for towers for a variety
of purposes. Steel towers are used for types of towers including microwave
transmission for communications, radio transmission, television transmission,
satellite reception, air traffic controls, flood light stands such as in stadiums
and large fly-over’ intersections, power transmission lines, metrological
measurements, tower-test. Set ups, derricks and crawler cranes, oil drilling
masts both in-land and off-shore facilities, and overhead water tanks,
among others. Figs. 1.6 show the various tower-related application of steel

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a)

Microwave Communication Facilities b) Power Transmission Facilities

Fig. 1.6 Use of Steel Members and Plates in Tower Construction

A number of temporary structures and shed facilities for car parks,

gasoline stations, storage facilities can also be constructed from steel.
One such facility is shown in Fig. 1.7

Fig. 1.7 Use of Steel Members and Panels for Gasoline Station

The corrosive nature of sea water calls for special kind of construction
materials for building off-shore oil and gas facilities. Specially treated steel
responds to these requirements better than most other possible
construction materials (see Fig. 1.8).

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Specially treated steel finds its wide application in petrochemical

industries where chemical attack and temperature effects could be
treated at their highest. Steel structures in theses industries can form part
of the facilities themselves or structural framing for the housing structures
(see Fig. 1.9).

Fig. 1.8 Use of Steel Members and Plates in Fig. 1.9 Use of Steel
in a Petro-chemical Industrial Facility
Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration/Drilling Facility

Most industrial buildings need to be provided with handling and hoisting

equipment. There are variety of such equipment used the factories and
nearly all of them are built up from structural steel. Some of the common
types are cranes on gantry girders (overhead cranes), chain pulley blocks,
fork lift, derrick cranes, conveyor belts; rope ways, assembly lines, among
others. A typical overhead crane with gantry girders is shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Typical Over Head Cranes

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Roof trusses of stadiums and sport facilities are usually made of either
cantilever (free-standing) or cable-stayed structural steels (see Fig. 1.11)

Fig. 1.11 Use of Steel for Roof Trusses of Stadiums

Concrete construction requires some kind of temporary support during

construction up until when the concrete has set and attained the
necessary strength to support itself. In this scenario, scaffolding and
formworks, that can be built up from steel members can be used
effectively and efficiently (see Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.12 Use of Steel

Scaffolding in Tunnel Construction
Bracing systems are usually made from structural steel and they provide
lateral stability for a building by resisting winds and earthquakes (see Fig.
1.13).

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Fig. 1.13 Use of Steel

Members for Bracing
Systems

Steel is also used in

composite construction
with concrete as shown in
Fig. 1.14. This construction
practice improves the fire-
resistance property and prevents corrosion of steel in addition to
improving the load-resisting capacity of the resulting structural members.

Fig. 1.14 Use of Steel for Composite Construction

Merits of Steel Structures

The principal merits of steel members are:

• The ability to resist high loads with a comparatively small size and
light weight of members. Thus for the same strength, steel members
are smaller in size and lighter in weight, as compared to members
made of other materials (except for some high strength aluminum
alloys).
• Due to its high density, steel is completely non-porous.
• The possibility of industrializing the construction work by the use of
pre- fabricated members and mechanized erection at the
construction site.
• A very long service life, provided care is taken
• The possibility of disassembling or replacing some steel members of
a structure, for strengthening purposes.

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• It is an environmental friendly material by being recycled.

• With particular reference to high-rise buildings, Steel is favored over
other construction materials such as reinforced concrete for various
reasons. Among these are:
• Shorter erection period permits an earlier recovery of capital
• Steel offers wide-span frames. It provides column-free, uninterrupted
interior space. This offers greater interior design scope and results in
more cost-efficient buildings.
• Steel structural members offer the absolute accuracy of dimensions.
Uniform quality possible only with pre-fabrication under close
control in the plant that reduces man-hour requirements at the site-
an important consideration in the face of unavailability of skilled
labor
• Steel offers greater possibilities for imaginative architectural design
• Finally, cost comparison studies have revealed that the construction
cost of structural steel is generally more economical than reinforced
concrete

Thus, structural steel is the preferred choice for speed of erection, value
and quality

The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion,

which necessitates their painting or the use of other methods for their
protection. The second drawback of steel is its low fire resistance. At high
temperatures steel loses most of its strength, leading to excessive
deformation or failure

1.2 Design Philosophy and Design Formats

Engineered structures are of such variety that they defy any attempt to
enumerate them except in a general way. The countless problems which
arise in their design have prompted engineers to specialize in the design
of particular structures or groups of related structures, such as, for
examples steel structures or timber structures for bridges, buildings, towers,
etc

Design Procedure

There are a number of phases in a design process - from inception to

detailing and quantity estimation.

Functional Planning/Design

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The first and often the most difficult problem in design is the development
of a plan that will enable the structure to fulfill effectively the purpose for
which it is to be built. If the structure is a building, for example, the
designer must create a plan which is adapted to the site; which provides
a suitable arrangement of rooms, corridors, stairways, elevator, etc.; which
will be aesthetically acceptable and which can be built at a price the
client is prepared to pay. This phase of design, sometimes called
functional planning.

Structural Planning / Design

Structural design is the second major step in the design process although
the planning of structural scheme is never independent of the functional
plan. Depending on the type of structures, the extent to which the
scheme must be developed during the functional planning stage may
depend upon the structure. For example, the location of the columns in a
building usually must be worked out with the functional plan and sufficient
space must be anticipated between finished ceiling and finished floor of
adjacent stories to accommodate the floor construction. On the other
hand, the functional plans and structural schemes of highway bridges or
communication towers are usually not so strongly interdependent.

It is usually necessary to make tentative cost estimates for several

preliminary structural layouts. Sometimes this may have to be carried out
while the functional plan is being developed; sometimes it can be done
at a later stage. Selection of structural materials must be based upon
consideration of availability of specific materials and the corresponding
skilled labor, relative cost, and wage scales, and the suitability of the
materials for the structure.

The third stage of the design is a structural analysis. Although design

specifications and building codes usually describe the nature and
magnitude of the loads to which the structure may be subjected, at times
the engineer must make the decision. Once the loads are defined, a
structural analysis must be made to determine the internal forces which
will be produced in the various members of the structure. Although this is a
fairly routine procedure, simplifying assumptions must invariably be made
before the principles of mechanics can be applied. The designer must be
conscious of his or her assumptions to ensure that the structure as
designed can be expected to behave accordingly.

In the fourth phase of the design process, the engineer proportions the
members of the structural system. The latter must be chosen so that they

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will be able to withstand, with an appropriate margin of safety, the forces

which the structural analysis has disclosed. Familiarity with the methods
and processes of fabrication and their limitations and with the techniques
of constructions as well as their limitations is indispensable in the design
process.

The four steps in the structural design process discussed so far are seldom,
if ever, distinct, and in many cases they must be carried along more or less
simultaneously. Furthermore, they assume varying degree of importance
relative to one another.

Design is necessarily a trial-and-error procedure. Most structures are

statically indeterminate and require that member properties be specified
before the analysis for load effects can be carried out. After the member
forces have been determined, the validity of the member selection must
be evaluated. If changes in member properties are required, a re-analysis
must be carried out. The procedure must be repeated until the members’
selected and resultant member forces are in acceptable arrangement.
The development of the computer has greatly facilitated this phase of the
design process, but the judgment and experience of the designer are
impossible to build into a completely logical system as required by the
computer.

Development of procedures for translating design specifications into

computer programs continues to receive the attention of engineers in all
specialties. There are also a number of specialized and industry-targeted
such software products available nowadays. Many of such software can
now help the engineer from planning to analysis, design, detailing to
quantity estimations. Such programs, however, should be utilized only
after the engineer has a thorough understanding of the requirements of
the specifications, the method of analysis employed in the program, and
the behavior of many types of structural members.

Design Philosophy

Structural design should be performed to satisfy three criteria: strength,

serviceability, and economy.

Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under
extreme load conditions. The structure is expected to withstand
occasional overloads without severe distress and damage during its
lifetime.

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Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to

its appearance, maintainability, and durability under normal, or service
load, conditions. Deflection, vibration, permanent deformation, cracking,
and corrosion are some design considerations associated with
serviceability.

Economy concerns the overall material and labor costs required for the
design, fabrication, erection, and maintenance processes of the structure.

A structure should be designed and fabricated to fulfill the following

conditions:
• Remain fit for use during its intended life
• Sustain the loads, which may occur during construction,
installation and usage
• Localize damage due to accidental overloads.
• Have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs.

The above requirements can be satisfied by using suitable materials,

appropriate design and detailing and specifying quality control
procedures for construction and, if necessary, for maintenance program.

Design Formats

The design of steel structures may be controlled by several criteria

described as “limits of structural usefulness ". They are as follows:

• Hypothetical attainment of yield point

• Attainment of maximum plastic strength
• Excessive deflections at service load and drift limitations
• Instability
• Fatigue
• Fracture

One or more of these conditions must form the basis for any rational
design procedure and their consideration enters into the subject matters
to be presented in the subsequent-sections for the design of several types
of members and structural components.

As a result of the various design criteria, three major design methods and
formats have evolved in practice. At present, steel design can be
performed in accordance with one of the following three formats
worldwide.

Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

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In the allowable stress design (ASD), a member is selected such that under
expected loads, known as service or working loads, the stress will not
exceed one of the previously described limits of usefulness. It is performed
by specifying expected working design loads and allowable stresses. The
factor of safety is inherent, but usual1y not stated. Also, the limit of
usefulness is usual1y undesignated

This design methodology has been in use for decades for steel design of
buildings and bridges. It continues to enjoy popularity among structural
engineers engaged in steel building design. In allowable stress (or working
stress) design, member stresses computed under the action of service (or
working) loads are compared to some pre-designated stresses, called
allowable stresses. The allowable stresses are usually expressed as a
function of the yield stress (fy) or tensile stress (fu) of the material. To
account for overload, under-strength, and approximations used in
structural analysis, a factor of safety is applied to reduce the nominal
resistance of the structural member to a fraction of its tangible capacity.

In so far as the method of analysis is concerned, allowable stress design is

based on elastic analysis to obtain the structural responses such as
moments, shear and axial forces that a member must be designed to
carry.

The general formula for an allowable stress design has the form:
Rn m
≥ ∑ Qi
Fs i =1
Where: Rn = nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in
units of stress
Qi = service or working stress computed from the applied working
load type i.
i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
m = number of load types considered in the design
= allowable stress of structural component
Rn
Fs

Plastic Design

Plastic design makes use of the fact that steel sections have reserved
strength beyond the first yield condition, When a section is under flexure,
yielding of the cross section occurs in a progressive manner, commencing
with the fibers farthest away from the neutral axis and ending with the
fibers nearest the neutral axis. This phenomenon of progressive yielding
referred to as plastification, means that the cross section does not fail at

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first yield. The additional moment that a cross section can carry in excess
of the moment that corresponds to first yield varies depending on the
shape of the cross section. To quantify such reserved capacity, a quantity
called shape factor, defined as the ratio of the plastic moment (moment
that causes the entire cross section to yield, resulting in the formation of a
plastic hinge) to the yield moment (moment that causes yielding of the
extreme fibers only) is used.

For an indeterminate structure, failure of the structure will not occur after
the formation of a plastic hinge. After complete yielding of a cross
section, force (or, more precisely, moment) redistribution will occur, in
which the unfailed portion of the structure continues to carry any
additional loadings. Failure will occur only when enough cross sections
have yielded to render the structure unstable, resulting in the formation of
a plastic collapse mechanism.

In plastic design the factor of safety is applied to the applied loads to

obtain factored loads. A design is said to have satisfied the strength
criterion if the load effects (i.e., forces, shears, and moments) computed
using these factored loads do not exceed the nominal plastic strength of
the structural component. Plastic design has the form:
m
Rn ≥ γ ∑ Qni
i =1

Where: Rn = nominal plastic strength of the member

Qni = nominal load effects from the loads of type i.
i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
m = number of load types considered in the design
γ = load factor

In steel building design the load factor γ is given by the AISC Specification
as 1.7, if Qn consists of dead and live gravity loads only, and as 1.3, if Qn
consists of dead and live gravity loads acting in conjunction with wind or
earthquake loads.

Limit State Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

Limit state is a Probabilistic design procedure in which a structure, or part

of a structure, is considered unfit for use when such a limiting condition
exceed a particular state, called a limit state, beyond which it infringes
one of the criteria governing its performance thus making the structure
unable to meet design performance criteria. All relevant limit states shall
be considered in the design so as to ensure an adequate degree of
safety, serviceability and durability.

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Three classes of limit states are recognized: ultimate limit states,

serviceability limit states and durability limit states. Ultimate limit states are
those which if exceeded can lead to collapse of part or the whole of the
structure, endangering safety of people. Serviceability limit states
correspond to states beyond which specified service criteria are no longer
met. Durability limit states can be regarded as subsets of the ultimate and
serviceability limit states depending on whether, for example, the
corrosion affects the strength of the structure or its aesthetic appearance.
Structures should be designed by considering all relevant limit states.

A design is considered satisfactory according to the strength criterion if

the resistance exceeds the load effects by a comfortable margin. In
actual design, a resistance factor ‘ γm’ is applied to the nominal resistance
of the structural component to account for any uncertainties associated
with the determination of its strength, and a load factor ‘ γl’ is applied to
each load type to account for the uncertainties and difficulties
associated with determining its actual load magnitude. Different load
factors are used for different load types to reflect the varying degree of
uncertainty associated with the determination of load magnitudes. In
general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more predictable
and a higher load factor is used for a load that is less predictable.

Mathematically it can be expressed as:

Rn m
≥ ∑ γ li Qi
γm i =1

Where:
Rn
= design strength
γm
m
∑ γ li Qi = the required strength or load effects for a given load
i =1

combination

Specifications and codes provide the values of γ pertaining to different

loads and also outline the load combinations to be used on the right-
hand side of the above equation. For a safe design, all load combinations
should be investigated, and the design is based on the worst-case
scenario.

Although, allowable stress design has been used for decades, the world
wide trend is to ward the limit state approach to design. The national
building codes, both EBCS 3 1995 far steel and EBCS 5 1995 far timber
structures are also based on the concepts of the limit state design. In view

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of this trend and in cognizance of the likelihood that limit state

design/LRFD will be the mainstream design method henceforth, only limit
state/LRFD provisions will be covered in this coursework. So, interested
readers on others are advised to refer to relevant literature.

1.3 Materials

Steel is one of the mast important structural materials. Properties of

particular importance in structural usage are high strength compare to
any other available material, and ductility (i.e., its ability to deform
substantially in either tension or compression before failure). The most
important structural properties of steel are yield strength and ultimate
strength, modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio, coefficient
of thermal expansion, and its density.

Stress-strain Behavior of Structural steel

A schematic diagram of an engineering stress-strain curve of steel

obtained from a simple tension test is shown in Fig. 1.14.

Fig. 1.15 Idealized Stress-strain Curve

Elastic region

In this region the stress is proportional to the strain, and Hooke's law
applies. The constant of proportionality is the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus, E. The modulus of elasticity for steel has values ranging
from 190 - 210 GPa. The modulus of elasticity does not vary appreciably
for the different grades of steel used in construction, and a value of 200
GPa is often used for design. The elastic region ends when the stress
reaches h" the yield stress. For stress below 1; no. plastic, or permanent,

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deformation will occur in the steel section. Table 1.1 gives the yield point
and the ultimate strength of several grades of steel, classified according
to ASTM designation, and of interest to the structural designer.

Inelastic Region

In this region the steel section deforms plastically under a constant stress,
fy- The extent of this deformation differs for different steel grades.
Generally, the ductility (the ability of a material to undergo plastic
deformation prior to fracture) decreases with increasing steel strength.
Ductility is a very important attribute of steel. The ability of structural steel
to deform considerably before failure by fracture allows the structure to
undergo force redistribution when yielding occurs, and it enhances the
energy absorption characteristic of the structure

Strain-Hardening Region

In this region deformation is accompanied by an increase in stress. The

peak point of the engineering stress-strain curve is the ultimate stress, fu. fu
is the largest stress the material can attain under uniaxial condition. In a
uniaxial tension test, the specimen experiences non-uniform plastic
deformation (necking) once the stress reaches fu. Beyond fu deformation
proceeds at a rapid rate and equilibrium can be maintained only by a
reduction in the applied load. For design purposes, fu is often regarded as
the stress at which failure is imminent.

Poisson’s Ratio

Poisson’s ratio, υ, is the absolute value of the ratio of the transverse strain
to longitudinal strain under axial load. In the idealized elastic range
Poisson’s ratio for structural steels is approximately 0.3 while in the plastic
range it is about 0.5.

Sear modulus

Shear modulus, G, is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. The shear
modulus, G, is presumed to be constant (= 80 GPa ) for all structural steels.

Thermal expansion

The design of structures to serve under atmospheric temperature rarely

involves concern about high temperature behavior. Knowledge of such
behavior is desirable when specifying welding procedures, and when
concerned with the effects of fire as the modulus of elasticity, yield

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strength and tensile strength all reduces with increase in temperature. The
coefficient of thermal expansion, α, for structural steel is 12 x 10-6 per oc.

Fatigue

Fatigue failure can occur in members or structures subjected to

fluctuating loads such as crane girders, bridges and offshore structures.
Failure occurs through progressive growth of a crack that starts at a fault
and the failure load may be well below its static value.

Welded connections have the greatest effect on the fatigue strength of

steel structures. On the other hand, bolted connections do not reduce the
strength under fatigue loading. To avoid fatigue failure, detail should be
such that stress concentrations and abrupt changes of section are
avoided in regions of tensile stress.

Brittle

Structural steel is ductile at temperatures above 10oC, but it becomes

more brittle as the temperature falls, and fracture can occur at low
stresses below 0°c. To reduce the likelihood of brittle fracture, it is
necessary to take care in the selection of the steel to be used and to pay
special attention to the design detail. Thin plates are more resistant than
thick ones, abrupt changes of section and stress concentration should be
avoided. Fillets welds should not be laid down across tension flanges and
intermittent welding should not be used.

Types of Steel

Structural steels used for construction purposes are generally grouped into
several major classifications according to national and international
standards. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
classifications are among such widely used standards. The Ethiopian
Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995 also classifies according to their
strength. The following are per the ASTM classification

Carbon Steels (ASTM A36, ASTM A529, ASTM A709)

In addition to iron, the main ingredients of this category of steels are

carbon (maximum content 1.7%) and manganese (maximum content
0.65%), with a small amount (<0.6%) of silicon and copper

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Depending on the amount of carbon content, different types of carbon

steels can be identified:
- Low-carbon steel: carbon content < 0. 5%
- Mild carbon steel: carbon content varies from 0. 15 to 0.29%
- Medium-carbon steel: carbon content 0.30-0.59%
- High-carbon steel: carbon content 0.60 - 1.70%

The most commonly used structural carbon steel has mild carbon content.
It is extremely ductile with well defined yield point (see Fig. 1.16a). A36 is
used mainly for buildings; A529 is occasionally used for bolted and welded
building frames and trusses, and A 709 is used primarily for bridges.

Fig. 1.16 Typical Stress-strain Curves

High-strength Low-alloy Steels (ASTM A441, ASTM A572)

These steels possess enhanced strength as a result of presence of one or

more alloying agents, such as chromium, copper, nickel, silicon, and
vanadium; in addition to the basic elements of iron, carbon, and
manganese. Normally, the total quantity, of all the alloying elements is
below 5% of the total composition. This category includes steels having
yield stresses from 275 to 480 MPa with a well defined yield point (see Fig.).
These steels generally have higher corrosion resistance capacity than
carbon steels.

Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels (ASTM A852, ASTM A514)

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The quantities of alloying elements used in these steels are in excess of

those used in carbon and low-alloy steels. In addition, they are heat-
treated by quenching and tempering to enhance their strengths. These
steels do not exhibit well-defined yield points (see Fig.). Their yield stresses
are determined by the 0.2% offset strain method. These steels, despite
their enhanced strength, have reduced ductility (see Fig. ), and care must
be exercised in their usage, as the design limit state for the structure or
structural elements may be governed by serviceability considerations
(e.g. deflection, vibration) or local buckling (under compression).

Table1.1 gives a summary of the specified minimum yield stress (fy) and
the specified minimum tensile strengths (fu), and Table 1.2 gives the
general usages for these various categories of steel in accordance with
ASTM designation.

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Table 1.1 Properties of Steels used for Buildings and Bridges

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Table 1.1 Continued

Table 1.2 Uses of Various Structural Steels

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Table 1.3 Continued

EBCS 3, 1995 recognizes three grades of ordinary hot rolled steel as shown
in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Nominal Values of fy and fu for Various Grades of Structural Steel
(EBCS 3, 1995)

Nominal Thickness t (mm)

Steel Grade t ≤ 40mm 40mm < t ≤ 100mm
fy (MPa) fu (MPa) fy (MPa) fu (MPa)
Fe 360 235 360 215 340
Fe 430 275 430 255 410
Fe 510 355 510 335 49

Note: t is the nominal thickness of the element

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Structural Steel Shapes

In general, there are three procedures by which steel shapes can be

formed: hot-rolled, cold-formed, and combined. Most of the rolling is
done on hot steel, with the product termed hot-rolled steel. Sometimes
the thinner plates are further rolled or bent, after cooling, into cold-rolled
or "cold-formed" steel products. Regardless of the manner by which the
steel shape is formed, it must be manufactured to meet certain
international standards such as ASTM or European standards. The
commonly used standard hot rolled steel shapes are as shown in Fig. 1.17

Cold formed steel shapes are formed in rolls or brakes from sheet or strip
steel. Because of the great variety which can be produced, shapes of
this type, unlike hot rolled shapes, have not been standardized (see Fig.
1.18).

Fig. 1.17 Standard Rolled Shapes

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 Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts

Fig. 1.18 Some Cold-formed Shapes

The dimensions and geometric properties of the various hot rolled sections
utilized in design calculation are listed in the tables of manual (see Tables
at the back which are obtained from British Standards).

Structural Fasteners

Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members which

must be fastened together, usually at the ends of its members. The two
main fastening means are bolting and welding (with a few and isolated
case also riveting and pins). Connections are structural elements used for
joining different members of a framework.

Bolts

Four basic types of bolts are commonly in use; they are designated by
ASTM as A307, A325, A490, and A449

A307 Bolts: These are called unfinished or ordinary bolts and are made
from low-carbon steel. They are furnished in two grades, A and B, the
former for the general purposes and the latter for joints in pipe systems.
They are available with several head and nut configurations, but the
hexagonal and square head are most commonly used.

A325 Bolts: The A325 bolt is made of medium carbon steel. It is also used in
both hot-rolled and cold-formed construction. e are called high-strength
bolts. A325 bolts are made of medium-carbon steel. They are used in both
hot-rolled and cold-formed construction. A490 bolts are made from

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 Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts

quenched and tempered alloy steel and thus have higher strength, than
A325 bolts. They are used for general construction purposes.

A449 Bolts: The A449 bolt also of medium carbon steel, is furnished in three
ranges of diameter.

490 Bolts: The A490 bolt is made of alloy steel in one tensile-strength
grade.

Table 1.5 Properties of Structural Bolts (ASTM)

Table 1.6 Nominal Values of Yield Strength fyb and Ultimate Tensile
Strength fub for Bolts (EBCS 3, 1995)

Bolt 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

Grade
fyb 240 320 300 400 480 640 900
(MPa)
fub 400 400 500 500 600 800 1000
(MPa)

Welding

Welding is the process of joining metal parts by means of heat and

pressure, which cause fusion of the parts (resistance welding), or by

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 Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts

heating the metal to the fusion temperature, with or without the addition
of weld metal (fusion welding).

Welds are classified according to their type as groove, fillet, plug, and slot.
The detailed treatment of welding and the electrodes which are used as
filler materials are specified in different standards. The detail will be
covered in chapter seven, the design of connections.

Specifications and Building Codes

Then design of steel structures is generally done within the framework of

codes giving specific requirements for materials, structural analysis,
member proportioning, etc. Specification serves as a guide for the
engineer to arrive at a safe and acceptable design. It is also a guarantee
to the owner that the resulting structure will comply with basic standards
to ensure safety, utility and economy.

The designer doing steel structures in various disciplines, such as buildings,

bridges, etc, will have to follow closely the relevant design requirements in
the appropriate specifications and design codes as minimum
requirements.

The following are some important specifications for concrete structures.

• EBSC 1 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis of Design and

Actions on Structures.
• EBCS 3 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for the Design of Steel
Structures.
• EBCS 4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Design of Composite
Steel and Concrete Structures.
• EBCS 8 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis Earthquake
design of Structures.
• EC 3 European Standards for the Structural Use of Steel
• AISC American Institute of Steel Construction, Steel Construction
Manual
• AWS American Welding Society, Structural Welding Code
• AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Specification for Highway Bridges
• BS 5950 British Standards for The Structural Use of Steel Works in
Buildings
• AREA American Railway Engineering association, Specification
for Steel Railway Bridges
• ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

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• DIN DIN V ENV 1993 German Standards for the Structural Use of
Steel

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