ELE4201: Control Systems Components

Hassan A. Bashir

ELE 4201: Control Engineering II

Outline

Control System Components: Governors, Hydraulics, Pneumatics, Synchros,

Electronic PID, etc. Basic speed and position control systems. Steady state analysis.

Further Graphical Techniques: Root locus constructions, Frequency Response

Characteristics, M and N Cycles, Nichol’s Chart, Inverse Nyquist plots,.

Classical Design Techniques: Classical design and performance specifications in

time and frequency domain. Feedback compensation using root locus, Nyquist and
Bode diagram. Tuning of PID industrial controllers.

Introduction to Nonlinear Systems: Concept, types and effects of nonlinearities

on closed-loop control systems. The Describing function method of analysis and
phase plane method.

Reference Texts

1. M. N. Bandyophadhyay, Control Engineering – Theory and Practice,

Prentice-Hall, 2006.
2. Roland S. Burns, Advanced Control Engineering, Butterworth -
Heinemann

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 ELE4201: Control Systems Components

Hassan A. Bashir

ELE4201: Control Systems Engineering II

1.1Control System – Introduction

Fundamental to any control system is the ability to measure the system’s output
and to take corrective actions if its value deviates from the desired value. This in
turn necessitates a sensing device.

Humans have a number of in-built sensors which from the beginning of time are
used to control our actions, the actions of others and now the actions of machines.
In driving a vehicle for example, the most important sense is sight, but hearing and
smell are also crucial to the driver’s action.

A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for
the purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given a
specified input.

Input Output
System (Plant)
Excitation Response
Figure 1: A Black Box System

System Response: This important concept refers to the way in which system
outputs respond in changes to the system inputs. A control engineer will attempt to
evaluate the system response by determining a mathematical model for the system.

The knowledge of the system inputs, together with the mathematical model will
allow the system outputs to be calculated (see Fig. 1).

Sensors: Fundamental to any control system is the ability to measure the output of
the system and to take corrective action(s) if its value deviates from the desired
value. This in turn necessitates the use of a sensing device.

Control and Disturbance inputs: System inputs upon which the control engineer
has direct control and can be used to influence/manipulate the system’s behavior
are called control inputs. Those inputs over which the engineer has no control,

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and could deflect the plant outputs from their desired values are referred to as
disturbance inputs.

Time: One fundamental property of a control system is time. A system that varies
with time is called a time varying system; whereas a stationary system is called
time invariant (TI).

Transfer Function (TF): The concept of transfer function entails the dynamic
description of a system behavior. The dynamics of all linear systems can be
described by ordinary differential equations (ODE), viz:

𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
= 𝑥̇ ; = 𝑥̈ ; …
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Example ODE:
𝑥̈ (𝑡) + 3 𝑥̇ (𝑡) + 2𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑦(𝑡)

Assuming zero initial conditions, transfer function is defined as:

Laplace Transform of Outputs

TF =
Laplace Transforms of Inputs
Example TF:

Consider the following 2nd order SISO plant represented by an ODE:

𝑥̈ + 3 𝑥̇ + 2𝑥 = 𝑦

Taking the Laplace transforms yields:

𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑥̇ (0) − 𝑥(0) + 3𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 3𝑥(0) + 2𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠)

Assuming zero initial condition:

𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) + 3𝑠𝑋(𝑠) + 2𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠)

(𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 2)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠)
Therefore,
𝑋(𝑠) 1
TF = = 2
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2

Zeros and Poles

A zero is that value of 𝑠 that will drive the transfer function to zero (i.e. the value
of 𝑠 at the numerator).

A pole is that value of 𝑠 that will drive the TF to infinity (i.e. 𝑠 at the denominator).

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Stability: For a stable system, all the system poles must be located at the left
hand side of the s-plane.

Dominancy: A dominant pole is the pole that contributes most to the system
response characteristics.

Quiz:

Consider the following system:

𝑥(𝑡) = 7𝑒 −𝑡 + 8𝑒 −3𝑡 .

Which of the two poles is the dominant pole?

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1.2. Control System Components

Typically, a control system consists of an arrangement of smaller components. The

TF of a system is determined from the behavior of those components. Newton’s
laws, Thermodynamical laws and/or electrical laws are used to determine the
numerical behavior of the components.

Types: Generally, control system components are of 3-types:

- Sensors
- Error Detectors – Differencing & Amplification
- Actuators

1.2.1 Sensors
These are low-power transducers which produce output signals as a measure of
the controlled variable. A linear (proportional) relationship is generally preferred
though it could be any suitable functional relationship.

Uses: Sensors are employed in the measurement of:

Position, speed, acceleration, pressure, temperature, light, or

neutron flux level (a quantity representing the chemical state
of a reactor), etc.

The output signal of a sensor is invariably in electrical form (Analog or Digital).

Example is in Microphones, Photodiodes, Tachometers, Synchros, etc.

1.2.2Error Detectors – Differencing and Amplification

Differencing to get the error and amplification of the error signal to suitable level in
magnitude and power are most conveniently carried out electronically.

Figure 2: An Operational Amplifier System

With OPAMPs, differencing and suitable amplification over a wide range of

frequency and large range of voltage and/or current can be achieved. High power

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levels can be realized by the use of power transistors or SCRs at the final power
stage.

1.2.3Actuators
These are devices whose output is mechanical motion (translatory/rotary).
Actuators are characterized by power output and speed-torque relationship to
match the load. In control systems, actuators perform a variety of tasks to
manipulate the controlled process.

Uses: an actuator may be used to regulate (open/close) a valve in a hydraulic

system, steam or chemical process plant, adjusting the transformer tap, control
rods in a nuclear reactor, etc.

Categories of Actuators:

a) Electric Actuators:
For example, DC and AC servo motors are widely used due to:
- their inherent flexibility in transmitting electric power through cables;
- desirable speed-torque characteristic (linear)

Figure 3: DC Servo motor – Speed Controller

Example of Electric Actuators: DC and AC motors, DC/AC Tachogenerators,

Potentiometers, Optical Encoders, Synchros, etc.

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Actuators: Motors with Encoders and Gears

(a) DC Motor (b) Geared Motor with Encoder

(c) Cross section – Encoder (d) Cross section - Gears

(e) Stepper Motor (f) Cross section – Stepper Motor

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b) Hydraulic Actuators:
For example, hydraulic pumps and motors, these are suitable for low speed
high torque applications, e.g. in cranes and other heavy lifting equipment.

Hydraulic pump: As shown in Figure 4 hydraulic pump cause linear action from
pressure pushing against piston in a cylinder.

Hydraulic motors: cause rotary action from pressure pushing against rotary vanes.

(a) Hydraulic Pump

(b) Hydraulic Controlled Actuator

(c) Hydraulic Motor

Figure 4: Hydraulic Actuators
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Types of Hydraulic Motors: External and Internal Gear Motors, Vane Motors, Piston
Type Motors, Rotary Abutment Motors.

Obeying the Pascal’s principle of hydraulic systems, hydraulic actuators use

incompressible liquid to control very large forces using smaller force.

Applications of Hydraulic Actuators:

- Hydraulic Presses: such as control devices

- Construction Equipment
- Lifting and transporting
- Agricultural Machinery

c) Pneumatic Actuators:

Pneumatic systems use air pressure to create mechanical motion. Unlike hydraulic
systems, pneumatic systems are compressible.

Pneumatic pumps and motors are also good for low speed high torque applications
but are cleaner compared to their hydraulic counterparts. Pneumatic actuators,
however, suffer from leakages and inherent inaccuracies.

Types of Pneumatic Actuators

There are two basic types:

- Linear actuators (cylinder/piston or diaphragm types), and

- Rotary actuators.

Piston and rotary actuators are functionally similar to their hydraulic counterparts.

(a) Bellow (b) Car Jack

Figure 5: Pneumatic actuator

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Advantages of Pneumatic Actuators

- Ruggedness, low cost, great accuracy, suitable for proportional/analog
control

Disadvantages:
- Air stations require routine maintenance
- May require specialized tools for set-up and calibration

Applications:
Pneumatics has applications in Industries, dentistry, construction, mining, and other
areas

Assignment:

Write short notes on the principle and working of:

- Stepper Motor
- Synchro

1.2.4 Error Detectors

An Error detector has two input terminals and one output terminal which compares
the two inputs.

A potentiometer is an error detector which has input signals 𝜃𝑟 and 𝜃0 as mechanical

positions, either linear or rotational; the output 𝑣(𝑡) is a voltage signal. They are
related by
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐾(𝜃𝑟 (𝑡) − 𝜃0 (𝑡))

Figure 6: Error Detector - Comparator

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Other example of Error detectors include:

• Tachometer – converts a velocity into a voltage

• Synchros – converts angular shaft position into an electric signal
• A.C. Servo-motors – for speed and position control

Quiz: Identify this component

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1.2.5 Optical Encoder

Optical encoders are widely used in control systems (robotics in particular) to

convert linear or rotary displacement into digital code or pulse signals. They are
basically of 2-types:

i. Absolute Encoders: Their output is digitally coded signal with distinct

digital code indicative of each particular least significant increment of
resolution.
ii. Incremental encoders:Their output is a pulse for each increment of
resolution but these make no distinction between increments.

Incremental encoders have the benefits of simple construction, low cost, ease of
application and versatility. Thus, they are by far the most popular type of encoders.

Typically, incremental encoders have four parts:

a) Light source (LED)
b) Rotary or translator disc
c) Stationary mask, and
d) Light sensor (Photodiode).

As shown in Figure 7, the disc has alternate opaque and transparent sectors (of
equal width) which are etched by means of a photographic process on to a plastic
disc.

Figure 7: Incremental Encoder

As the disc rotates during half of the increment cycle, the transparent sectors of
rotating and stationary discs come in alignment permitting the light from LED to
reach the sensor thereby generating an electric pulse (Figure 8).

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Basic resolution = 360°/𝑁, where 𝑁 = Number of sectors of disc each sector is half
transparent and half opaque.

Figure 8: Waveform of sensor output

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