Water and Wastewater Engineering

A major challenge for the twenty-first century is to provide safe and adequate drinking water
to everyone. Preventing pollution of the environment due to rampant and untreated discharges
of wastewater is another challenge for most developing countries, including India. The water–
energy connection is also being recognized as another growing challenge. The design of water and
wastewater treatment facilities must be environmentally sensitive, energy efficient and sustainable
into the future.
Conceived as a textbook for undergraduate and graduate students who need to understand the
basic concepts and design principles related to water and wastewater engineering, this book begins
with an introduction to water resources and the need for water and wastewater treatment. This is
followed by an evaluation of water demand in terms of quantity and quality. Major mass transfer
and transformation processes that are necessary for understanding the complexity of water pollution
issues and treatment processes are dealt with in detail. Treatment processes that are used in water
and/or wastewater treatment are detailed subsequently so that they can be designed by the student. A
few examples of specific water treatment requirements are provided to enable the student to choose
and apply only relevant treatment processes in their design. Conventional and non-conventional
treatment schemes for water and wastewater treatment are covered to complete the overview of
treatment processes. Collection, transportation and distribution aspects of drinking water supply
systems are covered along with wastewater collection systems. Problems and issues arising from
the inadequacies of conventional treatment practices, and potential methods for resolving these
problems have also been incorporated into this text. An overview of relevant regulations, Indian
and other, is also provided.
Sudha Goel is Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering (Environmental Engineering
and Management), Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India. She has published more than
50 papers in journals and conferences of national and international repute. Her areas of research
include water quality and treatment, environmental impact and risk assessment, and solid and
hazardous waste management.
Water and Wastewater
Engineering

Sudha Goel
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia
314 to 321, 3rd Floor, Plot No.3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of

education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

[Link]
Information on this title: [Link]/9781316639030

Cambridge University Press 2019

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2019

Printed in India

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Goel, Sudha, author.
Title: Water and wastewater engineering / Sudha Goel.
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge
University Press, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019016364 | ISBN 9781316639030 (paperback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Water--Purification. | Sewage--Purification. | Water-zsupply.
Classification: LCC TD430 .G63 2019 | DDC 628.1--dc23
LC record available at [Link]

ISBN 978-1-316-63903-0 Paperback

Additional resource for this publication at [Link]/9781316639030

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.

While every effort has been made to eliminate errors, the author and publisher will not be
held responsible for any actions or consequence thereof due to the contents of this book.
 Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Abbreviations xv
Symbols and Dimensions  xix

Part I Concepts Related to Water  1

1. Water Resources 3
1.1 Groundwater 6
1.1.1 Quantifying Groundwater Flow 8
1.1.2 Design and Construction of Wells 13
1.1.3 Darcy’s Law and Pumped Wells 15
1.1.4 Groundwater Pollution 18
1.2 Surface Water 21
1.2.1 Surface Water Intakes 22
1.2.2 Surface Water Contamination 28
1.3 Source Water Protection 30
1.3.1 Groundwater Protection 31
1.3.2 Surface Water Protection 32

2. Water Demand 35
2.1 Design of Water Supply Systems 36
2.2 Water Uses and Requirements 37
2.2.1 Factors Affecting Water Use 40
2.2.2 Calculating Water Demand 43
2.2.3 Factors Affecting Water Losses 44
2.3 City-Level and Higher Scales of Water Use 48
2.4 Urban and Rural Water Supplies in India 50
2.5 Population Forecasting 50
2.5.1 Arithmetic Progression Method 51
2.5.2 Exponential Method 51
vi Contents

2.5.3 Geometric Progression Method 51

2.5.4 Incremental Increase Method 51
2.5.5 Logistic Curve Method 52
2.5.6 Changing Rate of Increase Method 53
2.5.7 Curve-Fitting or Best-Fit Method 53
2.5.8 Ratio Method 53
2.6 Variations in Water Demand 60
2.6.1 Seasonal and Monthly Variations 60
2.6.2 Weekly, Daily and Hourly Variations 60

3. Water Quality 67
3.1 General 69
3.1.1 pH 69
3.1.2 Ionic Strength 71
3.1.3 Electrical Conductivity 72
3.1.4 Solids 74
3.1.5 Temperature 75
3.1.6 Dissolved Oxygen 76
3.1.7 Turbidity 77
3.1.8 Alkalinity 78
3.1.9 Hardness 79
3.1.10 Color 80
3.2 Organics 86
3.2.1 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 86
3.2.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 87
3.2.3 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 88
3.2.4 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 90
3.2.5 Synthetic Organic Compounds (SOC) 91
3.3 Inorganics 99
3.3.1 Macronutrients 99
3.3.2 Micronutrients 101
3.3.3 Toxic Heavy Metals 102
3.4 Microbes 103
3.4.1 Virus 107
3.4.2 Bacteria 107
3.4.3 Protozoa 114
3.4.4 Algae 114
3.4.5 Fungi 114
3.5 Water Quality in Flowing Water Bodies 115
3.5.1 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve 115
3.5.2 Nitrogen Species in Rivers 118
3.5.3 Environmental Flows (E-flows) 118
 Contents vii

3.6 Water Quality in Standing Water Bodies 123

3.6.1 Eutrophication 123
3.6.2 Thermal Stratification 124
3.7 Water Quality Index (WQI) 129

4. Mass Transfer and Transformation 135

4.1 Mass Transfer: Using Mass Balances 136
4.1.1 Transport by Advection 137
4.1.2 Transport by Diffusion 138
4.1.3 Transport by Eddy or Turbulent Diffusion 139
4.1.4 Transport by Dispersion 140
4.2 Mass Transformation 143
4.2.1 Types of Reactions 144
4.2.2 Reaction Kinetics 145
4.3 Ideal Reactors 153
4.3.1 Batch Reactors 154
4.3.2 Continuously Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTR) 154
4.3.3 Plug Flow Reactors (PFR) 156
4.3.4 Tracer Curves  157
4.4 Bacterial Growth and Kinetics 165
4.4.1 Metabolic Pathways 165
4.4.2 Bacterial Growth Phases 166
4.4.3 Bacterial Growth Kinetics and Yields 167

Part II Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes 175

5. Physico-Chemical Processes for Water and Wastewater Treatment 177
5.1  alancing Storage or Flow Equalization
B 178
5.2 Aeration 181
5.3 Screening 189
5.4 Settling 196
5.4.1 Discrete Settling (Type 1) 197
5.4.2 Design of Settling Tanks 204
5.5 Coagulation–Flocculation  209
5.5.1 The Stability of Particles 209
5.5.2 Coagulation Theory 210
5.5.3 Flocculation 214
5.5.4 Design considerations 216
5.6 Sedimentation or Clarification 220
5.6.1 Flocculant Settling Analysis (Type 2) 221
5.6.2 Design of Clariflocculator 221
viii Contents

5.7 Softening: Chemical 224

5.8 Softening: Ion Exchange 230
5.9 Granular Media Filtration 235
5.9.1 Types of Granular Media Filters 236
5.9.2 Design Considerations 239
5.10 Membrane Filtration 244
5.10.1 Types of Membrane Filters 245
5.10.2 Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis 246
5.10.3 Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal 247
5.10.4 Design of Membrane Filters 248
5.10.5 Operation of Membrane Filters 250
5.10.6 Membrane Fouling  252

6. Biological Processes for Water and Wastewater Treatment 263

6.1 Wastewater Characteristics 264
6.1.1 Quantity Generated 266
6.1.2 Quality 268
6.2 Secondary Treatment: Suspended Growth Processes 272
6.2.1 Activated Sludge Process 272
6.2.2 Sequential Batch Reactors (SBR) 281
6.2.3 Aerated Lagoons 282
6.3 Secondary Treatment: Fixed Film Processes 282
6.3.1 Trickling Filters (TF) 282
6.3.2 Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) 290
6.3.3 Membrane Bioreactors (MBR) 295
6.4 Clarification: Type 3 and Type 4 Settling 295
6.4.1 Hindered Settling (Type 3) 296
6.4.2 Compression Settling (Type 4) 296
6.5 Sludge Treatment: Thickening 300
6.5.1 Co-settling Thickening 301
6.5.2 Gravity Thickening 301
6.5.3 Flotation Thickening 301
6.5.4 Centrifugal Thickening 303
6.5.5 Gravity-Belt Thickening 304
6.5.6 Rotary-Drum Thickening 304
6.6 Sludge Treatment: Digestion 306
6.6.1 Anaerobic Digestion 307
6.6.2 Design Considerations 312
6.6.3 Aerobic Digestion 315
 Contents ix

6.7 Sludge Dewatering and Disposal 319

6.7.1 Sludge Dewatering 319
6.7.2 Sludge Disposal 322
6.8 Disinfection 322
6.8.1 Disinfection of Drinking Water 322
6.8.2 Disinfection of Wastewater 330

7. Strategies for Water and Wastewater Treatment 343

7.1 C onventional Drinking Water Treatment Schemes 344
7.1.1 Conventional Treatment for Surface Water 344
7.1.2 Conventional Treatment for Groundwater 348
7.2 Non-conventional Water Treatment Schemes 349
7.2.1 Arsenic in Groundwater and Its Removal 349
7.2.2 Fluoride in Groundwater and Its Removal 363
7.2.3 Nitrate Contamination and Its Removal 367
7.2.4 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Its Removal 370
7.3 Municipal Wastewater Systems 373
7.3.1 Municipal Wastewater Treatment: Primary and Secondary 373
7.3.2 Municipal Wastewater Treatment: Tertiary and Higher Levels 375

8. Water Transport and Distribution Systems 382

8.1 Transport of Water 383
8.2 Distribution Reservoirs 388
8.2.1 Surface Reservoirs 389
8.2.2 Elevated Reservoirs 389
8.3 Distribution Networks 389

9. Municipal Wastewater Collection and Disposal 397

9.1 M
 unicipal Wastewater Collection Systems 398
9.2 Wastewater Disposal and Reuse 401
9.2.1 Disposal of Municipal Wastewater 401
9.2.2 Reuse of Treated Municipal Wastewater 402
Appendix A 411
Appendix B 413
Appendix C 414
Appendix D 418
References 421
Index 431
Color Plates 439
 Preface

‘Water and Wastewater Engineering’ is a core course in undergraduate programs in civil engineering.
The course objective is to ensure that a student is able to evaluate different water resource options
for their sustainability, quantity and quality, and to design appropriate municipal water supply
and wastewater systems. These water supply systems will necessarily require sourcing of water, its
collection, treatment and distribution. Wastewater generated within these systems has to be treated
in treatment plants so that it can be reused or disposed of on land or in water bodies after achieving
discharge standards. Wastewater reuse has become an extremely important topic these days due to
severe water scarcity in many parts of the world, including India.
This textbook covers all aspects of municipal water and wastewater systems and is designed for
a one-semester course. Prior to designing water and wastewater treatment plants, it is necessary
to identify and develop an appropriate water source. For this, the student must be familiar with
different types of water resources: surface water and groundwater, and concepts related to their
quantity and quality. These are covered in the first and second chapters of this book. Fundamental
concepts from chemistry, microbiology, and chemical engineering are covered in the first part of
the book (Chapters 3 and 4) as these are necessary for understanding water quality issues, and
designing water and wastewater systems. The second part of the book includes the design of
conventional water treatment plants with unit processes like aeration, sedimentation, coagulation,
filtration, and disinfection; design of conventional wastewater treatment plants with unit processes
like screening, sedimentation, biological processes, activated sludge process and trickling filters or
biofilters, sludge treatment, and disposal; water distribution methods; wastewater collection, reuse,
and disposal options; and non-conventional treatment strategies for removal of specific pollutants
like fluoride, arsenic, nitrate, and natural organic matter.
This textbook started as a spin-off of an online course of the same name. However, several topics
that could not be covered in the online course are also included in the textbook. The text material
has been expanded and the number of problems increased. Solutions to all problems are provided.
Some of the problems will require the use of spreadsheets or other software for graphing and
calculations. A word about notation in this book: * symbolizes multiplication in MS Excel and has
been retained in all equations instead of ‘x’. The online course can be accessed at the following link:
[Link]
xii Preface

Several pedagogical features have been incorporated in the book, including learning objectives,
study outline, and study questions. Learning objectives help the students identify what the outcome
of their study should be, while the study outline provides a concise summary of what is important.
Several photographs and schematic diagrams are included along with graphical solutions to problems
to help the student visualize concepts and solve problems. The book covers only theoretical and
empirical principles as they are applied in the field. The practical ‘nuts and bolts’ of engineering
cannot be provided by this textbook! The student should always bear in mind that what is done
in practice, i.e., what works, does not always seem to be compatible with theory, i.e., the how and
why of what works and what does not work. Research and development is all about bridging the
gap between theory and practice.
Finally, while every effort has been made to eliminate typographical and other mistakes from the
book, the reader is encouraged to point these out by writing to the author at the following address:
sudhagoelcup@[Link].
 Acknowledgments

As mentioned in the preface, this book is a spin-off of an online course that was created under a
National Mission Project on Education through Information and Communication Technology,
sponsored by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. The author
is grateful to the principal investigators of this project (Professor Anup Kumar Roy and Professor
Bani Bhattacharya) for giving her an opportunity to develop an online course. Several students
were part of developing the online course and include Aashay Arora, Abhishek Ashish, Akhilesh
Yadav, Allen Dan Babu, Ankit Surekha, Hiray Kunal Satish, Manas Kansal, Manoj Kumar Mondal,
Neelesh Agrawal, Rohit Rout, Prateek Kumar, Shaikh Elias, and Syed Salman Hyder.
Other students who have contributed to this book long after the above-mentioned project was
completed include Abhishek Singhal, Rahul Meena, Tandra Mohanta, Ved P. Ranjan, Kruttika
Apshankar Kher, and Naseeba Parveen. Experimental data for several problems were obtained from
students and their work is referenced at relevant points in the book. The author is grateful to all
these students for their contributions to this book. Colleagues and staff at IIT Kharagpur and in
other institutions have also supported this endeavor and their help is gratefully acknowledged.
Last but not least, the author is grateful to her family, friends, and teachers who have supported her
through all these years.
 Abbreviations

AL aerated lagoon
AODC acridine orange direct cell count
APHA American Public Health Association
ASP activated sludge process
ATAD auto thermal aerobic digestion
AWWA American Water Works Association
BCM billion cubic meters
BFR brominated fire retardants
BOD biochemical oxygen demand or biological oxygen demand
BODu ultimate biochemical oxygen demand
CBOD carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand
CEA Central Electricity Authority
COD chemical oxygen demand
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
CSO combined sewer overflow
CSTR continuously stirred tank reactor
CWC Central Water Commission
CWS continuous water supply
DAF dissolved air flotation
DBPs disinfection by-products
DDT dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
DF demand factor
DNA deoxyribose nucleic acid
DO dissolved oxygen
DOC dissolved organic carbon
DW drinking water
xvi Abbreviations

ED electron donor
ED electrodialysis
EDR electrodialysis reversal
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
FSS fixed suspended solids
GI galvanized iron
GW groundwater
HAA haloacetic acids
HAN haloacetonitriles
HPC heterotrophic plate count
IS Indian Standards
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IWS intermittent water supply
Lpcd liters per capita per day
LUST leaking underground storage tank
MBR membrane bioreactor
MLD million liters per day
MLSS mixed liquor suspended solids
MLVSS mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
MSL mean sea level
NBOD nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand
NOM natural organic matter
NTU nephelometric turbidity units
PCP personal care products
PF peaking factor
PFR plug flow reactor
RBC rotating biological contactor
RNA ribose nucleic acid
SAR sodium absorption ratio
SBR sequencing batch reactor
SEM scanning electron microscope
SF solids flux
SOC synthetic organic compounds (compounds)
SOP synthetic organic polymers
SS steady-state
 Abbreviations xvii

SVI sludge volume index

SW surface water
TDS total dissolved solids
TEA terminal electron acceptor
TEM transmission electron microscope
TF trickling filter
TFS total fixed solids
THM trihalomethanes
ThOD theoretical oxygen demand
TKN total Kjeldahl nitrogen
TOC total organic carbon
TOX total organic halogen
TS total solids
TSS total suspended solids
TVS total volatile solids
uPVC unplasticized polyvinyl chloride
UV ultraviolet
VC viable cells
VLOM village level operation and maintenance
VOC volatile organic compounds
VSS volatile suspended solids
WHO World Health Organization
WQI water quality index
 Symbols and Dimensions
(Mass, Length and Time–MLT system where possible)

a activity
A area, L2
A specific light absorbance, dimensionless
A/V = a = specific surface area, 1/L
Ap projected area or cross-sectional area of particle in flow direction, L2
b endogenous decay coefficient, 1/T
C concentration, M/L3
Cd coefficient of drag, dimensionless
D dispersion coefficient
De eddy diffusion coefficient
Dm molecular diffusion coefficient, L2/T
e electron charge, 1.60219 *10–19 Coulombs
Ea activation energy for a reaction, kJ/mol
F flow rate for fire-fighting or fire demand, L3/T
F/M food to microorganism ratio, kg BOD5/kg MLVSS-d
G velocity gradient, 1/T
h elevation or height, L
hf head loss through filter, L
I current, amperes
I impermeability factor or runoff coefficient (ratio of runoff to rainfall)
I ionic strength, M/L3
k Boltzmann constant, 1.38066*10–23 J/degree Kelvin
K hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability, L/T
k maximum substrate utilization rate per unit mass of microbes, mg substrate/mg
cells-time, M/M-T
k reaction rate constant, units vary with reaction order
xx Symbols and Dimensions

kd deoxygenation constant, 1/T

KL overall mass transfer coefficient, M/T
ko oxygenation or reaeration constant, 1/T
Kow octanol-water partitioning coefficient
Ks half-velocity constant, M/L3
L length, L
L0 ultimate carbonaceous BOD (CBOD) and Lt = ultimate CBOD at time t
M molality of a solution, moles/L
n any number
n Manning’s coefficient or coefficient of roughness
N number of microbes or cells/L
NA Avogadro’s number, 6.02205*1023 molecules/mol
P population, persons; P0 = population at t = 0; Ps = saturation population in the
logistic model
P power or pressure
Q flow rate, L3/T or heat flux, Joules/cm2-s
q hydraulic loading rate or surface overflow rate, L/T
R electrical resistance, ohms
R ideal gas constant, 8.314 J/mol–K
R rainfall intensity, L/T
r rate of change, M/T
R0 maximum instantaneous growth rate in the logistic model, 1/T
Re Reynolds number, dimensionless
rH hydraulic radius, L
S growth limiting substrate concentration in solution, M/L3
S slope or hydraulic gradient, or drop in head or head loss per unit length = –hL/L,
length of pipe, L/L
T temperature
t time, T
tc critical time,
v velocity, L/T
V volume of a solution, L3
vs settling velocity of particle, M/T
X increment or mass or mass fraction or biomass or cell concentration
Y maximum yield coefficient, dimensionless
 Symbols and Dimensions xxi

Z charge of ion
(gamma) activity coefficient, dimensionless
(eta) porosity (% of total volume) or Coulombic efficiency, %
(theta) temperature correction factor or normalized time, i.e., t/
–1
(1/kappa) double layer thickness, L
(mu) dynamic viscosity
(pi) osmotic pressure
(rho) density of water or other materials, M/L3
(tau) V/Q = design hydraulic residence time, T
(phi) sphericity of the particle, dimensionless
 PART - I

Concepts Related to Water

‘Clean water and sanitation’ is one of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals set by the
United Nations General Assembly in 2015 and is to be achieved globally by 2030. Access to safe
drinking water is considered a basic human right and more than 1 billion people in the world
continue to suffer due to water-related diseases, resulting in many deaths.
Achieving this goal will require designing appropriate water supply and wastewater treatment
systems. The first part of this book provides background information that is essential for
understanding and designing these systems. The first step in the design of water supply systems is
to identify a sustainable water source for the community. These water sources can be surface water
or groundwater and are described in the first chapter. Methods for withdrawal of water from these
sources are included. The extent to which these sources are contaminated will determine the degree
of treatment that is necessary.
The next important step in the design of water supply systems is to determine the quantity and
quality of the water that is needed. Water demand varies both temporally and spatially. Temporal
variations on a daily and seasonal basis need to be accounted for in design. Spatial variations in water
demand are mainly due to the size of the population that is to be served. Accurate forecasting of
future populations is an extremely important step in determining the size and design of both water
supply and wastewater systems. Factors that influence water demand are addressed in Chapter 2.
Water quality requirements have become more stringent over time necessitating higher levels of
treatment. Major water quality parameters of importance in water supply and wastewater systems
are described with examples in Chapter 3.
Finally, basic principles of reaction kinetics and reactor design are described in Chapter 4. These
principles are necessary for understanding the transport and transformation of contaminants within
water and wastewater treatment systems and are applied to the design of treatment processes which
are covered in the second part of the book.
 CHAPTER 1

Water Resources

Learning Objectives

Identify and classify water resources

Describe the hydrologic cycle
Differentiate between surface water and groundwater resources
Describe confined and unconfined aquifers
Derive Darcy’s law and apply it to relevant groundwater scenarios
Determine yields, permeabilities, hydraulic conductivities and flow velocities of
groundwater through confined and unconfined aquifers
Describe different types of wells, their methods of construction and conditions for
their use
Identify sources of groundwater contamination and their transport in the
subsurface
Identify potential sources of contamination for surface water bodies
Classify surface water bodies based on CPCB standards
Calculate pollutant or nutrient loading to a water body
Design and describe different types of surface water intakes and wells
Identify sources of contamination, their constituents and concentrations in surface
water bodies
Describe and design infiltration wells and galleries and the conditions under
which they can be used

Freshwater is only 3 percent of the total water on the planet, and includes groundwater which is
almost 30 percent of this, while surface water is a meager 0.3 percent. Glaciers and icecaps comprise
the remaining, at slightly less than 70 percent of the total, freshwater resources of the planet.1

1 [Link]
4 Water and Wastewater Engineering

The movement of water in any of its three states (solid, liquid, or gaseous) through different parts
of the planetary environment is termed the hydrologic cycle and is shown in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 Hydrologic cycle and its various components (see color

plate).

It can be broadly defined in terms of six major processes:2

Precipitation is the sum total of all water that falls over land and surface water bodies including
rivers, seas, and oceans and includes rain, ice, snow, hail, and sleet.
Condensation is that part of water vapor in the atmosphere that condenses on particles to form clouds.
When these clouds are supersaturated, the water vapor is released in the form of precipitation.
Evapotranspiration is the release of water to the atmosphere from various water bodies by
evaporation and from plants during the process of transpiration or respiration.
Surface runoff is defined as the amount of water that flows over land towards any surface water
body. Any and all surface water bodies from small ponds and lakes to seas and oceans can serve
as sinks for surface runoff. Some of these water bodies are transient (seasonal) while others are
permanent.
Infiltration is the amount of water that percolates or infiltrates into the subsurface.
Accumulation or collection of water is the sixth major process and is the sink for all inputs of
water. Water is collected in various water bodies: surface or subsurface. Surface water bodies can be
oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and ponds, while groundwater aquifers accumulate water that infiltrates
through the subsurface. The latter process is also known as groundwater recharge.
As per the last assessment of the hydrologic cycle in India (1993), India receives 4000 billion m3 of
precipitation (including snow) every year. Accessible surface water and rechargeable groundwater
comprise 1869 billion m3 and of this only 60 percent is usable due to topographical and other
constraints (Ministry of Water Resources 2002). Based on CWC data, annual evaporation losses
in India are estimated to range from 5 to 6 percent (Central Water Commission 2006). Per capita
availability of water in India is estimated to be 1820 m3/y and can be compared to data for other
countries as shown in Table 1.1

2 [Link]
 Water Resources 5

Table 1.1 Country-wise estimates of per capita water availability (Central Water

Commission 2006)

Country Per capita water availability, m3/y

India 1,820
USA 8,902
China 2,215
Brazil 40,855
Australia 18,162

Historically, cities and towns flourished along rivers due to easy access and long-term availability of
water. However, the last few decades have seen an increasing shift towards the use of groundwater in
India even along rivers due to better and more dependable water quality, easy access to groundwater
(GW) and deteriorating quality of surface waters (SW). Access to groundwater has become easy
due to improved ability to dig deeper tubewells at extremely low costs. On the other hand, storage
of surface water, especially by construction of dams and reservoirs, is now becoming a difficult
proposition for technical, social and economic reasons. In a survey of 171 students in August 2017,
34 percent of the students came from towns that were completely dependent on surface water sources
while 22 percent were using, only, groundwater in their hometowns. The remaining (44 percent)
were using both types of water resources, groundwater and surface water in their hometowns. These
data are indicative of a major shift from reliance on surface water to groundwater.
Estimates of total water withdrawals in the country in 2010 are provided in Table 1.2 (Panikkar
2012).

Table 1.2 Estimates of total water withdrawals in India in 2010 (Panikkar 2012)

Total water withdrawals Amount Units Percent of total

withdrawal
Per inhabitant 627 m3/y
Surface water and groundwater withdrawal 7,61,000 106 m3/y
Withdrawals by use
Irrigation and livestock 6,88,000 106 m3/y 90.4
6 3
Industrial use 56,000 10 m /y 7.36
Municipal use 17,000 106 m3/y 2.23
Withdrawals by source
Primary surface water 396 km3/y 52.0
Primary groundwater 251 km3/y 32.98
3
Reused agricultural drainage water 114 km /y 14.98
6 Water and Wastewater Engineering

Groundwater is characterized by relatively constant water quality in comparison to surface waters.

Water in shallow wells in unconfined aquifers tends to vary with seasons in terms of water level
and quality. However, water in deep wells in confined aquifers varies only over the long-term, i.e.,
it is not subject to seasonal variations. Changes are observed only over decades or more. Spatial
variations are also due only to changes in hydro-geologic conditions.
A few decades ago, developing GW sources (investigating, building and operating) was considered
more expensive than using SW sources. Several test and monitoring wells were required to determine
aquifer yield and water quality. Further, pumping requirements can also be high leading to greater
net expenditure in such cases. However, treatment requirements for GW are generally much less
than SW sources due to higher water quality making GW a better proposition in most cases.
Other salient differences between groundwater and surface water resources include the following:
1. Groundwater is often considered a non-renewable resource. The term ‘mining’ of GW is
used when there is no likelihood of its replenishment.
2. Pollution of GW resources is more difficult to mitigate than pollution of SW resources.
3. Long-term effects of pollution of GW can be a bigger issue compared to SW pollution. In
general, if discharge of wastewater to a SW body is eliminated, the surface water body will
recover naturally in a few years. On the other hand, if a GW resource is contaminated and
even if the source of contamination is eliminated, the GW resource is never going to recover
naturally and completely.
4. Treatment Costs: It is more difficult and more expensive to pump and treat contaminated
GW than to restore SW quality.

1.1 Groundwater
Groundwater (GW) is defined as water that has percolated downward (or infiltrated) from the
ground surface through the soil and subsurface rocks (Henry and Heinke 1996). A schematic
defining the various subsurface zones is shown in Figure 1.2.
Unsaturated zone (vadose zone): The vadose zone is the subsurface region where all the pore
spaces or voids between the soil particles contain both air and water. This water is not usable
because it is not possible to draw or pump out. However, it can sustain vegetation.
The vadose zone occurs above the water table and the capillary fringe, and the fluid pressure in this
zone is less than atmospheric pressure (Freeze and Cherry 1979). This negative pressure head also
influences hydraulic conductivity and moisture content in this zone. Hydraulic heads in this zone
are measured with tensiometers.
Saturated zone: The saturated zone is that part of the subsurface where all voids are filled with
water, i.e., completely saturated. This is the zone below the water table in an unconfined aquifer.
The fluid pressure is greater than or equal to atmospheric pressure in confined aquifers and equal to
atmospheric pressure in unconfined aquifers. High water yields are possible in this zone. Hydraulic
conductivity in this zone is constant and is not influenced by the pressure head.
 Water Resources 7

Capillary fringe: The transition zone between the first two zones or regions is defined as the
capillary fringe. Water rises through the pore spaces by capillary action from the saturated to the
unsaturated zone.

Figure 1.2 Schematic of the subsurface and its zones.

Groundwater can be withdrawn or pumped out of geologic formations called aquifers. Various
terms associated with groundwater are shown in Figure 1.3 and described here.

Figure 1.3 Schematic of wells and aquifers.

An aquifer is a saturated geologic layer that is permeable enough for water to flow through easily.
There are two major types of aquifers:
Confined aquifers are those where water flows through two confining layers called aquicludes or
aquitards. Water is at greater than atmospheric pressure and can rise to a level higher than the local
water table. This results in natural artesian wells or springs which can flow without pumping. The
potentiometric surface (or peizometric surface) is the plane drawn at the level to which water rises
in an artesian well, i.e., the pressure head in the well.
An unconfined aquifer sits atop a confining layer and its upper surface is the water table. Water is
under atmospheric pressure in an unconfined aquifer and defines the water table level. Wells in
these strata are called gravity wells.
Aquiclude or aquitard is a relatively impermeable layer or confining layer that restricts the movement
of GW.
8 Water and Wastewater Engineering

1.1.1 Quantifying Groundwater Flow

Flow in the subsurface can be described by Darcy’s law. Darcy’s law states that flow (Q) per unit area
(A) is proportionate to the hydraulic gradient (–dh/dL), as shown in Figure 1.4. Area considered is
perpendicular to the direction of flow.

Figure 1.4 Hydraulic gradient in confined and unconfined aquifers.

Hydraulic gradient is the slope of the water table (unconfined aquifer) or piezometric surface
(confined aquifer) = dh/dL, where h = height of the water table in an unconfined aquifer or the
piezometric surface in a confined aquifer. Height is measured with respect to a datum which is
generally the mean sea level (MSL), and L is the distance between two wells.
The constant of proportionality (K) is defined as the hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of
permeability and may change with location and direction of flow in any aquifer.
Q/A = K*(–dh/dL) 1.1.1
If K is constant throughout the aquifer, the aquifer is termed homogeneous. If K changes with
location in the aquifer, that aquifer is termed heterogeneous. If K is constant regardless of flow
direction then the aquifer is isotropic, while if K changes with flow direction then the aquifer is
anisotropic.
Darcy velocity (v) is v = Q/A. This velocity does not represent ‘real’ GW velocities at the particle-
level. Velocities at the particle level, i.e., the average linear velocities, are much greater than Darcy
velocity due to the tortuosity of groundwater flow.
Porosity ( , eta) is the ratio of void volume to total volume. It determines the amount of water
stored in an aquifer. Hydraulic conductivity or permeability is not always proportionate to porosity
as shown in Table 1.3.
Average linear velocity (v’) = v/  1.1.2
Other important terms that are used to quantify and characterize groundwater flow are:
 Water Resources 9

Specific yield or effective porosity is the percent volume of water that can be drained from an
unconfined aquifer. Particle size determines permeability and specific yield; smaller particle size
leads to greater surface tension and lower permeability or specific yield.
Storage coefficient is the volume of water that can be drained from a confined aquifer.

Table 1.3 Range of values for different aquifer materials (Masters 1998; Freeze and
Cherry 1979)

Hydraulic conductivity, Specific yield

Porosity, percent
m/s (percent)
Gravel 10–3 to 1 25 to 40 22
–6 –2
Clean sand 10 to 10 25 to 50 25
–9 –5
Silt or clay 10 to 10 35 to 50 3
Sandstone 10–10 to 10–6 5 to 30 8
–9 –6
Limestone, dolomite 10 to 10 0 to 20 2
–13 –10
Shale 10 to 10 0 to 10 2

Problem 1.1.1
Three monitoring wells have the following coordinates and heads: W1 at [50, 50] has a head of
200 m; W2 at [50, 100] has a head of 210 m; W3 at [80, 75] has a head of 220 m. Sketch the well
field and determine the magnitude and direction of the hydraulic gradient.

Solution
This problem can be solved either graphically or analytically as shown in the following figure.
Graphical method
Step 1: Sketch the well field on graph paper as shown below:
10 Water and Wastewater Engineering

Step 2: Equipotential lines (lines with the same head) have to be drawn through the well field
to determine the hydraulic gradient and direction of flow. From the figure it is obvious
that there is a point with 210 m head on the line joining wells W1 and W3 and this
point is the midpoint of this line which is point C. Joining W2 with C results in one
equipotential line and all other equipotential lines are parallel to it by definition.
Step 3: Direction of flow of water is perpendicular to these equipotential lines. Hydraulic
gradient is determined by taking the difference in heads of two adjacent equipotential
lines (dh) and dividing it by the distance between the two equipotential lines (dL).
These distances can be read directly from a graph paper.
Hydraulic gradient (dh/dL) = (210 – 200)/18.5 = 0.54
Direction of flow (or hydraulic gradient) is from higher head to lower head and from graph it
is 202 degrees (where 0 degrees corresponds to due east).
Analytical method based on coordinate geometry
The coordinates and heads of the wells are:
W1: (50, 50) with 200 m Head
W2: (50, 100) with 210 m Head
W3: (80, 75) with 220 m Head
The distance between W1 and W2 is 50 m. The distance between W2 and W3 is calculated as:
   d(W2, W3) = ((50 – 80)2 + (100 – 75)2)1/2
   = 39.1 m
Similarly d(W1, W3) = 39.1 m
The well field is as shown below:

Line connecting the well with highest head (W3) and lowest head (W1) is divided into
equal parts and a point is marked where the head corresponds to 210 m, i.e., the head of the
intermediate well (W2).
 Water Resources 11

In this case, the required point is the mid-point of line connecting W1 and W3 with coordinates
[(50+80)/2, (50+75)/2] or [65, 62.5]. A line is drawn connecting W2 and this mid-point.
This is an equipotential line with head of 210 m. Groundwater flow will be in the direction
perpendicular to the line towards decreasing head as shown in the figure.
Hydraulic gradient = Change in head / Horizontal distance
We have to find the distance between the equipotential line and W3.
The equation of the line connecting C and W2 is:
(y – 100)/(x – 50) = (100 – 62.5)/(50 – 65)
≡ 5x + 2y – 450 = 0
From coordinate geometry, the distance D of a point (m, n) from any line Ax + By + C = 0 is
given by:
   D = |Am + Bn + C | / (A2 + B2)1/2
Thus, distance of W3 (80, 75) from the line joining C to W2 is given by 5x + 2y – 450 = 0 is
|5*80 + 2*75 – 450| / (52 + 22)1/2 = 18.6 m
Thus hydraulic gradient = (210 – 200)/18.6 = 0.5376
The slope of the line 5x + 2y – 450 = 0 is (–Coeff. of x) / (Coeff. of y) = –5/2.
Thus slope of a line perpendicular to this line is (–1)/(–5/2) = 2/5.
Thus the gradient is in a direction which makes 180 + tan–1 (2/5) = 201.80° with x axis.

Problem 1.1.2
If hydraulic conductivity is 6.52 m/d and the hydraulic gradient is 0.025, determine Darcy velocity.
Further, assume the aquifer is made of fine sand with a porosity of 40 percent, determine the
average linear velocity.

Solution
Darcy velocity = Q/A = K(dh/dL) = 6.52 m/d * 0.025 = 0.163 m/d or 1.88 × 10–6 m/s
For a porosity of 40 percent, the average linear velocity = (0.163/0.4) m/d or 4.7 × 10–6 m/s

Problem 1.1.3
Porosity of media is known to be independent of grain size if we assume that all grains are equal-
sized with some radius r and are perfectly spherical. If that is true what accounts for the differences
in porosity observed in the field.

Solution
We will first consider a simple cubic lattice and assume that all particles are completely spherical.
In a simple cubic lattice, the particles are located only at the corners of the cube and touch each
other along the edge. Thus, in a unit cell only 1 particle is present (8 × 1/8 of each particle)
12 Water and Wastewater Engineering

From the figure given above we can see that size of the unit cell is 2r × 2r × 2r
Volume of the unit cell = (2r)3
As the number of particles present is only one, therefore volume of particle inside the unit cell
is = 4 pr 3
3
4p r 3
8r 3 -
Volume of voids 3
Void ratio = = 3 = 0.90
Volume of particle 4p r
3
4p r 3
8r 3 -
Porosity = void volume/ total volume = 3 = 1 – (π/6) = 0.47 or 47 percent.
3
8r
Thus it can be seen that porosity or void ratio for this arrangement does not depend on the size
of the particle.
The simple cubic lattice in this problem is a highly unstable arrangement and can not exist under
natural conditions. A detailed comparison of 6 different ways of packing equal sized spheres
(including the above which is the easiest to analyze but impossible in practice) is provided in
a paper by Graton and Fraser (1935). The most compact or ‘tightest’ packing arrangement for
equal-sized spheres is ‘rhombohedral’ and the corresponding porosity is 25.95 percent or 26
percent. As particles become irregular, i.e., they deviate from sphericity, or when the media is
heterogeneous, i.e., when all particles are not of the same size, porosity is further reduced and
tends towards zero. This accounts for the differences in permeability and hydraulic conductivity
for different materials and different grain sizes and shapes.

Problem 1.1.4
Compare the surface area to volume ratio for a cube of side w with a sphere of diameter w.

Solution
For a simple cube of side w, the total volume = w3 and surface area = 6w2
Therefore, the surface area (SA)/volume (V) ratio = 6/w
For a simple sphere of diameter w, i.e., r = w/2
Surface area (SA) = 4πr2 and volume = 4/3πr3
 Water Resources 13

Therefore, the surface area (SA)/volume (V) ratio = 6/w

These calculations illustrate the impact of size on the surface area/volume ratio, also known
as specific surface area. As size decreases, the surface area per unit volume increases. There are
several examples in the environment where this principle is applicable. Smaller-sized particles
provide a larger specific surface area for adsorption of contaminants as compared to larger-
sized particles. The small size of bacteria and other microorganisms serves as an advantage
since the large specific surface area allows greater uptake of nutrients from the environment by
absorption.

1.1.2 Design and Construction of Wells

Recent reports show that groundwater is now the main source of water supply in India for irrigation.
A CWC report shows that wells are the water source for 61.6 percent of the net irrigated area in
India (CWC 2015). A recent survey using remote sensing (satellite imagery of 500 m resolution)
showed that 62 percent of the irrigated area was under minor irrigation projects, i.e., groundwater,
reservoirs and tanks and only 38 percent was under surface water irrigation (major projects)
(Thenkabail et al. 2012).3
Wells can be categorized in various ways based on different criteria. Some examples are provided
here.

Pressure head
The pressure head is used to categorize wells as gravity wells or artesian wells. Gravity wells are
defined as wells where the water is under atmospheric pressure and therefore, has to be pumped
out. Wells where the water pressure is higher than atmospheric pressure are known as pressure
wells or artesian wells and are shown schematically in Figure 1.3. Often, the peizometric head is
sufficient for these well waters to be used directly without pumping.

Depth of well
Shallow wells are the most common wells especially in rural India and tap unconfined aquifers.
These are either dug wells or hand pumped wells. Water quality in these wells is highly variable and
ranges from poor to very high quality water. Tubewells or deep wells and borewells are used to tap
confined aquifers. Tubewells can be cost- and energy-intensive in terms of capital and operating
costs but are fairly common in urban and peri-urban communities. Their high outputs with
constant quality over long periods of time are sufficient to offset capital and operating costs.

Type of construction
Dug wells are the oldest types of wells that can be dug manually and are often simply lined with
bricks with open joints. The bottoms of these wells are open and water seeps through the sides
through the open joints. The water levels in these wells represent the local water table.

3 [Link]
14 Water and Wastewater Engineering

Hand-pumped wells can be dug wells which have been covered with a concrete slab or drilled
wells. The most common hand pumps used in India and in other developing countries are the
Mark II and Mark III types which were developed for use in remote rural locations. Mark III
pumps are an improved version of Mark II pumps, which were developed in 1991 with the
sole objective of providing ease in operation and maintenance, i.e., village level operation and
maintenance (VLOM) (Colin 1999). They have open top cylinders with riser pipes of 50 or 65
mm diameter. The riser pipes are made of either galvanized iron (GI) or unplasticized polyvinyl
chloride (uPVC). These hand pumps can tap water up to a depth of 45 m for uPVC and 60 m
with GI providing a discharge of 800 to 900 L/h.4
Driven wells are generally small diameter wells that are easy to construct and often abandoned
when not needed. Driven wells are generally used to dewater construction sites. A sharply
pointed perforated pipe or pipe with well screen is driven into the ground, i.e., hammered into
the ground or lowered by water jet.
Drilled or bored wells: Tubewells are the best and most common examples of drilled or bored
wells. Different types of drilling methods can be used to construct these wells and are summarized
here.5 Augers or drill bits are used to drill into the ground and different types of augers are used
depending on ground conditions, as shown in Figure 1.5. The excavated material is collected
by the auger and raised to the ground surface where it is emptied before being lowered into the
ground again. The helical auger allows excavated material to be lifted to the ground surface due
to the spiral structure of the auger without raising the auger itself. Drilling or boring can be done
manually, mechanically, or using animal power.

Figure 1.5 Earth augers used for constructing wells (FAO 2012).

Drilling methods
Percussion drilling: In this method, the drilled hole is kept full of water and a combination of
mechanical and hydraulic processes are used for excavating the subsurface (FAO 2012). A chisel-
4 [Link]
5 [Link]
 Water Resources 15

edged cutting bit is attached to the bottom of a string of drill pipe. The hollow bit has inlet ports
a small distance above its cutting edge. During drilling, the drill pipe is alternately raised and
dropped. Pressure due to the impact of the cutting bit in the bottom of the hole and the inertia
of the water cause a mixture of water and cuttings to enter the inlet ports of the cutting bit. This
causes the already full drill pipe to overflow. A check valve in the cutting bit prevents the mixture
of water and cuttings from flowing out of the ports when the drill stem is raised. The cuttings
may be settled out from the water in a pool or barrel after the mixture overflows from the drill
pipe and the water can then be recycled. Hydraulic percussion is limited to drilling through
relatively fine materials, since coarse materials will not rise to the surface through the drill pipe.
This method has been used to drill to depths of more than 900 meters (3,000 feet) in alluvial
areas where neither hard formations nor coarse materials were encountered.
The percussion method is versatile and allows all types of materials to be penetrated. However,
in very hard stone, progress is slow. While this method is frequently associated with large,
motorized, truck-mounted equipment, it can be successfully scaled down and used with
manpower or small engines.
Core drilling: This method is used for drilling in rocky, hard formations using a rotating hollow
pipe with a drill bit or cutter. The cut material rises in the hollow pipe as the cutter or bit
advances and is removed periodically (Duggal 2007).
Rotary drilling: There are two types of rotary drilling methods – direct rotary and reverse rotary
recirculation method (Duggal 2007). A drilling fluid (generally mud slurry) is pumped into
a hollow pipe and forced out through apertures in the drill bit bottom. As more material is
loosened, the slurry rises and is pumped out and discharged into a settling basin. This method
is suitable for soft rock and unconsolidated formations up to depths of 150 m.
The reverse rotary recirculation method is a modification of the above where the drilling fluid
is pumped into the outer annulus of the pipe carrying the drilling bit. The slurry of loosened
material is pumped out from the hollow drilling pipe and discharged to a basin for settling.
Large diameter bores of 600 mm can be prepared rapidly using this method.

1.1.3 Darcy’s Law and Pumped Wells

When water is pumped from a well, regardless of whether it is tapping a confined or an unconfined
aquifer, the water level in the well drops to a level below the local water table in an unconfined
aquifer and below the piezometric surface if the well is tapping a confined aquifer. This drop in
water level in the well is defined as the drawdown in the well. As shown in Figure 1.6, if the height
of the water table is h, the height of water in the pumped well will be less than h during pumping,
some value h1. The hydraulic gradient created by pumping a well will define the radius of influence,
R of the well as shown in the following figure. An observation (or monitoring) well or piezometer
located on the perimeter of this circle will show no drawdown while all wells within the radius
of influence will show some drawdown with respect to the piezometric surface as shown in the
sectional elevation view of the well. The drawdown in these wells is inversely proportional to their
16 Water and Wastewater Engineering

distance from the pumped well, i.e., as the distance from the pumped well increases, the drawdown
in the monitoring well decreases. Pumping of a well creates an inverted cone with its axis coincident
to the central axis of the well; this cone is called the cone of depression.
Since water flows into a pumped well radially, Darcy’s law has to be applied for this radial flow
where the well is assumed to be a cylinder with radius rw and therefore, the hydraulic gradient is dh/
dr where h = the height of the piezometric surface at any location within the radius of influence of
the well and r = distance of that location from the center of the pumped well.
Therefore, Q/A = K(dh/dr)
The surface area of a cylinder of any radius r within the radius of influence is 2πrh,
therefore, Q = K*2πrh (dh/dr)
The above differential equation can be integrated for any two points, r1 and r2 corresponding to
pressure heads, h1 and h2 within the radius of influence.

Figure 1.6 Radius of influence of a pumped well in a confined or

unconfined aquifer (see color plate).

This results in the following equation for an unconfined aquifer (Masters and Ela 2008):

p K ( h12 - h22 )
Q =  1.1.3
Ê r1 ˆ
ln Á ˜
Ë r2 ¯
For a confined aquifer, the derivation is similar to the one above except that the entire thickness of
the aquifer (H) is available for pumping water and
  Q/A = K(dh/dr) or Q = K*(2πrH) (dh/dr)
Integrating this differential equation leads to
 Water Resources 17

È ( h - h2 ) ˘
Q = 2p KH Í 1  1.1.4
r ˙
Í ln 1 ˙
ÍÎ r2 ˙˚

Problem 1.1.5
A confined aquifer of 50 m depth is pumped by a fully penetrating well at a steady rate of
4000 m3/d for a long enough time to be at steady-state. Drawdown at an observation well 1 which
is 20 m away from the pumped well is 5 m and drawdown at a second observation well 200 m away
is 0.5 m. Find the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer.

Solution
Q, Flow rate = K*A*(dh/dL) = 4000 m3/d
Hydraulic gradient (dh/dL) = (h2 – h1)/ (L2 – L1)
h1 = elevation of piezometric surface in well 1 which is L1 (20 m) away from pumped well
= (50 – 5) = 45 m
h2 = elevation of piezometric surface in well 2 which is L2 (200 m) away from pumped well
= (50 – 0.5) = 49.5 m
Therefore, hydraulic gradient (dh/dL) = (49.5 – 45)/(200 – 20) = 0.025
Using Equation 1.1.2 for Q results in
Q = 2π*50*K*(49.5 – 45)/[ln(200/20)] = 613.97K
Solving for K, given that Q = 4000m3/d, results in hydraulic conductivity, K = 6.52 m/d

Problem 1.1.6
Calculate discharge from a tubewell tapping a confined aquifer of 25 m thickness. Drawdowns at two
observations wells W1 and W2 at distances of 10 and 100 m from the pumping well are 2.0 m and
0.2 m, respectively. Assume hydraulic conductivity (m/d) of the aquifer is 150 m/d.

Solution
For the two observation wells W1 and W2, corresponding heads h1 and h2 are calculated as:

h = 25 – 2 = 23 m and h2 = 25 – 0.2 = 24.8 m.

H = 25 m, r1 = 10 m and r2 = 100 m

Q = 2πKH(h1 – h2)/ ln(r1/r2) = 18419 m3/d

18 Water and Wastewater Engineering

Problem 1.1.7
Calculate discharge from a tubewell 0.6 m diameter with a drawdown of 3.0 m in an unconfined
water-bearing stratum 15 m thick. Permeability may be taken as 1500 L/d and radius of influence
as 300 m.

Solution
Head at the well, h1 = (15 – 3) = 12 m and head at the boundary of the radius of influence, h
is 15 m. Corresponding radii are r1 = 0.3 m for the pumped well and r = 300 m for the radius
of influence.
Q = πK(h12 – h2)/ln(r1/r) = 55257.24 L/d = 55.26 m3/d

Problem 1.1.8
A shallow open well serves as the only water source for a small village. It is highly contaminated in
terms of turbidity, coliforms, and organic matter. What measures can be suggested to improve this
water source?

Solution
The main reasons for turbidity, coliforms and organic matter in the water are the open structure
of the well, inputs of fecal matter (coliforms and organic matter) from birds and unhygienic
practices in withdrawing and using well water. Organic matter and turbidity are also mainly due
to transport of materials by wind, and leaf fall.
A few measures that can be taken to improve well water quality are:
a. Since the well is open, it first needs to be covered with a concrete slab.
b. A hand pump with a screen at the bottom can be used to extract water from the well.
c. The well water can be filtered through a fine fabric or sand filter.
d. Potassium permanganate tablets should be added to the drawn well water to remove
coliforms and make the water potable.
e. If electricity and a submersible pump are available, the water from the well can be extracted
into a basin and then chlorinated.
f. A small-scale treatment plant can be set up to remove turbidity.
g. Water quality analysis should be conducted regularly to ensure that the water meets
acceptable drinking water standards provided in Appendix A.

1.1.4 Groundwater Pollution

GW pollution is a major concern where it is the main drinking water (DW) source. Pollution
can occur due to infiltration or leaching of pollutants from surface or subsurface structures.
These pollutants may be geogenic, i.e., natural in origin or anthropogenic. Examples of geogenic
 Water Resources 19

pollutants are arsenic [As], fluoride [F], and high total dissolved solids (TDS, measured as
electrical conductivity). Major anthropogenic contaminants include nitrates, pesticides, petroleum
derivatives, and heavy metals.
Pollution sources can be point or non-point sources. Point sources of pollution are small, localized
areas where pollutants are discharged. Pollutant discharges from end-of-pipe, leaks and spills are
examples of point sources. Non-point sources are widespread sources of pollution such as fertilizer
and pesticide applications on fields.
The list of anthropogenic sources of contamination includes leaking underground storage tanks
(LUSTs) that contain oil or petroleum products, inorganic compounds like nitrates which are
formed when fertilizers are applied to agricultural fields, pesticide application, and various industrial
activities.
When pollutants, especially anthropogenic ones, are released into groundwater they can travel with
the groundwater, they can be adsorbed to aquifer solids and retarded in their flow, and/or they may
undergo various physical, chemical and biological reactions.
Some processes that occur in the subsurface and need to be accounted for in understanding
contaminant fate and transport are:
Diffusion which occurs in response to a concentration gradient, and
Dispersion which occurs due to velocity gradients or differences in flow velocities of discretized
volumes of fluid, i.e., deviations from ideal laminar flow conditions.
Hydrodynamic dispersion includes dispersion and diffusion and results in the spreading out of a
plume in all three directions thereby causing the smearing of plume boundaries and mixing of
the contaminant in a greater volume. As flow conditions approach ideal plug flow (PF), effects of
hydrodynamic dispersion are reduced and smearing of the plume boundary is reduced.
Tracer studies are generally conducted to compare the behavior of contaminants with respect to the
behavior of groundwater.
Conservative contaminants or compounds like chloride flow at the same velocity as groundwater. A
conservative compound is one whose chemical identity is not altered by changes in its conditions;
these compounds are generally used as tracers in groundwater studies. Examples of commonly
used tracers include chloride, nitrate, some dyes, or radioactive compounds like deuterium and
tritium. Other contaminants that have a tendency to adsorb to aquifer solids do not travel at the
speed of groundwater. This results in retardation of contaminant velocity relative to groundwater.
Retardation factor, R, can be defined for various contaminants. For chloride, which is a conservative
tracer, R is 1. R is much greater than 1 for contaminants like perchloroethylene (PCE), carbon
tetrachloride (CTET), dichlorobenzene (DCB), hexachloroethene (HCE) (Masters 1998). R is
not constant over time and based on field data appears to increase over time until steady-state (SS)
values are reached (Masters 1998).
An example of the fate and transport of contaminants released from leaking underground storage
tanks (LUSTs) or from pesticides from field applications is shown in Figure 1.7. Underground
storage tanks containing oil, petroleum or other chemical compounds tend to leak due to corrosion
20 Water and Wastewater Engineering

or other structural damages. When the contents of the tank are released into the subsurface, they
may volatilize, they may adsorb to the solids, or flow through the void spaces and enter the aquifer.
These compounds may also be transformed chemically or biologically in the subsurface resulting
in the generation of other compounds that may be more or less toxic than the parent or original
compounds. Volatile compounds are released into the atmosphere where they can affect public health
due to inhalation if they are toxic. The remaining compounds that are released into groundwater
may be ingested along with the water or may remain in adsorbed form in the subsurface.

Figure 1.7 Groundwater contamination from leaking underground

storage tanks (LUST) (see color plate).

Problem 1.1.9
List the possible sources of pollution (anthropogenic) of groundwaters. Classify as point and non-
point sources.

Solution
Some sources of groundwater pollution:
1. Urban runoff (non-point)
2. Underground storage tanks (point)
3. Septic systems (point)
4. Landfills (point or non-point depending on size of landfill)
5. Fertilizer applications (non-point)
6. Industrial facilities (point or non-point depending on size of facility)
7. Agricultural chemicals processing and handling facilities (point or non-point depending
on size of facility)
8. Pipelines and sewers (point, assuming leakage at fixed points)
9. Stormwater drains (non-point if unlined)
 Water Resources 21

Problem 1.1.10
For Problem 1.1.1, oil was detected at well W3. A village depends on water from well W1. Assume
a hydraulic conductivity of 6.51 m/d, and determine the Darcy velocity. Calculate the time it will
take for the oil to show up in the village well. Assume a retardation factor of 2 for oil.

Solution
Darcy velocity v = K*(dh/dL) = 3.52 m/d
For a retardation factor of 2
Contaminant velocity = 1.76 m/d

1.2 Surface water

Any water body that is open to the atmosphere can be termed a surface water resource. These
resources include rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, and ponds. Generally, surface waters originating
in the hills or mountains are of high quality while those in the plains tend to have poorer quality,
mainly due to the greater burden of silt and surface runoff. Treatment is always essential when water
quality is poor or when there are significant variations in water quality. Heavy rains and runoff lead
to high turbidity due to the high silt content leading to significant variations in water quality in
surface water bodies. Surface waters are also prone to contamination from accidental spills or open
discharges of untreated or partially treated municipal and industrial wastewaters.
Lakes and reservoirs often have less variable water quality than rivers and streams. Thermal
stratification occurs in all surface water bodies and is discussed in detail in Chapter 4. It can lead to
dissolved oxygen (DO) depletion in the lower layers resulting in massive fish kills after the ice thaws
in temperate and colder regions. Anoxic or reducing conditions in the lower layers can lead to
solubilization of metals like iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Taste and odor problems may increase
due to anoxic conditions and lead to the release of gases like carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia,
and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Thermal stratification and turnover (or complete mixing) happen
only in lakes in temperate and colder regions. Turnover cannot occur in tropical regions with low
elevations where surface water never freezes or its temperature never falls below 4 °C.
Eutrophication is another major concern for standing water bodies and leads to accelerated
degradation in water quality over time. Algal blooms due to high carbonate concentration, nutrients
and temperature can contribute to higher turbidity, alkalinity, taste and odor, pH and lower DO
levels. These issues are addressed in Chapter 4. Water quality data for some of the major rivers,
lakes and groundwater in India can be obtained from Central Pollution Control Board’s (CPCB)
website: [Link].

Rivers
Major perennial rivers of North India are either snow-fed or glacier-fed rivers, especially those of the
Indo-Gangetic plains, while most major perennial rivers of the South, i.e., the Deccan peninsula,
have their sources in artesian springs located in the hills. Examples of perennial rivers of North
22 Water and Wastewater Engineering

India include the Ganga, Yamuna and Brahmaputra, all of which originate in the Himalayan
region. Tributaries to these rivers include both perennial and non-perennial rivers. Major perennial
rivers of the Deccan peninsula include Narmada, Krishna, Kaveri and Godavari.
Non-perennial rivers: Non-perennial rivers are mostly monsoon-dependent rivers that rely only on
surface runoff from the catchment or watershed region. Generally, water does not last throughout
the year in these rivers. Examples are Sabarmati in Gujarat, Ib – a tributary of the Mahanadi in
Odisha, and many coastal rivers of Southern India.
The largest cities in India like Delhi and Kolkata derive their water supply from perennial rivers like
Yamuna and Hooghly (a distributary of the Ganga), respectively. Mumbai and Chennai use water
from reservoirs created to dam (store) monsoon flows of perennial or non-perennial rivers.
The principal advantage of using a perennial river as a source of water supply is the large quantity
of water available for supply throughout the year. In general, river water quality deteriorates
as the water moves from source to sink. Surface water tends to have higher concentrations of
natural organic matter (dissolved solids) and suspended particles like clay and silt, compared to
groundwater. This results in greater turbidity in surface waters as well. Surface waters are generally
softer than groundwater, i.e., they have lower hardness due to lower concentrations of calcium (Ca)
and magnesium (Mg). Ca and Mg are often found in very high concentrations in groundwaters.

Lakes and Ponds

Lakes and ponds generally have their sources in springs or surface runoff from their watersheds.
Examples include Nakki Lake in Mount Abu, Lake Tamzey in Sikkim and Dal Lake in Kashmir.
These are natural storage basins formed where there is low-lying land surrounded by hilly or
mountainous terrain. Mumbai and New York are examples of mega-cities that depend on upland
lakes for their water supplies. Toronto is another large metropolis that depends entirely on pumping
water out of Lake Ontario for its needs. Water quality in these surface water bodies varies spatially
and temporally.

Impounding Reservoirs
An impounding reservoir can be defined as an artificial lake created by the construction of a dam
across a valley containing a water course (river or stream) (Duggal 2007). The objective is to
impound or store a portion of the stream-flow so that it may be used for water supply over a long
period of time. The reservoir essentially consists of three parts (i) a dam to hold back water, (ii) a
spillway through which excess stream-flow can be discharged, and (iii) a gate chamber containing
valves for regulating the flow of water from the reservoir. Examples of impounding reservoirs in
India include Sardar Sarovar across River Narmada and Krishna Raja Sagara across River Kaveri.

1.2.1 Surface Water Intakes

Intakes are structures constructed in or for a surface water source that are used to withdraw water
from the source. This water is subsequently discharged into an intake conduit, which conveys it
 Water Resources 23

to the water works system. All intakes consist of a conduit, screens with perforations to screen the
influent, and gates and valves for flow regulation.
Many different intake structures are used for withdrawing water depending mainly on the nature of
the water source. Some of the major intake structures that are used for withdrawing surface waters
include:
1. Infiltration galleries or horizontal wells
2. Infiltration wells
3. River intakes
4. Reservoir intakes
5. Canal intakes
Important design considerations for these intake structures are listed in Table 1.4. Previously,
design of intake structures was based on water supply considerations only. However, recent
guidelines for maintaining environmental flows (e-flows)6 now need to be included in the
design of intake structures.

Table 1.4 Design considerations for water intake structures (based on Morris 2015)

Design criteria For water supply For aquatic habitat

Structural strength and Ability to withstand floods and ac- Structure should not lead to bank ero-
stability cidents sion or channel instability
Sediment accumulation Sediment should not accumulate at Coarse materials should be transported
and transport the intake (water quality should be and not inhibit e-flows
maintainable over long-term)
Migration paths Not applicable The intake should not impede migra-
tion of organisms in upstream or
downstream direction, e.g., salmon
Minimum flows Adequate withdrawals should be avail- Minimum in-stream or e-flows should
able during all seasons (water supply be maintained to avoid disruption of
should be reliable) ecosystems
Economic consider- Should be cost-effective Not applicable
ations

[Link] Infiltration Galleries or Horizontal Wells

Infiltration galleries are horizontal wells constructed at shallow depths (6 to 9 m) along river
banks (>15 m away) to collect clean river water after natural filtration through the river bank.7

6 E-flows are minimum flows to be maintained in terms of quantity, quality and timing in a river or stream to
sustain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems and the human livelihoods and well-being that depend on these
ecosystems (Wikipedia 2015).
7 In some cases noted in the literature, the water drawn maybe from the local aquifer adjacent to the river.
24 Water and Wastewater Engineering

Wells are constructed in open cut with masonry walls and roof slabs and have widths of about
1 m, depths about 2 m, and lengths ranging from 10 to 100 m (Duggal 2007). Porous or
perforated lateral drain pipes are used for collecting water as shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8 Infiltration gallery alongside a river.

Similar to the derivation for an unconfined aquifer, discharge from an infiltration gallery can be
derived and results in the following equation (Garg 2001):
Q = K*L*(H2 – h2)/2R 1.2.1
where
Q = pumping rate or flow rate, 50 L/min
K = hydraulic conductivity, m3/min
L = length of infiltration gallery, m
R = radius of influence of pumping well, m
H = depth of water in gallery, m
h = depth of water in pumped well = depth – drawdown, m

[Link] Infiltration Wells

Infiltration wells are shallow wells constructed in series along river banks to collect river water
seeping through the bank soil or river bed (Garg 2001; Duggal 2007). The objective here is to
obtain naturally filtered river water. These wells are constructed in brick masonry with open
joints and are generally covered at the top and open at the bottom. In some cases, the well may
have a porous plug at the bottom. In another modification, radial pipes with strainers are placed
horizontally from the interior of a large jack well (3 – 6 m) and used to obtain naturally filtered
river water from mid-stream (Duggal 2007).
Kharagpur city’s water supply is provided for by infiltration wells tapping River Kangsabati. Major
considerations in the design of these wells are to ensure the following: