Signal

Basic Representation
operation on signals
• Example: (time shift of DTS) X[n]

1 1
𝟏 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐
X[n] = ቐ −𝟏 𝒏 = −𝟏, −𝟐 -3 -2 -1
n
𝟎 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏 > 𝟐 0 1 2 3

-1 -1

y[n] = x[n + 3] ( shift to the left by 3 samples)

𝟎 𝟎>𝒕 X[n + 3]

y[n] = ቐ 𝟐 𝟎≤𝒕≤𝟐 1 1
𝟎 𝒕>𝟐
-6 -5 -4
n

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2

-1 -1

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 23

 Signal
Basic Representation
operation on signals
• Example: (time scaling of DTS)
Let x[n] denote a DTS, and signal y[n] is obtained by scaling the
independent variable (n) , by factor of a = 2
X[n] = {0, -1, -1, 0, 1, 1, 0, -1, 1, 0, 1, 0} X[n ]

1 1

-6 -5 -4 -3 1 3 5
n
-2 -1 0 2 4

-1 -1

y[n] = x[2n] = ?

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 Classification of Signals

There are several classes of signals:

• Continuous-time & Discrete-time signals.

• Analog & Digital signals.

• Even & Odd signals

• Periodic & Aperiodic signals.

• Deterministic & Stochastic (probabilistic) signals.

• Energy & Power signals.

12-Oct-22 1 - 25
Signals and systems
 Continuous and Discrete Time Signals

The classification is determined by ( t – axis)

• Continuous Time Signal (CTS):
specified every value of time (t)
• Discrete Time Signal (DTS):
specified at discrete time intervals
[the signal whether or not discrete (countable) or continuous]
x(t)
x(n)

t
t-3 t-2 t-1 0 t1 t2 t3
-1 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
n

CTS DTS
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 Analog and digital signals
• Analog signals
If a CT signal x(t) can take on any value in the continuous interval (a,b),
then x(t) is called analog signal
• Digital signals
If a DT signal x[n] can take on a finite no. of distinct value,
then x[n] is called a digital signal

• Analog signal corresponds to a continuous y-axis, while digital

signal corresponds to a discrete y-axis.

Discrete time  Digital

DT: are continuous in value , but discrete in time
Digital signal: discrete in value.
(only take on specific values)

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 Signal Types

Analog continuous-time Analog discrete-time signal

signal (sampled signal)

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 Signal Types

Digital (continuous-time) signal Digital (continuous-time) signal

(Multi-level digital signal) (Binary digital signal)
(Quantized signal)

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 Even & Odd signals
• Even signals:
Remain identical under folding operation
for CTS: x(t) Time reversal x(-t) = x(t)
for DTS: x[n] Time intervals (n) reversal x[-n] = x[n]
Examples:
x(t) x[n]

t
-2 2 n
-1 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Odd signals:
x(t)

Doesn’t remain identical under folding operation

2
for CTS: x(t) T. reversal x(-t) = - x(t) -2
t

for DTS: x[n] n. reversal x[-n] = - x[n] 2

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 30

 Even & Odd signals

General signal x(t) = xe(t) + xo(t)

𝒙 𝒕 +𝒙(−𝒕)
The even component of x(t) is given by 𝒙𝒆 𝒕 =
𝟐
𝒙 𝒕 −𝒙(−𝒕)
and the odd component is 𝒙𝒐 𝒕 =
𝟐
Example: x(t)

1
Find even and odd components of signal x(t)
t
-1 1

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 Even & Odd signals
• Properties of E &O signals
1- DC value is even signal (E)
2- DC value (E) + E. signal  E. signal
x(t) = 10 + t2
3- E. signal + O. signal  neither E nor O (NENO)
x(t) = 10 + t3
4- E. signal  E. signal  E. signal
x(t) = t2  t4 = t6
5- O. signal  O. signal  E, signal
x(t) = t3  t5 = t8
6- O. signal  E. signal  O. signal
x(t) = t3  t6
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 Even & Odd signals

Example:
Find the even and odd components of the following signal
x(t) = cos (t) + sin (t) + cos (t) . sin (t)

The original signal x(t)

x(t) = cos (t) + sin (t) + cos (t) . sin (t)
and x(-t) = cos (-t) + sin (-t) + cos (-t) . Sin (-t)
= cos (t) – sin (t) – cos (t) . Sin (t)
xo(t) = ½(x(t) – x(-t)
= sin (t) + cos (t) . Sin (t)
xe(t) = ½ (x(t) + x(-t)
= cos (t)

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 Periodic and Aperiodic signals
• A signal is periodic if it is repeats itself after a regular interval of time To

For CT signal: g(t) = g(t  nTo) , for all t

` n = integer
To = known as fundamental period of g(t)
fo = ( fundamental frequency) = 1/To
• For DT signal: x[n] = x[n  k N] , for all n
N = signal period (integer)
fo = ( fundamental frequency) = 1/N
• A signal that is not periodic is referred as an Aperiodic signal

(a) Aperiodic signal (b) periodic signal with period 2

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 Sums of Periodic signals

The sum of periodic signals is periodic

• The period of the sum

of periodic signals is
the least common
multiple of the periods
of the individual
signals summed.

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 Periodic and Aperiodic signals
Example:
Calculate fundamental time period and fundamental frequency of the
following signals
(a) x(t) = Sin2 (4t)
x(t) = Sin2 (4t) = ½ [1 – cos 8t) = ½ – cos 8t
½ is d.c. and periodic with To undefined
cos 8t is periodic and o = 8 and To = 2 / o = ¼ sec
x(t) is periodic with period To = ¼ and fundamental frequency fo = 4 Hz

(b) x(t) = Sin (6t) + cos (5t)

x1(t) x2(t)
x1(t) is periodic with period T1 = 1/3
x2 (t) is periodic with period T2 = 2/5
To = LCM (1/3 , 2/5)
𝑳𝑪𝑴(𝟏 ,𝟐) 𝟐
𝑻𝒐 = = = 𝟐 sec and fo = ½ = 0.5 Hz
𝑴𝑪𝑭(𝟑 ,𝟓) 𝟏
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 Deterministic and random signals
Deterministic signal:
A signal can be represented mathematically or graphically as a
function of time.

Examples:

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 Deterministic and random signals
Random signal:
A signal that don’t have a well determined value at every instant
of time.
It can be specified only in terms of probability distribution.
Examples: Voice, video signals

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 Signal Energy & Power
It is often useful to characterize signals by measures such as
Energy and power.
 For Example: The instantaneous power of a resistor R is

• and the total energy expanded over the interval [t1 , t2] is

A- Signal Energy
• Total energy of a continuous signal g(t) over an infinite time interval
[ ,] is
(for continuous signal)

• For a discrete-time signal x[n] over [ ,] is

(for discrete signal)

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 Signal Energy & Power
B- Signal Powere
By dividing the energy quantity by interval (t2 – t1) and (n2 –n1) give the
average power Pav or Pg

(where T is the signal period)

• For periodic signal

Mean square value
Or
Time average of g(t)2

• For discrete signal x[n]

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 Energy and Power signals

Energy signal &power signal

• If the energy of the signal is finite

0 < Eg <  (i.e. limited area under g2(t))

We call it an
Energy signal & Pg = 0

• If the energy is infinite Eg =  ,

but the mean power is finite,
We call g(t) a
power signal & Pg ≠ 0

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 41

 Signal Energy & Power
Problems
 Determine whether the following signals are Energy or Power signals.
x[n] = A ( A is constant )
∞

𝑬 = ෍ 𝑨𝟐 =
𝒏=−∞

…….. E=∞
𝑵
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ෍ 𝑨𝟐 =
𝑵→∞ 𝟐𝑵 + 𝟏
𝒏=−𝑵

………. P = A2 X[n] = A is a power signal

 Determine whether the following signals are Energy or Power signals.
𝟎 𝟎>𝒏
y[n] = ቐ
𝒏 𝒏≥𝟎

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 42

 Signal Energy & Power
Properties of Energy signal

 Total energy E = Total Area under

x(t)2 graph
 If x(t) = x1(t)  x2(t)
Ex = Ex1 + Ex2
 No effect of T-reverse or T-shift on total energy E
 Effect of scaling:
If x(t) has energy E
- Time scaling: x(at) has energy E / a , a0
- Amplitude scaling: k. x(t) has energy k2 . E , k0

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 43

 Signal Energy & Power
Properties of Power signal

 Periodic signals are power signals but vice-versa is not true.

 RMS value = 𝑷𝒂𝒗

 If x(t) = x1(t)  x2(t)
Px = Px1 + +Px2
 No effect of T-reverse on average power Pav
 No effect of T- shift on average power Pav
 No effect of T- scaling on average power Pav

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 Signal Energy & Power
Solved problems
 Calculate the total energy of the signal y(t) = 2 j . x(2t - 1), let E of x(t) = 4
X(t) E=4 ………………. y(t) = 2 j . X(2t - 1) E=?
x(t) 4
X( t - 1 ) 4 (T-shift has no effect on E )
X( 2t - 1 ) 4 /2 = 2 ( effect of T-scaling on E )
Y(t) = 2 j x( 2t - 1 ) ( 2j )2  2 = 22  4 = 16

 Calculate the average power of the signal y(t) = 4 j . x(2t + 4), let Pav of x(t) = 4
X(t) P=4 ………………. y(t) = 4 j . X(2t + 4) E=?
x(t) 4
X( t + 4 ) 4 (T-shift has no effect on P )
X( 2t + 4 ) 4 (T-scaling has no effect on P )
Y(t) = 4 j x( 2t + 4 ) ( 4j )2  4 = 42  4 = 64

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 Definitions of several useful signals

Exponential Signals
The exponential signal is given by
x(t) = A e  t
where A and  are generally complex numbers.
Special cases of exponential signals

a- If A and  are real: (Real exponential) – (three cases)

(1)  > 0, x(t) increases exponentially with t (+ve Exp.)

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 46

 Definitions of several useful signals
(2)  < 0, x(t) decreases exponentially with t (-ve Exp.)

(3)  = 0, x(t) is a constant (dc) signal

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 Definitions of several useful signals
b- If  is purely imaginary: (Complex exp. or sinusoidal)

(1)  = jo and A is real then,

(complex exp)
= A cos o t + j A sin ot
Note that  x(t) =1
(2)  = jo and A = A e j then,

• The real sinusoid

x(t) = A cos (o t + )
is shown as:
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 Definitions of several useful signals
C - If both A and  are complex: ( damped sinusoid)

If  = r + jo and A = A e j then,

• Where ert is the damping factor.

• The real valued signals

Re A e j = A e rt cos (o t + )

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 Definitions of several useful signals
For r > 0 and r < 0 are shown in figure.

(a) Growing sinusoid (r >0)

(b) Damped sinusoid (r <0)

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 Definitions of several useful signals
Unit-Step Function

The continuous-time unit step function u(t) is defined by:

Note that; u(t) is discontinuous at t = 0.

For example:
The rectangular pulse can be expressed as:
P(t) = u(t) – u(t – T)

Problems: sketch u(t - to), u(-t), u(2 - t), 2u(t)

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 51
 Definitions of several useful signals
Unit Impulse Function

The unit-impulse (Dirac delta) function is defined as follows:

• The impulse is not a true function in the usual sense because

its value at the time of its occurrence is not defined.

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 Definitions of several useful signals

• It is represented graphically by a vertical arrow. Its strength

is written beside it.

• 9 (t - 1) can be depicted

graphically as a spike located
At t = 1 with height equal to
its integral or area (9)

• Unit periodic Impulse (impulse train)

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 53

 Definitions of several useful signals
Unit-Impulse Properties:
(1) Multiplication of a function by a unit impulse
Since (t) exist only at t= 0
x(t) (t) = x(0) (t)
Similarly:

(an impulse located at t = to)

(2) Sampling property

The area under the product = the value of that signal at the instant where
the unit impulse is located.
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 Definitions of several useful signals
Relationship between u(t) and  (t):
(t) is the first derivative of u(t) and u(t) can be expressed as the
running integral

and

The unit step expressed as the running integral of the unit impulse.
• Example:
• Given signal x(t), find its expression
and its derivative
x(t) = 2u(t +3) +3u(t - 2) - 4u(t - 6)

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 Definitions of several useful signals
Discrete-Time u(t) and  (t)
• Unit Step function (DT)

• Unit Impulse function (DT)

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 Definitions of several useful signals
Relationship between u(t) and  (t) (Discrete Time)
 [n] = u[n] – u[n – 1]

u[n]

u[n – 1]

u[n] – u[n – 1]

• The unit impulse sequence as the first backward difference of the unit step
sequence.
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 Definitions of several useful signals
Relationship between u(t) and  (t) (Discrete Time)

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 Definitions of several useful signals
Ramp Function
The continuous-time unit ramp function shown in figure is defined by:

For CTS:

𝟎 𝟎>𝒏 4
For DTS: y[n] = ቐ X[n]
3
𝒏 𝒏 𝟎
2
• Relationship between r(t ) and u(t ): 1
-2 -1
n

0 1 2 3 4
….
and

u[n[ = r[n] – r[n – 1] and

r[n] = σ∞
𝒌=𝟎 𝒖[𝒏 − 𝒌]

1 - 59
12-Oct-22 Signals and systems
 Definitions of several useful signals

• Example:
The signal x(t) and its derivative

Problems:
a) u(t - 1) d) r(t - 1)
b) –u(t + 4) e) - 4r(t + 2)
c) u(3 - t) f) r(3 - t)

12-Oct-22 Signals and systems 1 - 60

 Definitions of several useful signals
• Symmetrical rectangular pulse (Gate pulse)
g(t) = A rect (t/) =A  (t/)
A = pulse amplitude A

 = pulse width
• Delayed rectangular pulse
g(t) = A rect (t – to) /
• Rectangular pulse train

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