CAPACITOR AND DIELECTRIC

INTRODUCTION
After studying the effects produced by
static electric charge, it becomes obligatory
to utilize them for useful purpose.
Capacitors are devices in which electric
charge can be stored and then used in
various ways.
CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR
CONDUCTOR:
Conductors are the materials or substances which allow
electricity to flow through them. They conduct electricity
because they allow electrons to flow easily inside them
from atom to atom. Also, conductors allow the
transmission of heat or light from one source to another.
Conductors have free electrons on its surface which allow current
to pass through easily. This is the reason why conductors are able
to conduct electricity.
Examples of Conductors:

• Material such as silver is the best conductor of electricity.

But, it is costly and so, we don’t use silver in industries and
transmission of electricity.
• Copper, Brass, Steel, Gold, and Aluminium are good
conductors of electricity. We use them in electric circuits and
systems in the form of wires.
• Mercury is an excellent liquid conductor. Thus, this material
finds use in many instruments.
• Gases are not good conductors of electricity because the
atoms are quite far away. Thus, they are unable to
conduct electrons.
INSULATOR:

Insulators are the materials or substances which resist or don’t

allow the current to flow through them. In general, they are solid
in nature. Also, insulators are finding use in a variety of systems.
As they do not allow the flow of heat. The property which makes
insulators different from conductors is its resistivity.
Wood, cloth, glass, mica, and quartz are some good examples of
insulators. Also, insulators are protectors. They give protection
against heat, sound and of course passage of electricity.
Furthermore, insulators don’t have any free electrons. It is the
main reason why they don’t conduct electricity.

Examples of Insulators

• Glass is the best insulator as it has the highest resistivity.

• Rubber is a common material used in making tyres, fire-
resistant clothes

CAPACITANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

Capacitance, property of an electric conductor, or set of

conductors, that is measured by the amount of
separated electric charge that can be stored on it per unit
change in electrical potential. Capacitance also implies an
associated storage of electrical energy. If electric charge is
transferred between two initially uncharged conductors,
both become equally charged, one positively, the other
negatively, and a potential difference is established
between them. The capacitance C is the ratio of the
amount of charge q on either conductor to the potential
difference V between the conductors, or simply C = q/V
 CAPACITANCE OF AN ISOLATED SPHERICAL
CONDUCTOR

The capacitance (C) for an isolated conducting sphere of

radius (a) is given by 4πϵoa. If the sphere is enclosed with
an earthed concentric sphere. The ratio of the radii of the
spheres being nn−1 then the capacitance of such a sphere
will be increased by a factor.

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A CHARGED

CONDUCTOR
Work has to be done to transfer charges onto a conductor, against
the force of repulsion from the already existing charges on it. This
work is stored as a potential energy of the electric field of the
conductor.

The potential of the conductor when (during charging) the charge

on it was q (< q0) is,

V ∝ q or V = Cq; where ‘C’ is a constant of proportionality that

depends on the nature of the material of the conductor. This
constant is known as the capacitance.
Let us say that we have to transfer a small charge ‘dq’ which
takes a small amount of work ‘dW’. Then work done in bringing
a small charge dq at this potential (V) is =

The total work done in charging it from 0 to q0 is now easy to

calculate. All we have to do is to take an integral of the above
equation between the relevant limits as shown below:

This work is stored as the potential energy and we have:

Further by using q0 = CV0 we can write this expression also as,

In general, if a conductor of capacity C is charged to a potential V

by giving it a charge q, then
 CAPACITOR
1. A capacitor is a device that is used to store charges in an
electrical circuit.
2. A capacitor works on the principle that the capacitance of a
conductor increases appreciably when an earthed conductor
is brought near it.
3. Hence, a capacitor has two plates separated by a distance
having equal and opposite charges.
4. The space between the conductors may be filled by vacuum
or with an insulating material known as a dielectric. The
ability of the capacitor to store charges is known as
capacitance.
5. Equation of capacitance is given by,
q=CV [q=charge, C=Capacitance, V=Voltage]
Working principle of a capacitor:
1. Consider the following circuit, which shows the working
principle of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric
between them.
2. Apply the voltage V as shown in the circuit, with plate 1
being positive and plate 2 being negative. An electric field
appears across the capacitor.
3. When the voltage is supplied to these plates, plate 1 will
carry a positive charge from the battery, and plate 2 will
carry a negative charge from the battery.
4. The voltage is supplied for a period of time, during which
time the capacitor is charged to its maximum holding
charge, and this period is referred to as the capacitor's
charging time.
 5. After a period of time, when the capacitor has reached its
full charging capacity, we will turn off the electricity to the
capacitor. The two plates have a negative and positive
charge for a period of time.
6. As a result, the capacitor serves as a source of electricity. If
these plates are connected to a load, current flows from
plate 1 to plate 2 until all charges on both plates have been
dissipated.
7. The time it takes for the capacitor to discharge is referred to
as the dissipation time.

CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR
The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of
the maximum charge Q that can be stored in a capacitor
to the applied voltage V across its plates. In other words,
capacitance is the largest amount of charge per volt that
can be stored on the device: C = Q V . C = Q V .

EXPRESSION FOR CAPACITANCE OF A

PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR
Consider a parallel plate capacitor consisting of two large
conducing plates held parallel to each other and separated
by a small distance (d), (A>> d2),
A → area of each plate
if plate (1) carries a charge + Q and (2) carries - Q then, due
to attraction the charges exist only on inner surfaces facing
each other.
Let surface density of charge on (1) and (2)
be σ1=QA and σ2=QA respectively.

The electric field due to a plane charged sheet, at a point

close to it in vacuum is σ2ϵ0 directed normal to the surface.

The field at a point P between the plates then is:

E= E1 + E2 =σ2ϵ0 + σ2ϵ0 = σϵ0→(1)
along the direction from (1) to (2), due to both plates.
The work done in moving a unit positive charge from the
negative to positive plate against field is Ed. Which is by
definition `V' or the potential difference between the plates.
Hence, we have V = Ed = Q dϵ0A→(2)
∴ Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor
is C=QV=ϵ0A/d→(3)

DEPENDENCE OF THE CAPACITANCE OF A

CAPACITOR
The capacitance of any capacitor can be either fixed or
variable, depending on its usage. From the equation, it
may seem that 'C' depends on charge and voltage.
Actually, it depends on the shape and size of the
capacitor and also on the insulator used between the
conducting plates.

CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL-PLATE
CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC SLAB
BETWEEN PLATES
Suppose +Q is the charge on one plate and -Q Is charge on the
second plate. Bring a rectangular slab made up of conducting
material between the plates of the capacitor. The thickness of the
slab must be less than the distance between the plates of the
capacitor. When the electric field will be applied then
polarization of molecules will be started. The polarization will
take place in me direction same as that of electric held. Consider
a vector mat must be polarized. name It as P The polarization
vector must be in the direction of electric field E0. Then this
vector will start Its functioning and will produce an electric
field E0 in the opposite direction to that of E0. The net electric
held in the circuit is shown by the figure.

E=E0−Ep
The electric field E0 in the outside region of the dielectric
will be null. Now the equation of the potential difference
between the plates will be
V=(d−t)+Et
But E0=Er or K
Therefore E=E0k
So, V=E0(d−t)+E0tk
V=E0[d−t+t/k]
As we know
E0=QE0
=QAϵ0
V=QAϵ0[d−t+t/k]
Capacitance of the capacitor is shown in the equation below:
C=QV=Aϵ0/(d−t+t/k)
=ϵ0A/d−t(1−1k)
i.e., C=ϵ0A/d−t(1−1/k)
So, C>C0
Clearly, it is proved that if a dielectric slab is placed in the
plates of a capacitor then its capacitance will increase by
some amount.

COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS
There are two basic types of combinations of capacitors,
i.e. series and parallel combinations of the capacitor. In a
series combination of capacitors, each capacitor is
connected one after another. On the other hand, the two
plates are arranged in parallel with dielectric material in
between in a parallel capacitor.

SERIES:
The formula for series capacitor is as follows: 1/Cs=
1/C1 +1/C2+1/C3 +1/C4… Thus, the total capacitance of
the capacitors, when arranged in series, will be the
sum of reciprocals of the individual capacitance of
capacitors.

COMBINATION:
To calculate the total overall capacitance of a number of
capacitors connected in this way you add up the individual
capacitances using the following formula: CTotal = C1 + C2
+ C3 and so on Example: To calculate the total
capacitance for these three capacitors in parallel.

ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR

Work has to be done to transfer charges onto a conductor,
against the force of repulsion from the already existing charges
on it. This work is stored as a potential energy of the electric field
of the conductor
In general, if a conductor of capacity C is charged to a potential V
by giving it a charge q, then
FORCE BETWEEN THE PLATES OF A CHARGED
PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR

Electric field by any one plate is given by,

E=σ/2ϵ0 ……(1)
Where, E is the electric field
σ is the area density of charge
ϵ0 is the vacuum permittivity
We know,
Area density of charge is given by,
σ=Q/A ……(2)
Where, Q is the total charge on the plate
A is the area of each plate
Substituting equation. (2) in equation. (1) we get,
E=Q/2Aϵ0 ……(3)
Force between two plates of the capacitor is given by,
F=Q.E
Where, F is the force between two plates
Substituting equation. (3) in above equation we get,
F=Q.Q/2Aϵ0
⇒F=Q^2/2Aϵ0
Hence, the force between the plates of the parallel plate
capacitor is Q^2/2Aϵ0

Charges Induced on the Surfaces of Dielectric

Slab Placed between the Plates of Parallel –
Plate Capacitor
 Dielectrics

Dielectrics, in general, can be described as materials that

are very poor conductors of electric current. They are
basically insulators and contain no free electrons.
Dielectrics can be easily polarised when an electric field is
applied to it, and thus, their behaviour in an electric field is
entirely different from that of conductors.

Dielectric Materials

Polar and non-polar molecules help us to understand the

dielectric behaviour in an electric field.

Polar Molecules
A polar molecule is one in which the ‘centres of gravity’ of
the positive charges (i.e., protons) and negative charges
(i.e., electrons) do not coincide. Such molecules are called
permanent electric dipoles, as they have permanent dipole
moments. Some common polar molecules are HCl, H2O,
N2O, NH3, H2S, C2H5OH, and SO2.
In a molecule of HCl, there is an excess positive charge
on the H-ion and an equal negative charge on the Cl-ion.
The molecule, therefore, has a dipole moment at every
instant and is a polar molecule. Another interesting
example of polar molecules is H2O.
In the water molecule, two O-H bonds are not placed
opposite to each other (unlike the CO2 molecule) but are
inclined at an angle of about 105°. The hydrogen ion forms
a dipole moment with each of the oxygen ions, and there
is a net dipole moment.

[Fig. (a)].

(p = p1+p2)
(1) In the absence of an electric field, the electric dipole
moments of these polar molecules point in random
directions [Fig. (b)] and cancel each other.
 Therefore, even though each molecule has a dipole
moment, the average moment per unit volume is
zero.
(2) On the application of an electric field, the dipole
moments of these molecules align themselves
parallel to the direction of the electric field, as
shown in figure (c). But this alignment is incomplete
due to the thermal vibrations of the molecules. It is
obvious that the alignment of the molecules with the
applied field increases if,

• The electric intensity of the field is increased.

• Temperature is decreased.
It should be noted that increased electric intensity
may also increase the dipole moment. It is due to
the reason that with increased electric intensity, the
distance between the centres of gravity of the
positive and negative charges increases, which
results in an increase in the dipole moment.

NON POLAR MOLECULES

A non-polar molecule is one in which the centres of gravity
of positive charges (i.e., protons) and negative charges
(i.e., electrons) coincide. These molecules, thus, do not
have any permanent dipole moment.
Some common examples of non-polar molecules are CO2,
CCl4, oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen (H2), methane
(CH4) and ethane (C2H6).

In a molecule of CO2, the oxygen ions are symmetrically

placed with respect to the carbon ion. Hence, the dipole
moment is zero [Figure (a)].
If the molecule is placed in an electric field E along the line
joining the ions, the oxygen ions get displaced with
respect to the carbon ion, and the net dipole induced is
along the direction of E [Figure (b)].
If the electric field E is applied perpendicular to the line
joining the ions, the directions of the induced dipole
moment is again along the field E, as in figure(c).
In CCl4, the external electric field changes the orientation
of the C-Cl bond and thus produces an induced dipole
moment.
Thus, in general, when a non-polar molecule is placed in
an electric field, the centres of positive and negative
charges get displaced, and the molecule is then said to
have been polarised, as shown in figure (d). Such a
molecule is then called the induced electric dipole, and its
electric dipole moment is called the induced electric dipole
moment. As soon as the electric field is removed, the
induced electric dipole moment disappears.
The induced electric dipole moment is proportional to the
applied electric field but is almost independent of
temperature. Further, the induced dipole is parallel to the
electric field right at the time of its creation.
The main difference between the polar and the non-polar
molecules is the temperature dependence of dipole
moment in the case of polar molecules and no such
dependence in the case of non-polar molecules.

ELECTRIC POLARISATION OF MATTER

Polarization occurs when an electric field distorts the
negative cloud of electrons around positive atomic nuclei
in a direction opposite the field. This slight separation of
charge makes one side of the atom somewhat positive
and the opposite side somewhat negative.

Let us consider a dielectric slab in an electric field which is

acting in the direction shown in the figure.
The positive charges move in the direction of the field, and
the negative charges move in the opposite direction. In
other words, the electric dipoles align themselves with the
direction of the field. In this state, the entire dielectric and
its molecules are said to be polarised.
The alignment of the dipole moments of the permanent or
induced dipoles with the direction of the applied electric
field is called polarisation.
Within the two extremely thin surface layers indicated by
shaded regions, there is an excess negative charge in one
layer and an excess equal positive charge in the other
layer.
The induced charges on the surfaces of the dielectric are
due to these layers. These charges are not free, but each
is bound to a molecule lying on or near the surface. That is
why these charges are called bound charges or fictitious
charges. Within the remaining dielectric, the net charge
per unit volume remains zero. Thus, although the dielectric
is polarised, yet as a whole, it remains electrically neutral.
The positive induced surface charge must be equal in
magnitude to the negative induced surface charge. Thus,
in polarisation, the internal state of the slab is
characterised not by an excess charge but by the relative
displacement of the charges within it.
The extent to which a dielectric is polarized is described
by a vector quantity P called the polarization.
Polarisation is defined as the electric dipole moment per
unit volume.
P has the same direction as the molecular dipole moment.
The SI unit of P is coulomb metre per cubic metre(c/m^2).
Dimensional Formula:- [L^-2 T I] where L=length; T=time; I=current.

INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD OF DIELECTRIC

Electric Field Inside a Dielectric :-
Owing to these induced surface charges, an Electric field
Ei is set up in the dielectric whose direction is opposite to
E0.
The resulting electric field E is in the same direction as E0
and its magnitude is less than E0 as E=E0-Ei.
The field in the dielectric is only weakened and never
completely cancelled. This is due to the fact that the
charges in the dielectric are not free to move beyond a
particular distance, and as such, they are not displaced to
such an extent that the induced field is equal to the
applied field. We find that though a steady current cannot
pass through an insulator, an electric field can. That is the
reason for calling insulators as dielectrics. Dielectric
means transmitting electric effects without conducting.

DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
.Dielectric strength is defined as the electrical strength of
an insulting material. In a sufficiently strong electric field
the insulating properties of an insulator breaks down
allowing flow of charge. Dielectric strength is measured as
the maximum voltage required to produce a dielectric
breakdown through a material.
DIELECTIC PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
EFFECT OF DIELECTRICS ON CAPACITORS