UNIT-lV- TREATMENT OF WATER

1.Q. TREATMENT UNIT FLOW DIAGRAM

Water treatment includes many operations like Aeration, Flocculation,

Sedimentation, Filtration, Softening, Chlorination and demineralization. Depending upon
the quality of raw water and the quality of water desired. Several combinations of the
above processes may be adopted as shown in the flow diagram.

I. When turbidity of water is less than 10 N.T.U

Raw Water Treated water for supply

CHLORINATION

GROUND WATER

Raw Water Treated water

for supply
Filtration + Chlorination
n

SURFACE WATER
2.Q. THE LOCATION OF TRETMENT PLANT

One complete water treatment plant requires the following process starting from
the source of water upto the distribution zone in order of sequence.
[Link]. Name of the unit Purpose
1. Intake work including pumping plant Raw water from the source for
treatment
2. Plain sedimentation To remove suspended impurities
such as silt, clay, sand etc.
3. Sedimentation with coagualtion To remove the suspended matter

4. Filtration To remove microorgans and

colloidal matter
5. Water softening plant To remove hardness of water

6. Miscellaneous treatment plants To remove dissolved gases, tastes

and odours.
7. Disinfection To remove pathogenic bacteria

8. Clear water reservoir To store the treated water

9. Pumps for pumping the water in service If town or city is situated at higher
reservoirs elevation then pumping is required.
10. Elevated or underground service For distribution of treated water.
reservoir
1 [Link]
3.Q The following points should be kept in mind while giving layout of
any treatmentplant.
1. The W.T.P. should be located as near to the town so as to avoid the contamination.
2. All the units of plant should be located in order of sequence and flow from one unit to
other by gravity.
3. All the units are arranged in such a way that minimum area is required so as to reduce
the cost of construction.
4. Sufficient area should be reserved for the future expansion
5. Staff quarters and office should be provided near the treatment plants so that the
operators can watch the plants easily.
6. The site of treatment plant should be very neat and give very good asthetic
appearance.

SCREENING
Screens are fixed in the intake works or at the entrance of treatment plant so as to
remove the floating matters as leaves, dead animals etc.

4.Q. TYPES OF SEDIMENTATIONS

It is the process in which the suspended solids are made to settle by gravity under
still water conditions is called plain sedimentation.

PLAIN SEDIMENTATION :

By plain sedimentation the following are the advantages.

1. Plain sedimentation lightens the load on the subsequent process.
2. The operation of subsequent purification process can be controlled in better way.
3. The cost of cleaning the chemical coagulation basins is reduced.
4. No chemical is lost with sludge discharged from the plain settling basin.
5. Less quantity of chemicals are required in the subsequent treatment processes.

The amount of matter removed by sedimentation tank depends upon the factors.
1. Velocity of flow
2. size and shape of particles
3. Viscosity of water

The particles which do not change in size, shape or mass during settling are known as the
discrete particles. The velocity of descrete particles with dia less than 0.1 mm is given by

V = 418 (S - S1) d2 (3T + 70)

----------- ---------------- (1)
100
Where V → Velocity of settlement in mm/sec
S → Specific gravity of the particles
S1 → Specific gravity of water
D → dia of the particle in mm
T → Temperature in °C
If the dia of the particle is greater than 0.1mm then the velocity is measured by

V = 418 (S - S1) d (3T + 70)

----------- ---------------- (2)
100

2 [Link]
 In practice settling of the particles governed by the resultant of horizontal velocity of
water and the verticle downward velocity of the particle. The path of the settling particle
is as shown in Fig 5.2.

SELLING ZONE

I O
N U
x L T
E L
T E
Z T
O Z
N S L U D G E Z O N EO
E
E

Fig 5.2 Settling of particles

DESIGN ASPECTS OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS

The design aspects of sedimentary tanks are

1. Velocity of flow
2. Capacity of tank
3. Inlet and outlet arrangements
4. Shapes of tanks
5. Miscellaneous considerations.

(1) Velocity of flow: The velocity of flow of water in sedimentation tanks should be
sufficient enough to cause the hydraulic subsidence of suspended impurities. It
should remain uniform throughout the tank and it is generally not allowed to exceed
150mm to 300mm per minute.
(2) Capacity of tank: capacity of tank is calculated by
i) detension period
ii) Overflow rate

(i) Detension period: The theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass between
entry and exit of a settling tank is known as the known as the detention period. The
capacity of tank is calculated by

V = Q x T where V → Capacity of tank

Q → Discharge or rate of flow
T → Detension period in hours

The detention period depends on the quality of suspended impurities present in

water. For plain sedimention tanks, the detension period is found to vary from 4 to 8
hours.

3 [Link]
 (ii) Overflow Rate: in this method it is assumed that the settlement of a particle at
the bottom of the settlement of a particle at the bottom of the tank doesnot depend
on the depth of tank and depends upon the surface area of the tank.

D.Q D xQ Q
Surface overflow rate, V = ------ = ----------- = ---------
C LxBxD LxB
Where L → Length of tank
B → Breadth of tank
D → Depth of tank = Side water depth = S.W.D
C → Capacity of tank
T → Detention period
U → Discharge or rate of flow
V → Velocity of descend of a particle to the bottom of tank
= Surface overflow rate = S.O.R

(3) INLET AND OUTLET ARRANGEMENTS

The inlet is a device, which is provided to distribute the water inside a tank, and the
outlet is a device, which is meant to collect outgoing water. These arrangements
should be properly designed and located in a such a way that they do not form any
obstruction or cause any disturbance to the flowing water.

SHAPES OF TANKS
Following are the three shapes of settling tank.
(i) Rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
(ii) Circular tanks with radial or spiral flow
(iii) Hopper bottom tanks with vertical flow
The following are the parameters for satisfactory performance.

1. Detention period ….. 3 to 4 hours for plain settling

2 to 21/2 hours for coagulant settling
1 to 11/2 hours for up flow type
2. Overflow rate ……… 30 – 40 m3/m2/day for horizontal flow
40-50m3/m2/day for up flow
3. Velocity of flow…….. 0.5 to 1.0 cm/sec

4. Weir loading………... 300m3/m/day

5. L:B ………………….. 1:3 to 1:4
Breadth of tank…….. (10 to 12m) to 30 to 50m
6. Depth of tank………. 21/2 – 4m
7. Dia of circular tank…. upto 60m
8. Solids removal efficiency….. 50%
9. Turbidity of water after sedimentation – 15 to 20 N.T.U.
10. Inlet and Oulet zones………. 0.75 to 1.0m
11. Free board…………………… 0.5m
12. Sludge Zone…………………. 0.5m
4 [Link]
 5.Q. SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION
When water contains fine clay and colloidal impurities which are electrically
charged are continually in motion and never settle down due to gravitational force.
Certain chemicals are added to the water so as to remove such impurities which are not
removed by plain sedimentation. The chemical form insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent
precipitate absorbs and entagle very fine suspended matter and colloidal impurities
during its formation and descent through water.

The following are the mostly used Coagulants with normal dose and PH values
required for best floc formation as shown in Table
[Link]. Coagulant PH Range Dosage mg/l
1. Aluminium sulphate 5.5 – 8.0 5 – 85
Al2(SO4)3, 18 H2O
2. Sodium Aluminate, Na2Al2O4 5.5 – 8.0 3.4 – 34
3. Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 – 51
4. Ferric Sulphate Fe 2 (SO )
4 3 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 – 51
5. Ferric Sulphate FeSO47H2O 5.5 – 11.0 8.5 - 51
Coagulants are chosen depending upon the PH of water. Alum or Aluminium
sulphate is normally used in all treatment plants because of the low cost and ease of
storage as solid crystals over long periods.

The dosage of coagulants, which should be added to the water, depends upon
kind of coagulant, turbidity of water, colour of water, PH of water, temperature of water
and temperature of water and mixing & flocculation time. The optimum dose of
coagulant required for a water treatment plant is determined by a Jar test as shown in
Fig

Fig Jar Test Apparatus

For starting the experiment first of all the sample of water is taken in every jar
and added the coagulant in a jar in varying amounts. The quantity of coagulant added in
each jar is noted. Then with the help of electric motar all the paddles are rotated at a
speed of 30-40 R.P.M. for about 10 minutes. After this the speed is reduced and paddles
are rotated for about 20-30 minutes. The rotation of paddles is stopped and the floc
formed in each Jar is noted and is allowed to settle. The dose of coagulant which gives
the best floc is the optimum dose of coagulants.

The coagulants may be fed or allowed to enter either in powder form called dry
feeding or in solution form called wet feeding. The mixing of coagulant with the water
to form the floc by the following methods.
1. Centrifugal pump
2. compressed air
3. hydraulic jump
4. mixing channel
5. mixing basins with buffle walls
6. Mixing basins with mechanical means
5 [Link]
 Now a days some firms manufacture combined unit comprising of feeding,
mixing, flocculator and clarifier device. The Fig shows used for sedimentation with
coagulation.

Fig Sedimention with Caogulation

Water enters in this tank through central inlet pipe placed inside the deflector box.
The deflector box deflects the water downwards and then it goes out through the holes
provided sides of the deflector box. The water flows radially from the deflector box
towards the circumference of the tank, where outlet is provided on the full periphery as
shown in the Fig. All the suspended particles along with floc settle down on the slopy
floor and clear water goes through outlet. The sludge is removed by scrapper which
continuously moves around the floor with very small velocity.

Disinfection and repainting is to be carried out once in ayear before mansoon.

Sludge pipes are to be flushed and kept clean. Bleaching powder may be used to control
the growth of algae on the weirs. Scraper mechanism should be oiled and greased
periodically.

FILTRATION

The process of passing the water through beds of sand or other granular materials
is known as filtration. For removing bacteria, colour, taste, odours and producing clear
and sparkling water, filters are used by sand filtration 95 to 98% suspended impurities are
removed.

THEORY OF FILTRATION
The following are the mechanisms of filtration
1. Mechanical straining – Mechanical straining of suspended particles in the sand
pores.
2. Sedimentation – Absorption of colloidal and dissolved inorganic matter in the
surface of sand grains in a thin film

3. Electrolytic action – The electrolytic charges on the surface of the sand particles,
which opposite to that of charges of the impurities are responsible for binding
them to sand particles.
4. Biological Action – Biological action due to the development of a film of
microorganisms layer on the top of filter media, which absorb organic impurities.
Filtration is carries out in three types of filters
1. Slow sand filter
2. Rapid sand filter Gravity filters
3. Pressure filter
6 [Link]
6.Q. EXPALIN SLOW SAND FILTER WITH NET FIGURE

Slow sand filters are best suited for the filtration of water for small towns. The
sand used for the filtration is specified by the effective size and uniformity coefficient .
The effective size, D10, which is the sieve in millimeters that permits 10% sand by
weight to pass. The uniformity coefficient is calculated by the ratio of D 60 and D10.

CONSTRUCTION

Slow sand filter is made up of a top layer of fine sand of effective size 0.2. to
0.3mm and uniformity coefficient 2 to 3 . The thickness of the layer may be 75 to 90 cm.
Below the fine sand layer, a layer of coarse sand of such size whose voids do not permit
the fine sand to pass through it. The thickness of this layer may be 30cm. The lowermost
layer is a graded gravel of size 2 to 45mm and thickness is about 20 to 30cm. The gravel
is laid in layers such that the smallest sizes are at the top. The gravel layer is the retains
for the coarse sand layer and is laid over the network of open jointed clay pipe or
concrete pipes called under drainage. Water collected by the under drainage is passed into
the out chamber

Slow Sand Filter

OPERATION
The water from sedimentation tanks enters the slow sand filter through a
submersible inlet as shown in fig 5.3 This water is uniformily spread over a sand bed
without causing any disturbances. The water passes through the filter media at an average
rate of 2.4 to 3.6 m3/m2/day. This rate of filtration is continued until the difference
between the water level on the filter and in the inlet chamber is slightly less than the
depth of water above the sand. The difference of water above the sand bed and in the
outlet chamber is called the loss of head.

During filtration as the filter media gets clogged due to the impurities, which stay
in the pores, the resistance to the passage of water and loss of head also increases. When
the loss of head reaches 60cm, filtration is stopped and about 2 to 3 cms from the top of
bed is scrapped and replaced with clean sand before putting back into service to the filter.
The scrapped sand is washed with the water, dried and stored for return to the filter at the
time of the next washing . The filter can run for 6 to 8 weeks before it becomes necessary
to replace the sand layer.
7 [Link]
 USES

The slow sand filters are effective in removal of 98 to 99% of bacteria of raw
water and completely all suspended impurities and turbidity is reduced to 1 N.T.U. Slow
sand filters also removes odours, tastes and colours from the water but not pathogenic
bacteria which requires disinfection to safeguard against water-borne diseases. The slow
sand filters requires large area for their construction and high initial cost for
establishment. The rate of filtration is also very slow.

MAINTENANCE

The algae growth on the overflow weir should be stopped. Rate of filtration
should be maintained constant and free from fluctuation. Filter head indicator should be
in good working condition. Trees around the plant should be controlled to avoid bird
droppings on the filter bed, No coagulant should be used before slow sand filtration since
the floc will clog the bed quickly.

6.Q. EXPALIN RAPID SAND FILTER WITH FIGURE

Rapid sand filter are replacing the slow sand filters because of high rate of
filtration ranging from 100 to 150m3/m2/day and small area of filter required. The main
features of rapid sand filter are as follows.

The main features of rapid sand filter are as follows

Effective size of sand - 0.45 to 0.70mm
Uniformity coefficient of sand - 1.3 to 1.7

Depth of sand - 60 to 75cm

Filter gravel - 2 to 50mm size
(Increase size towards bottom)
Depth of gravel - 45cm
Depth of water over sand
during filtration - 1 to 2m
Overall depth of filter
including 0.5m free board - 2.6m

Area of single filter unit - 100m2 in two parts of each 50m2

Loss of head - Max 1.8 to 2.0m
Turbidity of filtered water - 1 NTU

8 [Link]
OPERATION

The water from coagulation sedimentation tank enters the filter unit through inlet
pipe and uniformily distributed on the whole sand bed. Water after passing through the
sand bed is collected through the under drainage system in the filtered water well. The
outlet chamber in this filter is also equipped with filter rate controller. In the beginning
the loss of head is very small. But as the bed gets clogged, the loss of head increases and
the rate of filtration becomes very low. Therefore the filter bed requires its washing.

WASHING OF FILTER

Washing of filter done by the back flow of water through the sand bed as shown
in Fig

First the value „A‟ is closed and the water is drained out from the filter leaving a
few centimeter depth of water on the top of sand bed. Keeping all values closed the
compressed air is passed through the separate pipe system for 2-3 minutes, which agitates
the sand bed and stirrer it well causing the loosening of dirt, clay etc. inside the sand bed.
Now value „C‟ and „B‟ are opened gradually, the wash water tank, rises through the
laterals, the strainers gravel and sand bed. Due to back flow of water the sand expands
and all the impurities are carried away with the wash water to the drains through the
channels, which are kept for this purpose.

Fig Rapid Sand Filter

CONSTRUCTION
Rapid sand filter consists of the following five parts
1. Enclosure tank – A water tight tank is constructed either masony or concrete
2. Under drainage system – may be perforated pipe system or pipe and stracher system
3. Base material – gravel should free from clay, dust, silt and vegetable matter. Should
be durable, hard, round and strong and depth 40cm.
4. Filter media of sand – The depth of sand 60 to 75cm

[Link] and Out let

9 [Link]
 7.Q. Comparision of slow sand filter and rapid sand filter

[Link]. ITEM S.S.F R.S.F

1. Area Need very large area Needs small area

2. Raw Water Not more than 30 NTU Not more than 10NTU
Turbidity hence needs coagulation
3. Sand Media Effective size 0.2 to 0.3 Effective size 0.45 to 0.7
mm uniformity coefficient mm uniformity coefficient
2 to 3 single layer of 1.3 to 1.7 multiple graded
uniform size layers of sand.
4. Rate of 2.4 to 3.6m3/m2/day 100-150 m3/m2/day
Filtration
5. Loss of Head 0.6m to 0.7 m 1.8m to 2.0m

6. Supervision No skilled supervision is Skilled supervision is

required required
7. Cleaning of Scraping of 21/2cm thick Back wash with clean water
Filter layer washing and under pressure to detach the
replacing. Cleaning dirt on the sand.
interval that is replacement Backwashing daily or on
of sand at 1 to 2 months. alternate days.
8. Efficiency Bacterial removal, taste, There is no removal of
odour, colour and turbidity bacteria. Removal colour
removal. taste, odour and turbidity is
good.

8.Q EXPALIN THE PRESSURE FILTER

Pressure filter is type of rapid sand filter in a closed water tight cylinder through
which the water passes through the sand bed under pressure. All the operations of the
filter is similar to rapid gravity filter, expect that the coagulated water is directly applied
to the filter without mixing and flocculation. These filters are used for industrial plants
but these are not economical on large scale.

Pressure filters may be vertical pressure filter and horizontal pressure filter. The
Fig shows vertical pressure filter. Backwash is carried by reversing the flow with
values. The rate of flow is 120 to 300m3/m2/day.

10 [Link]
 Figure Vertical Pressure Filter

ADVANTAGES
1. It is a compact and automatic operation
2. These are ideal for small estates and small water works
3. These filters requires small area for installation
4. Small number of fittings are required in these filters
5. Fitered water comes out under pressure no further pumping is required.
6. No sedimentation and coagulant tanks are required with these units.
DISADVATAGES
1. Due to heavy cost on treatment , they cannot be used for treatment large quantity of
water at water works
2. Proper quality control and inspection is not possible because of closed tank
3. The efficiency of removal of bacteria & turbidity is poor.
4. Change of filter media, gravel and repair of drainage system is difficult.

11 [Link]
 UNIT-IV- DISINFECTION

1Q. DISINFECTION OF WATER

The process of killing the infective bacteria from the water and making it safe to
the user is called disinfection. The water which comes out from the filter may contain
some disease – causing bacteria in addition to the useful bacteria. Before the water is
supplied to the public it is utmost necessary to kill all the disease causing bacteria. The
chemicals or substances which are used for killing the bacteria are known as
disinfectants.

2Q. REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISINFECTANTS

1. They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for use,.
2. They should not take more time in killing bacteria
3. They should be economical and easily available
4. They should not require high skill for their application
5. After treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user.
6. The concentration should be determined by simply and quickly.

[Link] OF DISINFECTION

Disinfection of water by different physical and chemical methods

PHYSICAL METHODS :

1. BOILING : Boil the water for 15 to 20 minutes and kills the disease causing bacteria.
This process is applicable for individual homes.
2. ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS: Water is allowed to pass about 10cm thickness by
ultraviolet rays. This process is very costly and not used at water works. Suitable for
institutions.
3. ULTRASONIC RAYS: Suitable for institutions.

CHEMICAL METHODS:

1. CHLORINATION : Using chlorine gas or chlorine compounds.

2. BROMINE AND IODINE : It is expensive and leaves taste and odour.

3. POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE: This method is used for disinfection of dug

well water, pond water or private source of water.
4. OZONE : Very expensive process, leaves no taste, odour or residual.

5. EXCESS LIME TREATMENT: Needs long detension time for time interval and
large lime sludges to be treated.

12 [Link]
 4Q. CHLORINATION

Chlorination is the addition of chlorine to kill the bacteria Chlorination is very

widely adopted in all developing countries for treatment of water for public supply.
Chlorine is available in gas, liquid or solid form (bleaching powder)

ADVANTAGES OF CHLORINE
1. Chlorine is manufactured easily by electrolytes of common salts (NaCl)
2. It is powerful oxidant and can penetrate the cell wall of organism and its contents.
3. Dosage can be controlled precisely
4. can be easily detected by simple orthotolidine test
5. Doesnot form harmful constituents on reaction with organics of inorganics in water
6. leaves required residue in water to neutralise recontamination later.

5.Q.R ESIDUAL CHLORINE AND CHLORINE DEMAND

When chlorine is applied in water some of it is consumed in killing the pathogens,

some react organs & inorganic substances and the balance is detected as “Residual
Chlorine”. The difference between the quantity applied per litre and the residual is called
“Chlorine Demand”. Polluted waters excert more chlorine demand. If water is pre-treated
by sedimentation and aeration, chlorine demand may be reduced. Normally residual
chlorine of 0.2 mg/litre is required.

BEHAVIER OF CHLORINE IN WATER

When chlorine is dissolved in water forms hypo chlorous acid and hydro chloric acid.

Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl ---------- (1)

After some time hydo chlorous acid further Ionizes as follows

HOCl ←→ H+ + OCl - ------ (2)

The two prevailing species (HOCl) and (OCl -) are called free available chlorine
are responsible for the disinfection of water.

Clorine reacts with ammonia in water to form Monochloramine, (NH 2Cl),

dichloramine (NHCl2) and trichloramine , (NCl3) released and their distribution
depends on the PH-value of water.

13 [Link]
 [Link] OF CHLORINATION
a. PLAIN CHLORINATION
Plain chlorination is the process of addition of chlorine only when the surface water
with no other treatment is required. The water of lakes and springs is pure and can
be used after plain chlorination. A rate of 0.8 mg/lit/hour at 15N/cm2 pressure is the
normal dosage so as to maintain in a resided chlorine of 0.2 mg/lit.
b. PRE-CHLORINATION :

Chlorine applied prior to the sedimentation and filtration process is known as Pre-
chlorination. This is practiced when the water is heavily polluted and to remove
taste, odour, colour and growth of algae on treatment units. Pre-chlorination
improves coagulation and post chlorination dosage may be reduced.

c. POST CHLORINATION :

When the chlorine is added in the water after all the treatment is known as Post-
chlorination.
d. SUPER CHLORINATION :

Super chlorination is defined as administration of a dose considerably in excess of

that necessary for the adequate bacterial purification of water. About 10 to 15 mg/lit
is applied with a contact time of 10 to 30 minutes under the circumstances such as
during epidemic breakout water is to be dechlorinated before supply to the
distribution system.

e. BRAKE POINT CHLORINATION :

When chlorine is applied to water containing organics, micro organisms and

ammonia the residual chlorine levels fluctuate with increase in dosage as shown in
Fig. 5.6.

Fig
Upto the point B it is obsorbed by reducing agents in water (like nitrates, Iron etc)
further increases forms chloramines with ammonia in water. Chloramines are
effective as CL and OCL formed. When the free chlorine content increases it reacts
with the chloramines and reducing the available chlorine. At the point „D‟ all the
chloramines are converted to effective N2, N2O and NCl3. Beyond point „D‟ free
residual chlorine appear again. This point „D‟ is called break point chlorination.
Dosage beyond this point is the same as super chlorination. In super chlorination no
such rational measurement is made and the dosage is taken at random.

14 [Link]
 f. DE-CHLORINATION :

Removal of excess chlorine resulting from super chlorination in part or completely

is called „Dechlorination‟. Excess chlorine in water gives pungent smell and
corrode the pipe lines. Hence excess chlorine is to be removed before supply.
Physical methods like aeration, heating and absorption on charcoal may be adopted.
Chemical methods like sulphur dioxide (SO2) , Sodium Bi-sulphate (NaHSO3),
Sodium Thiosulphate(Na2S2O8) are used.

6Q. DEFLUORIDATION – BY NALGONDA TECHNIQUE

Defluoridation is process of removal of excess fluoride present in the water. The

excess fluoride in the water causes dental abnormalities, hypertension, peptic ulcer, Skin
infections, defective vision, coronary thrombosis etc. The permissible level of fluoride in
the water is 1mg/litre.

METHODS OF REMOVAL FLUORID

1. Activated carbons prepared from various materials can be used.
2. Lime – soda process of water softening removes fluorides also along with magnesium
3. The materials like calcium phosphate, bone charcoal, synthetic tricalcium phosphate a
may remove excess fluoride.
4. the water may be allowed to pass through filter beds containing floride retaining
materials.

In this technique, sodium aluminate or lime, bleaching powder and filter alum are added
to fluoride water in sequence. The water is stored for ten minutes and settled for one hour
and the water is then withdrawn without disturbing the sediments. The sodium aluminate
or lime accelerates the settlement of precipitate and bleaching powder ensures
disinfection. The alum dose required will depend upon the concentration of fluorides,
alkanity and total dissolved solids in the raw water. It is found that this technique is
simple in operation and economical. It can be used with advantage in villages either on an
individual scale or on a mass scale.

15 [Link]
 Aeration
• It is the process of bringing water in intimate contact

with the air

• Physical or mechanical method

9C405.29 1

Aeration
Objectives: To remove

• Iron and manganese

• Interference with chlorination

• Volatile oils

• Disinfect the water

• Oxidize organic matter

• Increase the DO
9C405.29 2

16 [Link]
 Aeration
Methods of Aeration

• Cascade aerators

• Spray nozzles

• Multiple Pan aerators

• Diffusion aerators

9C405.29 3

Aeration
Cascade aerators

Fig.1 9C405.29 4

17 [Link]
 Aeration

Cascade aerators

• The water is allowed to fall through a certain height

over a series of steps or weirs in thin films

• During the fall, the water gets thoroughly mixed with

the atmospheric air and gets aerated

9C405.29 5

Aeration
Spray nozzles

Fig.2 9C405.29 6

18 [Link]
 Aeration

Spray nozzles

• Water is sprinkled in the form of fine droplets into the

atmosphere

• This increases the contact area between water and

air and water gets aerated effectively

9C405.29 7

Aeration
MultiPan Aerators

Fig.3 9C405.29 8

19 [Link]
 Aeration

Multi Pan Aerators

• Water is made to trickle through perforated pans arranged

one below the other

9C405.29 9

Aeration
Diffusion Aerators

Fig.4
9C405.29 10

20 [Link]
 Aeration

Diffusion Aerators

• The compressed air is blown into the water and it

comes in the form of bubbles to stir the water
• During the upward movement of the air bubbles,
water is thoroughly aerated

9C405.29

21 [Link]
HARDNESS OF WATER

It is a property of water, which prevents the lathering of the soap. Hardness is of

two types.

1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates

of calcium and magnesium. It is removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides and nitrates of
calcium and magnesium. It is removed by zeolite method.

Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or p.p.m. of calcium carbonate in water.

Hardness of water is determined by EDTA method. For potable water hardness ranges
from 5 to 8 degrees.

HARDNESS REMOVABLE :

Generally a hardness of 100 to 150 mg/litre is desirable. Excess of hardness leads to

the following effects.

1. Large soap consumption in washing and bathing

2. Fabrics when washed become rough and strained with precipitates.
3. Hard water is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper making, dye and ice
cream manufactures.
4. The precipitates clog the pores on the skin and makes the skin rough
5. Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values
6. It forms scales in the boilers tubes and reduces their efficiency and cause in erustations
7. Very hard water is not palatable

When softening is practices when hardness exceed 300mg/lit. Water hardness more than
600 mg/lit have to rejected for drinking purpose.

2.Q.M ETHODS OF REMOVAL OF HARDNESS

1. Boiling
2. Freezing
3. Lime addition
4. Lime soda process
5. Excess Lime treatment
6. Caustic soda process
7. Zeolete process
8. Dimineralisation or exchange process.

Methods 1,2 and 3 are suitable for removal of temporary hardness and 4 to 8 for both
temperory and permanent hardness. The temporary hardness is removed as follows.

Boiling
heat
Ca(HCO3)2 -----------> CaCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O
heat
Mg(HCO3)2 -----------> MgCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O

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Addition of lime

Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 -----------> 2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O

Removal of permanent Hardness:

1. Lime soda process : In this method, the lime and is sodium carbonate or soda as have
used to remove permanent hardness from water. The chemical reactions involved in this
process are as follows.

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + H2O (removal of CO2)

Ca(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 -----------> 2CaCO3 + 2H3O (removal of temporary hardness)
Mg(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + Mg(CO3) + 2H2O
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 ----------> Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4 { conversion of MgSO4 to
CaSO4} CaSO4 + Na2CO3 ----------> CaCO3 + Na2SO4 {removal of sulphates}
CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------> Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------> Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2 { removal of chlorides}
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 --------------> CaCO3 + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 --------------> Mg CO3 + 2NaCl {removal of chlorides}

Advantages of lime soda process

1. The PH value of water treated by this process bring down to 9 and which results in
decrease in corrosion of the distribution system.
2. Less quantity of coagulant will be required, if this process is adopted
3. Removal of iron and manganese to some extent
4. Reduction of total mineral content of water
5. Hardness of water is reduced to 40mg/lit (of CaCO 3) and magnesium upto 10mg/lit
6. The process is economical
7. This process is most suitable for tubed and acidic waters where it will not possible to
adopt zeolite process.

Disadvantages

1. Large quantity of sludge formed during this process to be disposed off by some suitable
method
2. This process requires skilled supervision for its successful working
3. If recarbonation is omitted, a thick layer of calcium carbonate will be deposited in the
filtering media, distribution pipes etc.

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Zeolite process

This is also known as the base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The hardness
may be completely removed by this process.

Principle

Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminium and sodium) which replace

sodium Ions with calcium and magnesium Ions when hardwater is passes through a bed
of zeolites. The zeolite can be regenerated by passing a concentrated solution of sodium
chloride through the bed. The chemical reactions involved are

2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + Ca(HCO3)2 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + 2NaHCO3

(Zeolite)
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaSO4 ---------- > 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + Na2SO4
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaC12 ---------- > 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + 2NaCl

Regeneration

2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + 2NaCl ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaCl2

2SiO2 Al2O3 MgO + 2NaCl ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + MgCl2

Advantages
1. In this process, the sludge is not formed hence problem of sludge disposal does not arise
2. It can be operated easily and no skilled supervision required
3. The hardness of water reduces to zero and hence used for boiler and texile industries
4. The process is economical where salt is cheaply available
5. The load on Zeolite can be reduced by combining it with lime or aeration process

Disadvantages
1. The Zeolite process cannot be used for turbed or acidic water
2. The Zeolite process is unsuitable for water containing Iron and Manganese
3. The Zeolite should be operated carefully to avoid injury or damage to the equipment

Demineralisation

Both cations and anions are removed by resins similar to zeolites in two columns
by iron exchange method. Resins may be regenerated with sulpuric acid and sodium
carbonate. This process is used in industries to get distilled water or quality water motion
of water through the atmosphere, earth, plants, trees, rivers and oceans in a cyclic motion
through liquid, solid and gaseous phases is called HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE.

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