Animal Nervous System neurons) leaves the CNS to send signal to
effector cells (e.g., muscle or endocrine
● The nervous system is the part of an
cells). These effector cells then perform a
animal's body that coordinates its
response to the stimulus
behavior and transmits signals between
Neuron
different body areas.
- basic unit of the nervous system
● In vertebrates it consists of two main
- is composed of a nucleus from the cell
parts, called the Central Nervous
body and two types of extensions:
System (CNS) and the Peripheral
dendrites and axon.
Nervous System (PNS). The CNS
● Dendrites in a single neuron are often
contains the brain and spinal cord.
numerous in number and are highly
● In zoology, cephalization is the
branched to receive signals from other
evolutionary trend toward concentrating
neurons.
nervous tissue, the mouth, and sense
● Axon often occurs singly to transmit
organs toward the front end of an animal.
signals to neurons and/or effector cells.
Fully cephalized organisms have a head
An axon hillock connects the axon to
and brain, while less cephalized animals
the cell body where signals are
display one or more regions of nervous
generated. An axon is divided into several
tissue.
branches and ends in a synaptic terminal
Cephalization
where a small gap called synapse is
- is associated with bilateral symmetry and
present.
movement with the head facing forward.
● This is also the site of communication
● In more complex invertebrates (e.g.,
between neurons. Axons are covered
annelids and arthropods), CNS is
with myelin sheath. Information is
composed of the brain and ventral
passed from the pre-synaptic cell to the
nerve cords with clusters of neurons
post-synaptic cell using chemical
called ganglia. All other nerves on the
messengers called neurotransmitters.
rest of the animal's body are called as the
● Glial cells — astrocytes and
peripheral nervous system (PNS).
oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and
● There are three stages in the
Schwann cells (in the PNS)-are also
interpretation of signals that reach the
present to maintain the structural
brain: sensory input, integration, and
integrity of the nervous system.
motor output.
● The oligodendrocyte and Schwann
Sensory Neurons
cells found in the myelin sheath provide
- are responsible for receiving the external
electrical insulation of the axon and
stimuli (e.g., light, heat, sound) and
initiate a faster transduction of signal.
internal conditions (e.g., blood pressure,
● All cells maintain a membrane potential
muscle tension).
across its plasma membrane. In neurons,
Interneurons
-60 to -80mV (millivolts) is the resting
- integrate the sensory signal in the CNS
membrane potential (RMP), which is the
then the motor output (using motor
electric potential difference (voltage) ● The neurotransmitter travels across
when the cell is not transmitting signal. the gap between the pre- and
● This RMP is influenced by the ionic post-synaptic terminals called synaptic
gradient from Na* and K* concentrations cleft. The neurotransmitter may directly
(often applies in mammals). or indirectly influence the response on the
● Sodium (Na*) concentration of 150 post terminal.
millimolar (mM) and a K* of 5 mM are the ● Glial cells may also actively use the
normal concentration in the extracellular neurotransmitter as a fuel source.
membrane of mammals and Nat = 15 Acetylcholine, a common
mM. and K+ = 150 mM in the cytosol. neurotransmitter, can have an inhibitory
● The sodium-potassium (Na-K) pump or excitatory effect depending on the cell
maintains these gradients across the cell (e.g., inhibitory to cardiac muscle cell
membrane. contraction).
● The Na-K pumps are usually ungated Vertebrate Nervous System
channels for easy diffusion of the ions in
All vertebrate brains contain three regions: the
channels.
hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.
● However, neurons use gated-ion channels
1. Hindbrain - junction of the brain and spinal
that can vary depending on the stimuli
cord; it coordinates autonomic processes and
(stretch-gated: opens when
motor responses. The cerebellum, which is an
mechanically deformed; ligand-gated:
extension of the hindbrain, assists in regulating
opens upon binding of specific molecules;
motor responses.
and voltage-gated: opens in response
2. Midbrain - responsible for the visual
to RMP).
processing and some motor control.
● In the myelinated neurons of vertebrates,
3. Forebrain - located near the anterior end;
a mechanism known as saltatory
can be divided into two distinct regions: (1)
conduction occurs.
the diencephalon, which contains the
● Gaps in between the myeline sheath
thalamus and hypothalamus; and (2) the
called nodes of Ranvier depolarize to
telencephalon for directing an appropriate
activate the voltage-gated Na* and K*
response to all sensory information.
channels. Since only the unmyelinated
Spinal cord
region or nodes are depolarized, impulse
- is analogous to the nerve cord, is covered
jumps and moves faster across this type
with a column of vertebrae.
of neuron.
- this does not apply to primitive such as
● In the synaptic terminal, the opening
lampreys and hagfishes.
of voltage-gated calcium channels in the
- Spinal nerves innervate the spinal cord
membrane when an action potential is
for the transmission of signals to and
reached, causing the diffusion and rise of
away from the body and the transmission
calcium ions in the terminal.
of signals directly to the brain is
● The synaptic vesicles then fuse with
performed by the cranial nerves.
the terminal membrane to release the
neurotransmitter by exocytosis.
Vertebrates Brain Differences TASTE
The largest region in primitive vertebrates In reptiles, birds, and mammals, taste
(except for hagfish and lamprey) is the receptors are mainly located on the upper
hindbrain with a relatively developed surface of the tongue. An animal's tongue
cerebellum. usually contains ridges and valleys called
Visual Information papillae. It can be one of the following types:
- is processed by a small midbrain just (1) filiform: cone-shaped and distributed on
above the hindbrain and a small forebrain the whole surface of the tongue.
for olfaction (sense of smell). (2) fungiform: mushroom-shaped found at the
In amphibians, hindbrains are larger but the tip and sides of the tongue;
cerebellum is smaller compared to fishes. The (3) foliate: folds along the sides of the tongue;
forebrain functions similarly in fishes. The size of (4) circumvallate papillae: flat mounds
the cerebellum in reptiles and birds is larger surrounded by a trench.
compared to amphibians. Birds require complex ● Transduction occurs when a taste
regulation of muscle activity and coordination stimulus causes a change in the flow of
needed for flying. ions on taste cells.
Electrical signals generated in the taste cells
Sensory Mechanisms
are then transmitted in three pathways based on
Animals have adapted a wide range of stimuli
the location in the tongue and the system.
that include touch, pressure, pain,
○ These signals are transmitted by
temperature, chemicals, light, sound,
the chorda tympani nerve (front
movement, and position of the body by
and sides), glosso-pharyngeal
producing nerve impulse that is received by the
nerve (back), and vagus nerve
brain as discussed in the previous section.
(from mouth and the larynx).
The senses are often divided into two:
○ This signal is received by the
1.The general senses (e.g., touch, pressure,
thalamus and passed on to the two
pain, and temperature) that are distributed in
regions of the frontal lobe.
the skin, muscles, and joints
SMELL
2.The special senses (e.g. senses of smell,
● This sense organ is the most useful in
taste, sight, hearing, and balance) incorporated
animals as this allows locating food,
in organs with complex structures.
marking a territory, identifying offspring,
The organs responsible for recognizing taste
and attracting a potential mate.
and smell were only separated when animals
● The olfactory organ consists of
moved to land. In bodies of water, all chemicals
modified nerve cells with microscopic
are dissolved; therefore, separation of these
hairs on the surface (cilia) distributed
senses is necessary.
from the epithelium on the roof of the
The evolution of senses is based on the
nose cavity up to the mucus lining.
habitat where the organisms are found. For
● Signal from the stimulus travels along the
example, catfish have chemoreceptors that run
olfactory nerve to the brain to interpret
all over their body, whereas flies have receptors
the odor. Humans have a more
present on their feet to easily identify the source
rudimentary sense of smell compared to
of food upon landing.
other animals. Hunting carnivores possess nose than other humans but they are
a highly developed sensitivity to various better at identifying smells from memory
odors. For example, bloodhounds can ● Not entirely related to the sense of smell
distinguish between the trails of different are odorless molecules called
people. pheromones.
● Ectothermic animals such as snakes ● It plays a crucial role in the behavior of
and lizards detect smell using many animals. For example,
Jacobson's organ, which is found on spontaneous abortion is done by a
the roof of the mouth with pits that pregnant mouse if the "smell" of a
contain sensory cells. non-parent male mouse is present.
● The Olfactory mucosa, a dime-sized Although scientists were skeptical about
region containing olfactory receptor its possible effects on humans before,
neurons inside the nasal cavity, is the site pheromones can also have an effect on
of olfactory transduction. human attraction to potential mates. It
● Olfactory receptor neurons have cilia, can also play a role in synchronizing
which contain the olfactory receptor menstrual cycle and affecting moods.
proteins. When a smell stimulus reaches ● This olfactory sense is comprised of a
the olfactory mucosa, it binds with the vomeronasal organ and projections
receptor proteins on the cilia. The similar to other animals. Other sensory
receptor protein changes shape that mechanisms involve the sense of sight,
triggers the flow of ions across the hearing, pain, temperature, and
membrane, thereby producing an electric awareness of limb position.
response in the cilia. These electrical
responses spread out to other receptor
cells and travel along the olfactory nerve
until it reaches the olfactory bulb of the
brain.
● A total of 10 million receptor neurons
are present in the olfactory system with
1,000 similar receptor proteins in
each neuron.
● Signals received by similar receptor
neurons go to the glomeruli (collections
of cells within the olfactory bulb).
● The olfactory bulb contains mitral
cells and tufted cells that carry signals
to the olfactory cortex and then to the
orbitofrontal cortex. Humans who are
trained to recognize odors (e.g., wine
experts or perfume experts) are not
necessarily any more sensitive with their
