COMPARATIVE POLICE SYSTEM

Combination of parts in a whole; orderly arrangement according to some common law;

collection of rules and principles in science or art; method of transacting business (Webster)

COMPARATIVE POLICE SYSTEM

It is the process of outlining the similarities and differences of one police system to
another in order to discover insights in the field of international policing.

6.1 EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION TO POLICE

1. The facilitation of transnational crimes and criminal can be easily achieved.
2. There is a need for transnational policing. The cooperation among police organization in the world is
vital
3. Training instructions for incoming law enforcement officer must include computers to prepare them
as cyber cops so they can be better prepared to deal with cyber crimes.
4. Development of new strategies to deal with international organized crime is a must.
5. Provision of law enforcement with updated legislations related to modernization theory of crime
.
THE NEED FOR INNOVATIVE POLICING
Theories and practices in law enforcement have been compared in several studies under
various circumstances, the goal is to test whether the theory and practice in policing needs
modernization to meet the demands of the present trends in crime fighting. Comparative research is usually
carried out by the “safari “method (a researcher visits another country) or “collaborative
” method (the researcher communicates with a foreign researcher).

GLOBALIZATION
Is the system of interaction among the countries of the world in order to
develop the global e c o n o m y .
Globalization refers to the integration of economics and societies
a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d . Globalization involve technological, economic, political, and cultural
exchanges made possible largely by advances in communication, transportation, and infrastructure.

6.1.1 EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION

If you visit several countries, you can easily feel the effect globalization has on our daily
lives. The following are some of the most significant effects of globalization.

Industry
The world has become a huge market where you can buy and sell things produced in
any part of the world. There are a lot of international brands operating worldwide. These include

Culture
Globalization means a decrease in the cultural diversity that used to exist in the world
earlier. You can find people in several countries dressing up like Westerners. Food is another
good example. Young people especially are eating more of American or Chinese foods then their own cultural
dishes. The way people speak is also changing. For example teenagers in the Middle East are much influenced
by the way the black Americans speak. They think its “cool”.

Legislation
There has been an increase in the establishment of International courts of justice where
someone accused could be dealt with in any part of the world. Interpol is another example of International law
enforcement agency.

Language
With increased globalization, people tend to forget their mother tongue and
use English instead as there is an idea that it makes them superior in some way. This might
also help them in job searches etc.
Information
With the wide use of Internet and other kinds of information technology, it
has become much easier and faster to share information worldwide. Live TV channels are
another good example of quick information sharing.

Finance
Globalization has made it easier to raise finance through individuals and firms outside
the country. The International Monetary Fund is a good example of an International Institute
which lends money to countries in need for finance.

Politics
Powerful countries and individuals nowadays have political control over the whole world,
not only their country. The United States is an example of a country that influences the whole of
the world politics. It is believed that globalization is a positive development generating more trade and hence
welfare of the whole world. Nevertheless it also has some significant disadvantages which should not be
forgotten.

The Effects of Globalization on Human Rights

Human rights and globalization are profoundly, though not always positively, linked. When countries
export labor or increase international co-operation, human rights are sometimes trampled.
Subsequently, many of the effects of human rights on globalization are reactions to the exploitation of people.
Would globalization enhance the implementation of human rights as stated in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, particularly the covenant on civil and political rights
and the covenant uneconomic, social and cultural rights? Attempting an answer to this question is not
an easy task, mainly because of the different and contradictory connotations of the term globalization. If
globalization is conceived as turning the whole world into one global village in which all peoples
are increasingly interconnected and all the fences or barriers are removed, so that the world
witnesses anew state of fast and free flow of people , capital , goods and ideas then the world
would be witnessing unprecedented enjoyment of human rights everywhere because globalization is bringing
prosperity to althea corners of the globe together with the spread of the highly cherished values of
democracy , freedom and justice .On the other hand if globalization is conceived as turning the
world into a global market for godsend services dominated and steered by the powerful gigantic
transnational corporations and governed by the rule of profit then all the human rights of the people in
the world, particularly in the south would be seriously
threatened.L i t e r a t u r e o n g l o b a l i z a t i o n , i n g e n e r a l , b y b o t h t h e s o c a l l e d a d v o
c a t e s a n d o p p o n e n t s o f globalization is abundant. However the critics of globalization lay
much more emphasis on its impact on human rights, particularly of the poor people and
of the developing countries. Their analysis and conclusions are usually supported by
facts and figures drawn from international reports and statistics to prove that human rights have been
adversely affected by globalization. T h e y u s u a l l y r e l a t e
one or the other aspect of human rights to one or the other aspect
o f globalization, such as relating poverty in developing countries to debt or relating
unemployment to privatization, or relating health deterioration to the monopoly of medicine patents, or they
enumerate the aspects of deteriorations in human rights, such as impoverishment and
lowering standards of living, increasing inequality discrimination , deprivation of satisfaction
of basic needs such as food clean
watera n d h o u s i n g , i l l i t e r a c y , e t c a n d e x p l a i n t h e s e f a c t s b y g l o b a l i z a t i o n i
n g e n e r a l t h r o u g h m a k i n g comparisons between the state before globalization ( usually
before the 1990s ) and after it , such as stating that “ progress in reducing infant
mortality was considerably slower during the period of globalization (1990-1998) than over
the previous two decades. The advocates of globalization do not deny the fact that in some regions basic human
rights are not respected during the past decade but they explain this by the resistance of some countries and
peoples to globalization and they claim that globalization must have winners and losers.
 6.2 TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES
6.2.1 TERRORISM
Origin of term:"Terrorism" comes from the French word terrorism, and originally referred
specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the Reign of terror.
The French word terrorism in turn derives from the Latin verb terreō meaning “I frighten”
The terror cimbricus was a panic and state of emergency in Rome in response to the approach
of warriors of the Cimbritribe in 105 BC. The Jacobins cited this precedent when imposing
a Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. After the Jacbins lost power, the word "terrorist"
became a term of abuse. Although "terrorism" originally referred to acts committed by a
government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people by a non-government
group in such a way as to create a media spectacle. This meaning can be traced back
to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a "terrorist".Nechayev founded the Russian
terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869.
In November 2004, a United Nations Secretary General report described terrorism as
any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the
purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization
to do or abstain from doing any act".
The definition of terrorism has proved controversial. Various legal systems and
government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover,
the international community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding
definition of this crime. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term "terrorism" is politically
and emotionally charged. In this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian Parliament,
stated that "The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted
comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts
to define the term floundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members
about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-
determination."
By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms
of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is:

1. ineluctably political in aims and motives

2. violent – or, equally important, threatens violence
3. designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim
or target
4. conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell
structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) and
5. Perpetrated by a sub national group or non-state entity.
A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C. Marshall Center for
European Security Studies, underlines the psychological and tactical aspects of terrorism:
Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to
induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and
destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send
a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit
the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in
order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals
and/or desired long-term end states."
Walter Laqueur, of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, noted that "the
only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence
and the threat of violence". This criterion alone does not produce, however, a useful definition,
since it includes many violent acts not usually considered terrorism: war, riot, organized crime,
or even a simple assault Property destruction that does not endanger life is not usually
considered a violent crime,[ but some have described property destruction by the Earth
Liberation Front and Animal Liberation Front as violence and terrorism; see eco-terrorism.
 Terrorist attacks are usually carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and
length of the psychological impact. Each of terrorism is a “performance” devised to have an
impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols. to show power and to
attempt to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may
negatively affect a government, while increasing the prestige of the given terrorist
organization and/or ideology behind a terrorist act.
Terrorist acts frequently have a political purpose Terrorism is a political tactic, like letter-
writing or protesting, which is used by activists when they believe that no other means will affect
the kind of change they desire. The change is desired so badly that failure to achieve change is
seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians. This is often where the inter-relationship
between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework
of a religious or "cosmic" struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy
site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated
with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths
of innocent civilians.
Types of Terrorism:
In early 1975, the Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the
National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes
that the committee wrote was entitled Disorders and Terrorism, produced by the Task Force on
Disorders and Terrorism under the direction of H.H.A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.
[72]
The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.
1. Civil disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security,
and normal functioning of the community.
2. Political terrorism – Violent criminal behavior designed primarily to generate fear in
the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
3. Non-Political terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which
exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear
for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the
achievement of a political objective.”
4. Quasi-terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission
of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but
which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the
quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine
terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine
terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction. For example, the
fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to
those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
5. Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by
a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which
are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a
concerted campaign to capture control of the state.
6. Official or state terrorism –"referring to nations whose rule is based
upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may
also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried
out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign
policy.
Several sources have further defined the typology of terrorism:

1. Political terrorism

a) Sub-state terrorism

1. Social revolutionary terrorism

2. Nationalist-separatist terrorism
3. Religious extremist terrorism
4. Religious fundamentalist Terrorism
 5. New religions terrorism
6. Right-wing terrorism
7. Left-wing terrorism
8. Single-issue terrorism
9. State-sponsored terrorism
10. Regime or state terrorism

2. Criminal terrorism
3. Pathological terrorism

Motivation of Terrorists
Attacks on 'collaborators' are used to intimidate people from cooperating with the state in
order to undermine state control. This strategy was used in the USA in its War of
Independence and in Ireland, in Kenya, in Algeria and in Cyprus during their independence
struggles.
Attacks on high profile symbolic targets are used to incite counter-terrorism by the state to
polarize the population. This strategy was used by Al Qaeda in its attacks on the USA in
September 2001. These attacks are also used to draw international attention to struggles which
are otherwise unreported such as the Palestinian airplane hijackings in 1970 and the South
Moluccan hostage crises in the Netherlands in 1975.
Abraham suggests that terrorist organizations do not select terrorism for its political
effectiveness Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with
other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are
often murky and undefined
Democracy and Domestic Terrorism
The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is very complex. Terrorism
is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom, and is least common in the most
democratic nations. However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to
this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every
modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy–a state with a considerable degree of
political freedom. [The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 1980s
and 1990s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.
Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include ETA in Spain under Francisco
Franco (although the group's terrorist activities increased sharply after Franco's
death) the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori the Kurdistan Workers
Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa Democracies,
such as the United Kingdom, United States, Israel, Indonesia, India, Spain and the Philippines,
have also experienced domestic terrorism.
While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground
than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a dilemma: whether to
maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the
problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of
supporting civil liberties. For this reason, homegrown terrorism has started to be seen as a
greater threat, as stated by former CIA Director Michael Hayden. [91] This dilemma, some social
theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s);
namely, to delegitimize the state
Religious Terrorism
Is terrorism performed by groups or individuals, the motivation of which is typically
rooted in faith-based tenet? Terrorist acts throughout the centuries have been performed on
religious grounds with the hope to either spread or enforce a system of belief, viewpoint or
opinion.[94]Religious terrorism does not in itself necessarily define a specific religious standpoint
of view, but instead usually defines an individual or a group view or interpretation of that belief
system's teachings.
Perpetrators
The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups, or states. According to
some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts
outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it
is carried out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve a particular cause and
many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as the September 11 attacks,
the London underground bombing, and the 2002 Bali bombing were planned and carried out by
a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks.
These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient telecommunications to
succeed where others had failed.
Terrorist Groups
1. State sponsors
A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist organization. Opinions
as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism vary widely. When
states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge
them as such.
Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated
hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always
invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those
lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with
shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims.
—Derrick Jensen
As with "terrorism" the concept of "state terrorism" is controversial. The Chairman of the
United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the Committee was conscious of
12 international Conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to State terrorism, which
was not an international legal concept. If States abused their power, they should be judged
against international conventions dealing with war crimes, international human
rights and international humanitarian law. Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi
Annan has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The use of
force by states is already thoroughly regulated under international law However, he also made
clear that, "regardless of the differences between governments on the question of definition of
terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent
civilians, regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."
2. Funding
State sponsors have constituted a major form of funding; for example, Palestine
Liberation Organization, Palestine and some other terrorist groups were funded by the Soviet
Union. The Stern Gang received funding from Italian Fascist officers in Beirut to undermine
the British Mandate for Palestine Pakistan has created and nurtured terrorist groups as policy
for achieving tactical objectives against its neighbors, especially India"Revolutionary tax" is
another major form of funding, and essentially a euphemism for "money”. Revolutionary taxes
are typically extorted from businesses, and they also "play a secondary role as one other means
of intimidating the target population".
Other major sources of funding include kidnapping for
ransoms, smuggling, fraud and robberyThe Financial Action Task Force is an inter-
governmental body whose mandate, since October 2001, has included combating terrorist
financing.
3. Tactics
Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare, and is more common when
direct conventional warfare will not be effective because forces vary greatly in power.
The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political
conflict. The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:

a) Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state or become part of a different state
b) Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
 c) Imposition of a particular form of government
d) Economic deprivation of a population
e) Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
f) Religious fanaticism
Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity, usually
using explosives or poison. There is concern about terrorist attacks employing weapons of mass
destruction. Terrorist organizations usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train
participants, plant undercover agents, and raise money from supporters or through organized
crime. Communications occur through modern telecommunications, or through old-fashioned
methods such as couriers.
4. Responses
Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of
the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values.
Specific types of responses include:

 Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers

 Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
 Preemptive or reactive military action
 Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
 Preemptive humanitarian activities
 More permissive interrogation and detention policies
The term counter-terrorism has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at
terrorist actors.
According to a report by Dana Priest and William M. Arkin in the Washington Post,
"Some 1,271 government organizations and 1,931 private companies work on programs related
to counterterrorism, homeland security and intelligence in about 10,000 locations across the
United States."[
5. Mass media
Media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues
that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and
exploitation of the media
The internet has created a new channel for groups to spread their messages. This has
created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to
terrorist movements. The United Nations has created its own online counter-terrorism resource.
The mass media will, on occasion, censor organizations involved in terrorism (through
self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage
organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media.
Conversely James F. Pastor explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the
media, and the underlying benefit each receives from the other.
6. Terrorism databases
The following terrorism databases are or were made publicly available for research
purposes, and track specific acts of terrorism:

a) MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base

b) Global Terrorism Database
c) Worldwide Incidents Tracking System
d) To search (dynamic database)
The following publicly available resource indexes electronic and bibliographic resources on the
subject of terrorism:

 Human Security Gateway

The following terrorism databases are maintained in secrecy by the United State Government
for intelligence and counter-terrorism purposes:

 Terrorist Identities Data mart Environment

 Terrorist Screening Database

6.2.2 DRUG TRAFFICKING

Drug trafficking involve selling drug paraphernalia, whether it is a local exchange between a user and a dealer or
a major international operation. Drug trafficking is a problem that affects every nation in world and exists on many
levels.

6.2.3 MONEY LAUNDERING

Money laundering is the process of concealing the source of money obtained by illicit
means. The methods by which money may be laundered are varied and can range in
sophistication. Many regulatory and governmental authorities quote estimates each year for the
amount of money laundered, either worldwide or within their national economy. In 1996
the International Monetary Fund estimated that two to five percent of the worldwide global
economy involved laundered money. However, the Financial Action Task Force on Money
Laundering (FATF), an intergovernmental body set up to combat money laundering, stated that
"overall it is absolutely impossible to produce a reliable estimate of the amount of money
laundered and therefore the FATF does not publish any figures in this regard". Academic
commentators have likewise been unable to estimate the volume of money with any degree of
assurance
Regardless of the difficulty in measurement, the amount of money laundered each year
is in the billions (US dollars) and poses a significant policy concern for governments As a result,
governments and international bodies have undertaken efforts to deter, prevent and apprehend
money launderers. Financial institutions have likewise undertaken efforts to prevent and detect
transactions involving dirty money, both as a result of government requirements and to avoid
the reputational risk involved.
Methods:
Money laundering often occurs in three steps: first, cash is introduced into the financial
system by some means ("placement"), the second involves carrying out complex financial
transactions in order to camouflage the illegal source ("layering"), and the final step entails
acquiring wealth generated from the transactions of the illicit funds ("integration"). Some of
these steps may be omitted, depending on the circumstances; for example, non-cash proceeds
that are already in the financial system would have no need for placement
Money laundering takes several different forms although most methods can be
categorized into one of a few types. These include "bank methods, smurfing [also known as
structuring], currency exchanges, and double-invoicing".

1. Structuring: Often known as "smurfing", is a method of placement by which cash is

broken into smaller deposits of money, used to defeat suspicion of money laundering
and to avoid anti-money laundering reporting requirements. A sub-component of this is
to use smaller amounts of cash to purchase bearer instruments, such as money orders,
and then ultimately deposit those, again in small amounts.
2. Bulk cash smuggling: Physically smuggling cash to another jurisdiction, where it will be
deposited in a financial institution, such as an offshore bank, with greater bank
secrecy or less rigorous money laundering enforcement.
3. Cash-intensive businesses: A business typically involved in receiving cash will use its
accounts to deposit both legitimate and criminally derived cash, claiming all of it as
legitimate earnings. Best suited is a service business. As such business has no variable
costs; it is hard to detect revenues-costs discrepancies. Examples are parking
buildings, tanning beds or a casino.
4. Trade-based laundering: Under- or over-valuing invoices in order to disguise the
movement of money.
 5. Shell companies and trusts: Trusts and shell companies disguise the true owner of
money. Trusts and corporate vehicles, depending on the jurisdiction, need not disclose
their true, beneficial, owner
6. Round-tripping: Money is deposited in a controlled foreign corporation offshore,
preferably in a Tax haven where minimal records are kept, and then shipped back as
a Foreign Direct Investment, exempt from taxation.
7. Bank capture: Money launderers or criminals buy a controlling interest in a bank,
preferably in a jurisdiction with weak money laundering controls, and then move money
through the bank without scrutiny.
8. Casinos: An individual will walk in to a casino with cash and buy chips, play for a while
and then cash in his or her chips, for which he or she will be issued a check. The money
launderer will then be able to deposit the check into his or her bank account, and claim it
as gambling winnings.
9. Real estate: Real estate may be purchased with illegal proceeds, then sold. The
proceeds from the sale appear to outsiders to be legitimate income. Alternatively, the
price of the property is manipulated; the seller will agree to a contract that under-
represents the value of the property, and will receive criminal proceeds to make up the
difference.
10. Black salaries: Companies might have unregistered employees without a written
contract who are given cash salaries. Black cash might be used to pay them
11. Fictional loans
Criminalizing money laundering
The elements of the crime of money laundering are set forth in the United Nations
Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic
Substances and Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. It is knowingly engaging in
a financial transaction with the proceeds of a crime for the purpose of concealing or disguising
the illicit origin of the property.
The role of financial institutions
Today, most financial institutions globally, and many non-financial institutions, are
required to identify and report transactions of a suspicious nature to the financial intelligence
unit in the respective country. For example, a bank must verify a customer's identity and, if
necessary, monitor transactions for suspicious activity. This is often termed as KYC – "know
your customer". This means, to begin with, knowing the identity of the customers, and further,
understanding the kinds of transactions in which the customer is likely to engage. By knowing
one's customers, financial institutions will often be able to identify unusual or suspicious
behavior, termed anomalies, which may be an indication of money laundering.
.Value of enforcement costs and associated privacy concerns
The financial services industry has become more vocal about the rising costs of anti-
money laundering regulation, and the limited benefits that they claim it appears to bring. One
commentator wrote that "[w]without facts, [anti-money laundering] legislation has been driven on
rhetoric, driving by ill-guided activism responding to the need to be "seen to be doing
something" rather than by an objective understanding of its impact on predicate crime. The
social panic approach is justified by the language used – we talk of the battle against terrorism
or the war on drugs..." The Economist magazine has become increasingly vocal in its criticism
of such regulation, particularly with reference to countering terrorist financing, referring to it as a
"costly failure", although concedes that the rules to combat money laundering are more effective
However, there is no precise measurement of the costs of regulation balanced against
the harms associated with money laundering, and, given the evaluation problems involved in
assessing such an issue, it is unlikely the effectiveness of terror finance and money laundering
laws could be determined with any degree of accuracy. Government-linked economists have
noted the significant negative effects of money laundering on economic development, including
undermining domestic capital formation, depressing growth, and diverting capital away from
development
Organizations working against money laundering
Formed in 1989 by the G7 countries, the FATF is an intergovernmental body whose
purpose is to develop and promote an international response to combat money laundering. The
FATF Secretariat is housed at the headquarters of the OECD in Paris. In October 2001, FATF
expanded its mission to include combating the financing of terrorism. FATF is a policy-making
body, which brings together legal, financial and law enforcement experts to achieve national
legislation and regulatory AML and CFT reforms. Currently, its membership consists of 34
countries and territories and two regional organizations. In addition, FATF works in collaboration
with a number of international bodies and organizations. These entities have observer status
with FATF, which does not entitle them to vote, but permits full participation in plenary sessions
and working groups. FATF has developed 40 Recommendations on money laundering and 9
Special Recommendations regarding terrorist financing. FATF assesses each member country
against these recommendations in published reports. Countries seen as not being sufficiently
compliant with such recommendations are subjected to financial sanctions.
FATF’s three primary functions with regard to money laundering are:

1. Monitoring members’ progress in implementing anti-money laundering measures.

2. Reviewing and reporting on laundering trends, techniques and countermeasures.
3. Promoting the adoption and implementation of FATF anti-money laundering standards
globally.
The FATF currently comprises 34 member jurisdictions and 2 regional organizations,
representing most major financial centers in all parts of the globe:

 Argentina  Greece  Mexico

 Australia  Gulf Co-operation  New Zealand
 Austria Council  Norway
 Belgium  Hong Kong, China  Portugal
 Brazil  Iceland  Republic of Korea
 Canada  India  Russian Federation
 China  Ireland  Singapore
 Denmark  Italy  South Africa
 European Commission  Japan  Spain
 Finland  Kingdom of the  Sweden
 France Netherlands  Switzerland
 Germany  Luxembourg

 Turkey  United Kingdom

United States

6.2.4 HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Human trafficking is the illegal trade of human beings mainly for the purposes of
commercial sexual exploitation or forced labor. Other purposes can be extraction of organs, or
tissues or even surrogacy or ova removal.
The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women
and Children (also referred to as the Trafficking Protocol) was adopted by the United
Nations in Palermo, Italy in 2000, and is an international legal agreement attached to the United
Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. The Trafficking Protocol is one of
three Protocols adopted to supplement the Convention. The Protocol is the first global, legally
binding instrument on trafficking in over half a century and the only one that sets out an agreed
definition of trafficking in persons. The purpose of the Protocol is to facilitate convergence in
national cooperation in investigating and prosecuting trafficking in persons. An additional
objective of the Protocol is to protect and assist the victims of trafficking in persons with full
respect for their human rights. The Trafficking Protocol defines human trafficking as:
a. the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the
threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of
 the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of
payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another
person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the
exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced
labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of
organs;
b. The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in
subparagraph (a) of this article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth in
subparagraph (a) have been used;
c. The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of a child for the purpose of
exploitation shall be considered “trafficking in persons” even if this does not involve any
of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) of this article;
d. “Child” shall mean any person under eighteen years of age.
The Trafficking Protocol entered into force on 25 December 2003. By June 2010, the
Trafficking Protocol had been ratified by 117 countries and 137 parties.
Trafficking is a lucrative industry. It is second only to drug trafficking as the most
profitable illegal industry in the world. In 2004, the total annual revenue for trafficking in persons
were estimated to be between USD$5 billion and $9 billion.
In 2005, Patrick Belser of ILO estimated a global annual profit of $31.6 billion. In 2008,
the United Nations estimated nearly 2.5 million people from 127 different countries are being
trafficked into 137 countries around the world.
However, it is argued that many of these statistics are grossly inflated to aid advocacy of
anti-trafficking NGOs and the anti-trafficking policies of governments. Due to the definition of
trafficking being a process (not a single defined act) and the fact that it is a dynamic
phenomenon with constantly shifting patterns relating to economic circumstances, much of the
statistical evaluation is flawed.
Human trafficking differs from people smuggling. In the latter, people voluntarily request
or hire an individual, known as a smuggler, to covertly transport them from one location to
another. This generally involves transportation from one country to another, where legal entry
would be denied upon arrival at the international border. There may be no deception involved in
the (illegal) agreement. After entry into the country and arrival at their ultimate destination, the
smuggled person is usually free to find their own way.
According to the International Centre for Migration Policy development (ICMPD): Human
smuggling is a: "Crime against State – no victim by the crime of smuggling as such (violation of
immigration laws/public order; the crime of smuggling by definition does not require violations of
the rights of the smuggled migrants)". Whereas human traffic is a: "Crime against person –
victim; violation of the rights of the victim of trafficking by definition (violation of person’s human
rights; victim of coercion and exploitation that give rise to duties by the State to treat the
individual as a victim of a crime and human rights violation)". While smuggling requires travel,
trafficking does not. Much of the confusion rests with the term itself. The word "trafficking"
includes the word "traffic," which means transportation or travel. However, while the words look
and sound alike, they do not hold the same meaning.
Victims of human trafficking are not permitted to leave upon arrival at their destination.
They are held against their will through acts of coercion and forced to work or provide services
to the trafficker or others. The work or services may include anything from bonded or forced
labor to commercialized sexual exploitation. The arrangement may be structured as a work
contract, but with no or low payment or on terms which are highly exploitative. Sometimes the
arrangement is structured as debt bondage, with the victim not being permitted or able to pay off
the debt.
Bonded labor, or debt bondage, is probably the least known form of labor trafficking
today, and yet it is the most widely used method of enslaving people. Victims become bonded
laborers when their labor is demanded as a means of repayment for a loan or service in which
its terms and conditions have not been defined or in which the value of the victims’ services as
reasonably assessed is not applied toward the liquidation of the debt. The value of their work is
greater than the original sum of money "borrowed."
 Forced labor is a situation in which victims are forced to work against their own will,
under the threat of violence or some other form of punishment, their freedom is restricted and a
degree of ownership is exerted. Men are at risk of being trafficked for unskilled work, which
globally generates $31bn according to the International Labor Organization. Forms of forced
labor can include domestic servitude; agricultural labor; sweatshop factory labor; janitorial, food
service and other service industry labor; and begging.
Sex trafficking victims are generally found in dire circumstances and easily targeted by
traffickers. Individuals, circumstances, and situations vulnerable to traffickers include homeless
individuals, runaway teens, displaced homemakers, refugees, job seekers, tourists, kidnap
victims and drug addicts. While it may seem like trafficked people are the most vulnerable and
powerless minorities in a region, victims are consistently exploited from any ethnic and social
background. Fake job offers are a common way to obtain women in Asia, the Former Soviet
Block Nations and Latin America.
Traffickers, also known as pimps or madams, exploit vulnerabilities and lack of
opportunities, while offering promises of marriage, employment, education, and/or an overall
better life. However, in the end, traffickers force the victims to become prostitutes or work in
the industry Various work in the sex industry includes prostitution, dancing in strip clubs,
performing in pornographic films and pornography, and other forms of involuntary servitude.
Human trafficking does not require travel or transport from one location to another, but
one form of sex trafficking involves international agents and brokers who arrange travel and job
placements for women from one country. Women are lured to accompany traffickers based on
promises of lucrative opportunities unachievable in their native country. However, once they
reach their destination, the women discover that they have been deceived and learn the true
nature of the work that they will be expected to do. Most have been told false information
regarding the financial arrangements and conditions of their employment and find themselves in
coercive or abusive situations from which escape is both difficult and dangerous. According to a
2009 U.S. Department of Justice report, there were 1,229 suspected human trafficking incidents
in the United States from January 2007- September 2008. Of these, 83 percent were sex
trafficking cases, though only 9% of all cases could be confirmed as examples of human
trafficking.
Child labor is a form of work that is likely to be hazardous to the physical, mental,
spiritual, moral, or social development of children and can interfere with their education. The
International Labor Organization estimates worldwide that there are 246 million exploited
children aged between 5 and 17 involved in debt bondage, forced recruitment for armed
conflict, prostitution, pornography, the illegal drug trade, the illegal arms trade, and other illicit
activities around the world.
Trafficking in children
Trafficking of children is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of
children for the purpose of exploitation.
Trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation of children can take many forms and
include forcing a child into prostitution or other forms of sexual activity or child pornography.
Child exploitation can also include forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to
slavery, servitude, the removal of organs, illicit international adoption, trafficking for early
marriage, recruitment as child soldiers, for use in begging or as athletes (such as child camel
jockeys or football players), or for recruitment for cults. It was reported in 2010
that Thailand and Brazil were considered to have the worst child sex trafficking records.
Trafficking in children often involves exploitation of the parents' extreme poverty. Parents may
sell children to traffickers in order to pay off debts or gain income, or they may be deceived
concerning the prospects of training and a better life for their children. They may sell their
children for labor, sex trafficking, or illegal adoptions.
The adoption process, legal and illegal, when abused can sometimes result in cases of
trafficking of babies and pregnant women between the West and the developing world In David
M. Smolin’s papers on child trafficking and adoption scandals between India and the United
States he presents the systemic vulnerabilities in the inter-country adoption system that makes
adoption scandals predictable.
6.2.5 CYBER CRIMES
Computer crime refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network. The
computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Net
crime refers to criminal exploitation of the Internet. Cybercrimes are defined as: "Offences that
are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally
harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim directly or
indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (Chat rooms, emails,
notice boards and groups) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS)". Such crimes may threaten a
nation’s security and financial health Issues surrounding this type of crime have become high-
profile, particularly those surrounding cracking, copyright infringement, child pornography,
and child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is lost or
intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.
Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes,
including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes. Activity crossing
international borders and involving the interests of at least one nation state is sometimes
referred to as cyber warfare. The international legal system is attempting to hold actors
accountable for their actions through the International
Typology
Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities. Generally, however, it may be
divided into two categories: (1) crimes that target computers directly; (2) crimes facilitated by
computer networks or devices, the primary target of which is independent of the cat’s network or
device. Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include:

a) Computer viruses
b) Denial-of-service attacks
c) Malware (malicious code)
Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:

a) Cyber stalking
b) Fraud and identity theft
c) Information warfare
d) Phishing scams

Spam- the unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes, is unlawful in some
jurisdictions. While anti-spam laws are relatively new, limits on unsolicited electronic
communications have existed for some time.
Fraud-Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or
refrain from doing something which causes loss. This context, the fraud will result in obtaining a
benefit by:

a) Altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise
and is not an uncommon form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or
entering false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized
processes;
b) Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized
transactions: this is difficult to detect;
c) Altering or deleting stored data;
d) Altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or altering or writing
code for fraudulent purposes.
Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including bank
fraud, identity theft, extortion, and theft of classified information.
A variety of Internet scams target consumers direct.
 Obscene or offensive content-The content of websites and other electronic
communications may be distasteful, obscene or offensive for a variety of reasons. In
some instances these communications may be illegal.
Over 25 jurisdictions place limits on certain speech and ban racist, blasphemous,
politically subversive, libelous or slanderous, seditious, or inflammatory material that tends to
incite hate crimes.
The extent to which these communications are unlawful varies greatly between
countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become
involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.
One area of Internet pornography that has been the target of the strongest efforts at
curtailment is child pornography.
Harassment-Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, harassment directs
obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing for example on gender,
race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through
newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties (see cyber bullying, cyber
stalking, hate crime, Online predator, and stalking). Any comment that may be found derogatory
or offensive is considered harassment.
There are instances where committing a crime, which involves the use of a computer,
can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of United States v. Neil Scott
Kramer, Kramer was served an enhanced sentence according to the U.S. Sentencing
Guidelines Manual §2G1.3(b)(3)for his use of a cell phone to “persuade, induce, entice, coerce,
or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct.”
Connecticut was the first state to pass a statute making it a criminal offense to harass
someone by computer. Michigan, Arizona, and Virginia have also passed laws banning
harassment by electronic means.
Harassment by computer statutes are typically distinct from cyber bullying laws, in that
the former usually relates to a person's "use a computer or computer network to communicate
obscene, vulgar, profane, lewd, lascivious, or indecent language, or make any suggestion or
proposal of an obscene nature, or threaten any illegal or immoral act," while the latter need not
involve anything of a sexual nature.
Threats-Although freedom of speech is protected by law in most democratic societies
(in US this is done by First Amendment) that does not include all types of speech. In fact spoken
or written "true threat" speech/text is criminalized because of "intent to harm or intimidate", that
also applies for online or any type of network related threats in written text or speech. [11] The
US Court definition of "true threat" is "statements where the speaker means to communicate a
serious expression of intent to commit an act of unlawful violence to a particular individual or
group".
Cyber terrorism -Government officials and Information Technology security specialists have
documented a significant increase in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001. But
there is a growing concern among federal officials [that such intrusions are part of an organized
effort by cyber terrorists, foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security
holes in critical systems. A cyber terrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government
or organization to advance his or her political or social objectives by launching computer-based
attack against computers, network, and the information stored on them.
Cyber extortion is a form of cyber terrorism in which a website, e-mail server, or
computer system is subjected to repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious
hackers, who demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks. According to the
Federal Bureau of Investigation, cyber extortionists are increasingly attacking corporate
websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate and demanding payments to restore
their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI and many go unreported
in order to keep the victim's name out of the public domain. Perpetrators typically use
a distributed denial-of-service attack.
Cyber warfare-The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) notes that cyberspace has
emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geo-strategic significance.
Among those are included the attack on Estonia's infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian
hackers. "In August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyber attacks, this time in a
coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia.
Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states, the
concept of cyberspace operations impacts and will be adapted by war fighting military
commanders in the future.
Documented cases-One of the highest profiled banking computer crime occurred
during a course of three years beginning in 1970. The chief teller at the Park Avenue branch of
New York's Union Dime Savings Bank embezzled over $1.5 million from hundreds of accounts.
6.2.6 OTHERS
Human Smuggling
Human smuggling is the importation of people into a country via the deliberate evasion
of immigration laws. This includes bringing illegal aliens into a country, as well as the unlawful
transportation and harboring of aliens already in a country illegally. Some smuggling situations
may involve murder, rape and assault.

 Organizations regardless of where they operate. Particular emphasis is placed on

smuggling rings that pose a national security risk, jeopardize lives or engage in violence,
abuse, hostage-taking or extortion.
 Second, ICE coordinates with partners at U.S. Customs and Border Protection to ensure
aggressive investigation and prosecution of smuggling cases along the border.
 Third, ICE targets all links in the smuggling chain, beyond the immediate smugglers. For
example, ICE seeks to target the overseas recruiters and organizers, the fraudulent
document vendors, and the transportation and employment networks that benefit from
alien smuggling within the United States.

Finally, ICE will pursue legislation to increase penalties against organized smugglers
and provide additional criminal offenses to better address spotters who assist criminals with
smuggling aliens and contraband.

6.3 SELECTED POLICE MODELS

6.3.1 JAPAN POLICE SYSTEM
Law enforcement in Japan is provided by the Prefectural Police under the oversight of
the National Police Agency or NPA. The NPA is headed by the National Public Safety
Commission thus ensuring that Japan's police are an apolitical body and free of direct central
government executive control. They are checked by an independent judiciary and monitored by
a free and active press.

National Organization:
National Public Safety Commission
The mission of the National Public Safety Commission is to guarantee the neutrality of
the police by insulating the force from political pressure and to ensure the maintenance of
democratic methods in police administration. The commission's primary function is to supervise
the National Police Agency, and it has the authority to appoint or dismiss senior police officers.
The commission consists of a chairman, who holds the rank of minister of state, and five
members appointed by the prime minister with the consent of both houses of the Diet. The
commission operates independently of the cabinet, but liaison and coordination with it are
facilitated by the chairman's being a member of that body.
National Police Agency
As the central coordinating body for the entire police system, the National Police Agency
determines general standards and policies; detailed direction of operations is left to the lower
echelons. In a national emergency or large-scale disaster, the agency is authorized to take
command of prefectural police forces. In 1989 the agency was composed of about 1,100
national civil servants, empowered to collect information and to formulate and execute national
policies. The agency is headed by a commissioner general who is appointed by the National
Public Safety Commission with the approval of the prime minister.
The Central Office includes the Secretariat, with divisions for general operations, planning,
information, finance, management, and procurement and distribution of police equipment, and
five bureaus.
Police Administration Bureau
The Administration Bureau is concerned with police personnel, education, welfare,
training, and unit inspections.
Criminal Investigation Bureau
The Criminal Investigation Bureau is in charge of research statistics and the
investigation of nationally important and international cases. This bureau's Safety Department is
responsible for crime prevention, combating juvenile delinquency, and pollution control. In
addition, the Criminal Investigation Bureau surveys, formulates, and recommends legislation on
firearms, explosives, food, drugs, and narcotics. The Communications Bureau supervises police
communications systems.
Traffic Bureau
The Traffic Bureau licenses drivers, enforces traffic safety laws, and regulates traffic.
Intensive traffic safety and driver education campaigns are run at both national and prefectural
levels. The bureau's Expressway Division addresses special conditions of the nation's growing
system of express highways.
Security Bureau
The Security Bureau formulates and supervises the execution of security policies. It
conducts research on equipment and tactics for suppressing riots and oversees and coordinates
activities of the riot police. The Security Bureau is also responsible for security intelligence on
foreigners and radical political groups, including investigation of violations of the Alien
Registration Law and administration of the Entry and Exit Control Law. The bureau also
implements security policies during national emergencies and natural disasters.
Regional Public Safety Bureaus
The National Police Agency has seven regional police bureaus, each responsible for a
number of prefectures. Each is headed by a Director and they are organizationed similar to the
Central Office. They are located in major cities of each geographic region. The Tokyo
Metropolitan Police Department and Hokkaido Prefectural Police Headquarters are excluded
from the jurisdiction of RPBs. Headed by a Director General, each RPB exercises necessary
control and supervision over and provides support services to prefectural police within its
jurisdiction, under the authority and orders of NPA's Commissioner General. Attached to each
Regional Police Bureaus is a Regional Police School which provides police personnel with
education and training required of staff officers as well as other necessary education and
training.
Regional Police Bureaus:

1. Tohoku - Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi, Akita, Yamagata, and Fukushima Prefectures

2. Kinki - Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, and Wakayama Prefectures
3. Shikoku - Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi Prefectures
4. Kanto - Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Kanagawa, Niigata, Yamanashi,
Nagano, and Shizuoka Prefectures
5. Chubu - Toyama, Ishikawa, Fukui, Gifu, Aichi, Mie, Prefectures
6. Kyushu - Fukuoka, Saga, Nagasaki, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and
Okinawa Prefectures
7. Chugoku - Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi Prefectures

Police Communications Divisions

Metropolitan Tokyo and the island of Hokkaidō are excluded from the regional
jurisdictions and are run more autonomously than other local forces, in the case of Tokyo,
because of its special urban situation, and of Hokkaidō, because of its distinctive geography.
The National Police Agency maintains police communications divisions in these two areas to
handle any coordination needed between national and local forces.
Imperial Guard
In 1947 the Imperial Police Headquarters ( 皇 宮 警 察 本 部 Kōgū-Keisatsu Honbu?) was
created under the control of the Home Ministry from the Imperial Household Ministry. It came
under the aegis of the National Police Agency of Japan in 1957. It provides personal security for
the Emperor, Crown Prince and other members of the Imperial Family of Japan, as well as
protection of imperial properties, including the Tokyo Imperial Palace, Kyoto Imperial
Palace, Katsura Imperial Villa, Shugakuin Imperial Villa (both in Kyoto), Shosoin Imperial
Repository in Nara and the imperial villas as Hayama, Kanagawa and Nasu, Tochigi.
Strength
As of 2010, the total strength reached approximately 291,475 personnel. The NPA total
is about 7,709 with 1,969 police officers, 901 Imperial guards and 4,839 civilians. The
Prefectural police total is about 283,766 with 255,156 police officers and 28,610 civilians.
Nationwide, there are about 14,900 female police officers and about 11,800 female civilians.
Local organization
There are some 289,000 police officers nationwide, about 97 percent of whom were
affiliated with local police forces. Local forces include:

a) Forty-three prefectural (ken) police forces;

b) Tokyo Metropolitan (to) police force, in Tokyo;
c) Two urban prefectural (fu) police forces, in Osaka and Kyoto; and
d) One district (dō) police force, in Hokkaidō.
These forces have limited authority to initiate police actions. Their most important
activities are regulated by the National Police Agency, which provides funds for equipment,
salaries, riot control, escort, and natural disaster duties, and for internal security and multiple
jurisdiction cases. National police statutes and regulations establish the strength and rank
allocations of all local personnel and the locations of local police stations. Prefectural police
finance and control the patrol officer on the beat, traffic control, criminal investigations, and
other daily operations.
Prefectural Police
Each prefectural police headquarters contains administrative divisions corresponding to
those of the bureaus of the National Police Agency. Headquarters are staffed by specialists in
basic police functions and administration and are commanded by an officer appointed by the
local office of the National Public Safety Commission. Most arrests and investigations are
performed by prefectural police officials (and, in large jurisdictions, by police assigned to
substations), who are assigned to one or more central locations within the prefecture.
Experienced officers are organized into functional bureaus and handle all but the most ordinary
problems in their fields.
Kōban
Kōbans are substations near major transportation hubs and shopping areas and in
residential districts. They form the first line of police response to the public. The Koban system
is composed of about 6500 police boxes (Koban) and about 7600 residential police boxes
(Chuzaisho). Koban are staffed by a relatively small number of police officers (usually 3-5
officers); a Chuzaisho is usually staffed by a single officer. About 20 percent of the total police
force's officers are assigned to koban. Staffed by officers working in eight-hour shifts, they serve
as a base for foot patrols and usually have both sleeping and eating facilities for officers on duty
but not on watch. In rural areas, residential offices usually are staffed by one police officer who
resides in adjacent family quarters. These officers endeavor to become a part of the community,
and their families often aid in performing official tasks.
Vigilance at the Koban and Chuzaisho is maintained by standing watch in front or sitting
watch inside, enabling police officers to respond immediately to any incident. While keeping a
constant watch, they perform a myriad of routine tasks, such as receiving crime reports from
citizens, handling lost and found articles, counseling citizens in trouble and giving directions.
Riot police
Within their security divisions, each prefecture level police department and the Tokyo
police maintain Kidotai, special riot units. These units were formed after riots at the Imperial
Palace in 1952, to respond quickly and effectively to large public disturbances. They are also
used in crowd control during festival periods, at times of natural disaster, and to reinforce
regular police when necessary. Full-time riot police can also be augmented by regular police
trained in riot duties. Currently, there are 10,000 in the whole riot force.
Special police
In addition to regular police officers, there are several thousand officials attached to
various agencies who perform special duties relating to public safety. They are responsible for
such matters as forest preservation, narcotics control, fishery inspection, and enforcement of
regulations on maritime, labor, and mine safety.
Special operations
The National Police Agency has a counter-terrorist unit known as the Special Assault
Team, operating under police control.
A small number of anti-riot-trained police officers had been trained to handle incidents
that cannot be dealt with by regular police and riot police officers, but can operate independently
or with SAT cooperation. These units include the Special Investigations Team of the Tokyo
Metropolitan Police, the Osaka Police's Martial Arts Attack Team and the Chiba Police's Attack
Response Team.
Rank
Police officers are divided into nine ranks:

1. Superintendent General
2. Superintendent Supervisor
3. Chief Superintendent
4. Senior Superintendent
5. Superintendent
6. Inspector
7. Assistant Inspector
8. Sergeant
9. Senior Police Officer
10. Police Officer
The NPA Commissioner General holds the highest position of the Japanese police. His
title is not a rank, but rather denotes his position as head of the NPA. On the other hand, the
MPD Superintendent General represents not only the highest rank in the system but also
assignment as head of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department
Uniform
For much of the twentieth century up to the mid 1990s, police officers wore a formal
work uniform consisting of a tunic or Ike jacket with polished silver buttons, and trousers with a
sewn in truncheon pocket. No stab vest was worn and much less equipment was carried than is
today. Following concerns about the police uniforms safety it was suggested that the uniform
should be changed.
From the 1990s it was generally accepted that the police could patrol in "shirt-sleeve
order" which meant that they need not wear the jacket, as its widespread use was hampering in
some situations. The NPA, in agreement with the government and on the cooperation of the
Prefecture Chiefs of Police, changed the uniform from the business attire with no protection of
the torso, to a uniform of button down shirt with trousers, stab vest, duty belt, and jacket when
needed.
 Although there are minor variations in the styling, pattern and insignia, the police forces
all wear very similar uniforms. In general, these have taken their lead from the Tokyo
Metropolitan Police, due to it being the largest police service in Japan. The base color is a dark
blue or a frosted grey for summer wear.
Female officers' uniforms have gone through a great variety of styles, as they have
tended to reflect the women's fashions of the time. Tunic style, skirt length and headgear have
varied by period and force. By the late 1980s, the female working uniform was virtually identical
to male, except for headgear and sometimes neckwear.
Formal uniform comprises an open-necked tunic (with or without an attached belt, depending on
the force and rank of the Officer) and trousers or skirt, worn with a white or light blue shirt and
black tie (usually clip-on, so it cannot be used to strangle the wearer).
The normal working dress retains the shirt and trousers. In some forces short sleeved shirts
may be worn open-necked. Long sleeved shirts must always be worn with a tie, worn with or
without a jersey or fleece. If a jersey, fleece or jacket is worn over a short sleeved shirt, then a
tie must be worn.
Today, female officers almost never wear a skirt in working dress, and frequently wear
trousers in formal dress as well. Officers also frequently wear reflective waterproof jackets,
which have replaced the old greatcoats and cloaks traditionally worn in inclement weather. Most
officers now wear stab vests, a type of body armour, when on duty.
Basic headgear is a peaked cap for men, and a soft round bowler hat for women. Traffic
officers wear white cap covers or caps.
Most Japanese police wear white gloves while they are on duty. Some also wear white
pistol belts, lanyards, helmets, boot laces or leggings.
Conditions of service
Education is highly stressed in police recruitment and promotion. Entrance to the force is
determined by examinations administered by each prefecture. Examinees are divided into two
groups: upper-secondary-school graduates and university graduates. Recruits underwent
rigorous training—one year for upper-secondary school graduates and six months for university
graduates—at the residential police academy attached to the prefectural headquarters. On
completion of basic training, most police officers are assigned to local police boxes
called Kobans. Promotion is achieved by examination and requires further course work. In-
service training provides mandatory continuing education in more than 100 fields. Police officers
with upper-secondary school diplomas are eligible to take the examination for sergeant after
three years of on-the-job experience. University graduates can take the examination after only
one year. University graduates are also eligible to take the examination for assistant police
inspector, police inspector, and superintendent after shorter periods than upper-secondary
school graduates. There are usually five to fifteen examinees for each opening.
About fifteen officers per year pass advanced civil service examinations and are
admitted as senior officers. Officers are groomed for administrative positions, and, although
some rise through the ranks to become senior administrators, most such positions are held by
specially recruited senior executives.
The police forces are subject to external oversight. Although officials of the National
Public Safety Commission generally defer to police decisions and rarely exercise their powers to
check police actions or operations, police are liable for civil and criminal prosecution, and the
media actively publicizes police misdeeds. The Human Rights Bureau of the Ministry of Justice
solicits and investigates complaints against public officials, including police, and prefectural
legislatures could summon police chiefs for questioning. Social sanctions and peer pressure
also constrain police behavior. As in other occupational groups in Japan, police officers develop
an allegiance to their own group and a reluctance to offend its principles.
Police-community relations
Despite legal limits on police jurisdiction, many citizens retain their views of the police as
authority figures to whom they can turn for aid. The public often seeks police assistance to settle
family quarrels, counsel juveniles, and mediate minor disputes. Citizens regularly consult police
for directions to hotels and residences—an invaluable service in cities where streets are often
unnamed and buildings are numbered in the order in which they have been built rather than
consecutively. Police are encouraged by their superiors to view these tasks as answering the
public's demands for service and as inspiring community confidence in the police. Public
attitudes toward the police are generally favorable, although a series of incidents of forced
confessions in the late 1980s raised some concern about police treatment of suspects held for
pretrial detention.
Historical secret police organizations

1. Tokko (Investigated and controlled political groups and ideologies deemed to be a threat
to public order)
2. Kempeitai (Military Police of the Imperial Japanese Army)
3. Tokeitai (Military Police of the Imperial Japanese Navy
6.3.2 SINGAPORE POLICE SYSTEM
Republic of Singapore Police Force (Abbreviation: SPF; Chinese: 新加坡警察部
队; Malay: Pasukan Polis Singapura; Tamil: சிங்கப்பூர் காவல் துறை) is the main agency
tasked with maintaining law and order in the city-state. Formerly known as the Republic of
Singapore Police (RSP;Malay: Polis Repablik Singapura), it has grown from an 11-man
organization to a 38,587 strong force. Singapore has been ranked consistently in the top five
positions in the Global Competitiveness Report in terms of its reliability of police services.
The organization structure of the SPF is split between the staff and line functions,
roughly modeled after the military. There are currently 15 staff departments and 13 line units.
The headquarters is located in a block at New Phoenix Park in Novena, adjacent to a twin block
occupied by the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Early years
The Singapore Police Force has a heritage almost as old as that of modern Singapore,
having been formed in 1819 with a skeleton force of 11 men under the command of Francis
James Bernard, son-in-law of William Farquhar, and kept in operation with a monthly budget of
$300. Manpower constraints meant that the men had to perform a wide range of roles, and
required the help of headmen amongst the various ethnic communities to maintain orderliness
on the streets, all the more possible as the communities lived in segregated areas around the
city.
This partnership with the community was in line with Sir Stamford Raffles' vision of a
thriving colony largely self-regulated by local social structures, with the British masters
administrating it via indirect rule. The large influx of migrants from China, however, began to test
this system when the hands-off approach by the British allowed secret societies in Singapore to
thrive. Although originally formed with legal intentions of community bonding and the provision
of assistance to fellow migrants, these societies gradually became influential, competitive, and
increasingly engaged in illegal activity including monetary extortion from the masses, the
operation of gambling dens, and the smuggling of illegal goods on top of more legal commercial
operations to meet their financial needs.
Competition gradually heated up between large rival factions, such as that between the
larger Ghee Hin Kongsi, the Ghee Hock Kongsi and the Hai San Kongsi. Murders, mass riots,
kidnappings, arson and other serious crimes became commonplace in the next four decades
since the colony's founding. Faced with violent acts of crime which may involve thousands, such
as the funeral riots of 1846 involving 9,000 members from the Ghee Hin and Ghee Hock secret
societies, the police force was woefully incapable of bringing the situation under control, and
often had to call in the army for assistance. The escalating number of serious crimes prompted
the need for stronger legislation to deter would-be criminals. Singapore's first executions were
thus held in the wake of the first criminal session in June 1828, when a Chinese and Indian
were found guilty and convicted for murder.
Headed by Europeans and predominantly staffed by Malay and Indian officers, the force
had little Chinese representation as the military and policing professionals were traditionally
shunned by the Chinese community, which therefore impaired policing efforts amongst the large
Chinese populace. In 1843, the force comprised a sitting magistrate doubling up as
a superintendent, three European constables and an assistant native constable, 14 officers and
110 policemen. With a total strength of no more than 150 men, the police was compelled to
avoid direct intervention in these mass acts of violence, else risking almost total annihilation.
A repeat of this scenario occurred in 1851, when lingering displeasure against Roman
Catholic ethnic Chinese erupted into major rioting leaving over 500 Chinese dead. The army
was called in again, although it involved having to induct Indian convicts into military service
almost overnight. In 1854, twelve consecutive days of violence sparked by a dispute between
the Hokkiens and Teochews disrupted trade. This particular incident led to the formation of the
military's Singapore Rifle Corps on 8 July 1854, the earliest predecessor of the Singapore
Armed Forces' People's Defense Force today.
Criminal violence was not merely in the domain of the ethnic Chinese, however.
Rivalries between Malay princes and communities also often result in acts of violence, which
prompted the passing of Singapore's first arms law in March 1823 restricting the right to bear
arms to 24 of the Malay Sultan's followers. Nearly two centuries later, these anti-arms laws
continue to be strictly enforced, resulting in a society relatively free from firearms-related
criminal offences.
Regulars
Regulars, or uniformed, full-time officers, constitute about 20% of the police's total
workforce and number approximately 8,000 in strength. Basic entry requirements for police
officers include normal fitness levels, good eyesight, and at least five passes in the GCE
Ordinary level or a NITEC from theInstitute of Technical Education, although those with lower
qualifications may still be considered. Those joining the senior police officers require a basic
degree from a recognized university. Alternatively, police officers from the junior ranks may also
be considered for promotion into the senior ranks. Officers serving in the force as national
servicemen are also regularly considered for absorption into the regular scheme. Basic training
for all officers are conducted at the Home Team Academy, under the purview of the Police
Training Command. It takes about six months and nine months to train a new police officer and
senior police officer respectively.
As is the case with many other civil service positions in Singapore, the salaries of police
officers are reviewed in accordance to market rates. Salaries are kept competitive as part of
anti-corruption measures. Gross starting salaries for police officers may range from S$1,559.43
to $2,186.90 and that of senior police officers from S$2,650.00 to S$3,889.00, depending on
entry qualifications and National Service.
Police officers commence their careers as Sergeants (Full GCE 'A' level or Diploma
holders) or Corporals (other qualifications), while senior police officers start as either Assistant
Superintendent of Police (2nd Upper Honors Degree and above) or Inspectors (2nd Lower
Honors degree and lower). Reviews of an officer's performance for promotion consideration are
conducted annually. Interviews conducted for promotion to certain ranks were phased out since
1995. It takes approximately five years for a police officer to be promoted to the next rank,
although the system allows for accelerated promotion for outstanding officers.
While joining the force as a career is generally considered a respectable decision in
contemporary Singapore support from the ethnic Malay community has been traditionally
stronger due to less social stigma attached to the profession. Traditionally, Chinese culture has
eschewed careers in uniformed positions, resulting in a force dominated by non-Chinese
officers for most of the force's early history. National servicemen also contribute a higher
proportion of ethnic Malays in the force. The current ethnic profile of the force continues to have
a significantly higher proportion of ethnic minorities compared to the national ethnic profile,
although such an outcome is related to operational demands: police resources are typically
deployed with a diverse ethnic mix to decrease communication problems while attending to
incidents in ethnically-diverse Singapore.
Police national servicemen
While national service was introduced in 1967 in Singapore, it was solely geared
towards the building up of the Singapore Armed Forces. There was little urgency in the police
force to increase its manpower strength until the Laju incident in 1974 demonstrated the need
for additional trained reserve officers who can be called up at short notice in the event of an
emergency. National service was thus extended to the Singapore Police Force in 1975, with the
primary aim of guarding key installations and to act as a reserve unit. Subsequent expansion of
the scheme, changing security needs, and the trend in outsourcing installation protection (such
as to the Auxiliary Police Forces) has expanded their role to more functions, which may range
from administration, investigation to front-line policing alongside their regular counterparts.
Volunteers
Formed in 1946, The Volunteer Special Constabulary (VSC) is an important component
of the Singapore Police Force, contributing more than fifty years of volunteer service to the
nation.
The VSC is composed of volunteers from all walks of life in Singapore, from
businessmen to blue-collar executives to even bus captains, bonded with the same aspiration to
serve the nation by complementing the Singapore Police Force. They are vested with equal
powers of a police officer to enforce law and order in Singapore. VSC Officers don the same
police uniform and patrol the streets, participate in anti-drug operations and sometimes even
high-speed sea chases.
Previously headquartered at the Eu Tong Sen Street Police Station and Toa Payoh
Police Station, it relocated to the new Police Cantonment Complex in year 2000.
Civilian staff
Civilian staff in the Police Force are deployed in areas such as technology, logistics, human
resource and administrative and finance services as well as investigation, planning and
intelligence. The civilian staff schemes falls under the general civil service schemes managed
by the Public Service Division. These schemes include:

1. Commercial Affairs Officer Scheme (CAO)

a) Commercial Affairs Officer
2. Management Executive Scheme(MX) for degree holders
a) Home Affairs Senior Executive (HASE)
3. Corporate Support Scheme (CS) for diploma and below
a) Technical Support Officer
b) Corporate Support Officer
The civilization of non-core police functions have accelerated over the years in order to free
up additional manpower for redeployment into Police Divisions. Other changes include the
deployment of contract staff through organizations such as Ministry of Finance's VITAL.org for
administrative staff and partners such as Singapore Technologies, CSA Singapore for technical
support.
Uniforms
Dark blue (or more accurately Dacron blue) is the organizational colour of the Singapore
Police Force, and has remained so continuously since 1969, although the first police uniforms
introduced in 1856 were also in the same colour.
On 1 July 1969, Dacron blue made a comeback to the uniform with a force-wide change
away from khaki overnight, in part to coincide with Singapore's 150th anniversary since its
founding in 1819. The new uniform comprises a dark blue peak cap, shirt, trousers, black belt,
shoes and socks, and coded whistle lanyard in blue and white. 3 large and 4 small metal
buttons, metal collar badges, and a metal cap badge are affixed, and a black plastic name tag
completes the uniform. Metallic ranks, if any, are fixed to the sleeve or on the shoulders for
senior officers. The lanyard was changed to a metal chain in 1972, and in 1985, the material of
the uniform was changed from 75% polyester 25% cotton to 100% polyester for ease of daily
maintenance.
Derivatives of the standard blue uniform (collectively called the no.3 uniform) was
adopted for specialized forces and for all officers in various occasions which calls for more
formal or casual attire. The Traffic Police Department was amongst the few to move away from
the all-blue attire, adopting a short-sleeved white tunic, dark blue breeches, a black leather Sam
Browne belt, and riding boots for its officers performing mobile squad duties. A white crash
helmet is worn when on the move, while a new dark blue jockey cap with chequered white and
dark blue patterns around its circumference is worn when convenient while performing static
duty. Members of the Vigilante Corps are also attired by a white short-sleeved top similar in
design to the dark blue version for normal officers, gold-coloured buttons and badges, and a
dark blue beret in place of the peak cap.
Combat uniforms has also been adopted for specialist units such as those from
the Special Operations Command and the Police Coast Guard (PCG), collectively known as the
No.4 uniforms. These involve the replacement of metal buttons with sewn-on plastic ones, the
avoidance of all other metallic accruements which are deemed potentially hazardous to the
officer or to others and the use of long-sleeved shirts. SOC officers wear combat boots while
officers in PCG use lace up leather shoes with non-slip soles. These units also tend to adopt
the beret as their headgear, although PCG officers use the baseball cap while on operational
duties.
There was no major change to the uniform since then, except for the adoption of
embroidered shoulder ranks and badges for all ranks in the 1990s. Other changes are less
distinct, such as the upgrading of shoes used, the change of the belt material and belt buckle to
one including the police crest, and changes to the peak cap to a more durable and ventilated
version.
Ranks
A standard rank structure is used throughout the police force, although some ranks may
be unique to specific organizations. These ranks are denoted where applicable in the following
list, which lists them in ascending seniority:
Police officers
The rank of Corporal was abolished in 1972, but reinstated in 1976. In 1997, all ranks
were shifted from the sleeves to the epaulettes, except for the Gurkha Contingent. Also in the
same year, the Station Inspector rank was changed from collar pips to epaulettes with a new
design similar to that of the SAF Warrant Officers, and the rank of Senior Station Inspector was
introduced. In 1998, the Senior Station Inspector (2) rank was introduced, and changes were
made to the SI, SSI, and SSI(2) rank designs. The rank of Lance Corporal was abolished in
2002. The 2006, the Gurkha Contingent adopted embroidered ranks as part of an overhaul of its
combat dress, but are worn on the right front pocket.

Rank Abbreviation Trainee Regular NSF NSmen VSC Gurkha

Constable PC - - - PC - PC

Special Constable SC TSC - SC - - -

Corporal CPL TCPL CPL SC/CPL CPL (NS) CPL (V) CPL

Sergeant SGT TSGT SGT SC/SGT SGT (NS) SGT (V) SGT

SC/ SSGT
Staff Sergeant SSGT - SSGT SSGT (V) SSGT
SSGT (NS)

Senior Staff SSSGT SSSGT

SSSGT - SSSGT - SSSGT
Sergeant (NS) (V)
Station Inspector SI - SI - SI (NS) SI (V) SI

Senior Station
SSI - SSI - SSI (NS) SSI (V) -
Inspector

Senior Station SSI(2)

SSI (2) - SSI (2) - SSI(2)(V) -
Inspector (2) (NS)

Senior police officers

Abbreviatio
Rank Trainee Regular NSF NSmen VSC Gurkha
n

OCT(NSF) NSPI INSP

Inspector INSP INSP INSP (V) INSP
P/INSP NSI (NS)

Assistant ASP
ASP P/ASP ASP ASP (V) ASP
Superintendent (NS)

DSP
Deputy Superintendent DSP - DSP - DSP (V) DSP
(NS)

SUPT SUPT(V
Superintendent SUPT - SUPT - SUPT
(NS) )

Deputy Assistant
DAC - DAC - - DAC (V) DAC
Commissioner

Assistant Commissioner AC - AC - - AC(V) AC

Senior Assistant
SAC - SAC - - - -
Commissioner

Deputy Commissioner
DCP/DC - DCP - - - -
of Police

Commissioner of Police CP - CP - - - -

Salary Structure

The entry salaries of our officers depend on their educational qualifications.Newly

appointed Senior Police Officers would enjoy retirement benefits with the introduction of the new
INVEST plan. Under the plan, the officers would receive an additional monthly contributions of
11.75% of their monthly gross salary into their INVEST Retirement Account.
 This contribution will start from the 1st year of service and will increase to 17.75% on
promotion to the superscale grades. A lump-sum payout will be made on retirement.

Entry Appointment Entry Qualification Gross Monthly Salary

Assistant 1st Class/ 2nd Class Upper Hons Degree
Superintendent of Police
Without NS $3,300.00 - $3,554.00
With NS * $3,808.00 - $4,062.00
Inspector of Police Other Hons Degree / Pass Degree (With Merit) / Pass
Degree
Without NS $2,650.00 - $3,050.00
With NS * $3,082.00 - $3,482.00

Entry Requirements

Male Female
PES A or B Exempted
Educational Requirements At least 5 GCE 'O' Level credits* or NITEC
(formerly ITE-NTC2)

Nationality Singaporean or Singapore Permanent Resident

* Applicants with at least 3 'O' Level credits may also apply.

** Applicants who have yet to serve Full-Time National Service may also apply.

6.3.3 Police System of other ASEAN Countries

A.MALDIVES POLICE SYSTEM

The Maldives Police Service is the civilian national police force of the Republic of
Maldives. It is responsible for enforcing criminal and traffic law, enhancing public safety,
maintaining order and keeping the peace throughout Maldives. The organization comes under
the control of the Ministry of Home Affairs.
History of the Force
A Police force was established by Law on 29 March 1933, during the kingdom of A-
Sultan Muhammad Shamsuddeen III. The service consisted initially of 120 officers, organized
into duty shifts. Officers were issued with uniforms of Maldivian Traditional dress of Mundu and
Libaas plus Black Cap, Belt and straps on duty. They were equipped with batons and issued
whistles for communication. Their duty was to patrol the market area and the island. In other
words, establishing peace amongst the citizens and protecting the people and their belongings.
The law that established police in 29 March 1933 by Sultan Mohamed Shamsudhdheen, has
never been cancelled by any of the historical writings seen so far. It is known that Police and
Military were separate organizations when they first formed.
The police worked with the assistance of the military when needed. During the earlier
days of Police, there was violence between the foreign investors and the Maldivians. The
foreigners stopped business with Maldivians and closed their shops which caused the
Maldivians to suffer. The Police tried their best to control the situation, but needed the help of
the Military. The Military helped the Police in their full strength and finally brought the situation
under control. That was on 15 May 1933.
The initial Investigation office was small with only three investigation tables. The three
tables in the investigating office represented three sections of the service- Theft, Political and
Serious Crimes. In 1970 Police office was changed to the building that has since become
the National Security Service library. New sections formed; traffic control and road accidents
became the responsibility of the police. The Police force was soon disbanded although the initial
law was not revoked. The police force was formally re-established on 13 March 1972, as a
branch of the security force, which was then known as National Guards, functioning under the
Ministry of Public Safety.
The operating procedures of service established in 1933 were maintained until the
election of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom on 11 November 1978 when the force was re-structured.
In 1985 the headquarters was re-located to the building of the current Ministry of Defense and
National security. Apart from an Admin Section, five investigation sections were formed.
Service Symbols
Service Badge - Rudder
The rudder of a "dhoni" determines the course of each journey in reaching its
destination; it is instrumental to protecting the passengers and goods in the "dhoni"
from the dangers of the sea. In the same manner, the joint rudders on the Police
badge symbolize safe passage for the Maldives, through the trials and tribulations it
faces in today’s society, which are overcome with the combined efforts of the Police
and the community.

Service Badge - Shield

The shield represents the colors of the Maldivian Flag symbolizes the efforts of the
Police to uphold the peace and to protect the glory of the Islamic Religion and
the Maldives

Service Badge - Star

Since time immemorial, the stars have played an important role in leading the
travelers to their destinations. The shining star in the centre of the badge is
testimonial to the Police guiding the people of the Maldives to the path of peace and
security. It also instills a sense of joy and pride in the abilities of the Police in the
hearts of the people.

Service Stripe
The stripe is used on the Police vehicles on land and at sea, as well as on the
Police headgear. The stripe is also used for decorative purposes on occasions
as required. The stripe represents the combined efforts of the Maldives Police
Service and the community, fashioned after a design used extensively in the
Maldivian mat weaving. “Police are Public - Public are Police” the theme of the
Maldives Police Service is based on this philosophy of partnership approach of
policing in finding solutions to the society’s problems.

Ranks Insignia
Commissioned Officers

Commissioner Of Deputy Assistant

Police Commissioner Of Commissioner Of
 Police Police

Chief
Superintendent of
Superintendent of
Police
Police

Chief Inspector of POLICE Sub Inspector of

Police INSPECTOR Police]

Non-Commissioned Ranks

Police Chief Station Police Station

Inspector Inspector

Police Staff
Police SergeanT Police Corpora
Sergeant

[ No Insignia ]

Police Lance
Police Constable
Corpora

Organization Structure

Commissioner’s Bureau

1. Executive Service Unit

2. Administration Service Unit
3. International Liaison Unit

Professional Standards Command

1. Internal Investigation Unit

2. Internal Audit Unit
3. Counseling Unit
Specialist Crime Command

1. Drug Enforcement Department

2. Serious & Organized Crime Department
 3. Family & Child Protection Department
4. Fraud & Financial Crime Department
5. Bureau Of Crime Records
6. Victim Protection Unit
Central Operations Command

1. Operational Tasking & Coordinating Center

2. Male' City Police
3. Traffic Police Department
4. Specialist Operations Department
5. Police Custodial Department
6. Marine Police Department
7. Major Event Planning Unit
Divisional Operations Command

1. Upper North Police Division

2. North Police Division
3. North Central Police Division
4. Central Police Division
5. South Central Police Division
6. Upper South Police Division
7. South Police Division
Intelligence & Covert Policing Command
Service Support Directorate

1. Electrical & Mechanical Engineering Department

2. Finance Department
3. Logistical Services Department
Service Development Directorate

1. Human Resource Department

2. Police Academy
3. Information & Communication Technology Department
Forensic Service Directorate

1. Crime Scene Investigation Unit

2. Digital Evidence Unit
3. Quality Management Unit
4. Physical Evidence Unit
5. Finger Print Bureau
6. D.N.A. Laboratory
7. Drug And Chemical Laboratory
Strategic Planning Department

1. Public Affairs Department

2. Police Club / Police Gym
3. Police Family Association
4. Police Shop

B.CHINA POLICE SYSTEM

The National Police Agency (Chinese: 內政部警政署) is an agency under the Ministry
of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan), which oversees all ROC police forces on a national
level. The National Police Agency is headquartered in Taipei CityPolice Organization &
Structure
Hierarchy
Most actual law enforcement and day-to-day policing duties are delegated to local police
departments on a city and county level which answer to the NPA but are considered agencies of
their local government. However the NPA has direct control over several specialized units which
may be deployed to assist local forces, as well as the national highway patrol.

Unlike the police system in USA, the central government appoints the head positions
of city and county Police Departments in the ROC and thus forms a solid chain of command for
all police personnel. By calling a personnel review board, the Director-General of NPA has the
full control of personnel rotation and transfer, as well as administrative commendations and
reprimands over all high ranking police officers, including chiefs of local police departments.

One exception is the President of the Central Police University, who is directly subordinate
to the Minister of the Interior, and is not subject to the NPA personnel review board.

1. Executive Yuan (行政院)

2. Ministry of the Interior (內政部)
3. National Police Agency (警政署)
4. NPA Units/City and County Police Departments (縣市警察局)

a) Precinct/Division/Squad
b) Station
c) Beat
NPA Units
In addition to its own internal administrative offices, the NPA has direct control over the
following units and agencies:

Criminal Investigation Bureau

The Criminal Investigation Bureau (CIB, 刑事警察局) is responsible for the investigation
of high profile crimes, forensics, and computer-related crimes. Under its command, are the
following field and staff sections:
Crime Prevention and Detection Command Center: Code-named Telephone Extension
Number 8
1. Crime Prevention Section
2. Crime Investigation Section
3. Anti-Hoodlum Section
4. Laws & Regulations Research Section
5. Criminal Records Section
6. International Criminal Affairs Section
7. INTERPOL Radio Center
8. Research & Development Office
9. Public Relations Office
10. Logistics Section
11. Secretariat
12. Internal Affairs Office
13. Public Security Office
14. Personnel Office
15. Accounting Office
There are also nine active field police squads

1st brigade: Homicide or unregistered weapons.

2nd brigade: Robbery or sex-related crimes.

3rd brigade: Controlled substances or organized crime.

4th brigade: Burglary, kidnapping or blackmail.

5th brigade: Bombs or explosives.

6th and 8th brigades: Rapid reaction units in central and southern Taiwan.

7th brigade: Financial crimes.

9th brigade: Cybercrimes.

Two task-force-grouped centers include
Forensic Science Center:
Forensic Section(Criminalistics Office): The Emeritus consultant is Henry Chang-Yu
Lee(zh:李昌鈺), Ph.D., in Connecticut, USA.
Forensic Biology Office(Medical Examiner Office): The Emeritus consultant is Yang Zi-song(zh:
楊日松), M.D., retired.
Fingerprint Office
High-Technology Crime Prevention Center It formed on April 6th, 2006.
9th brigade
Electronic surveillance and monitoring center (on cellular telephone networks in private
corporations, such as FET)
Information management office
Special Police Corps
There are 7 individual Special Police Corps, or "Peace Preservation Police
Corps"( 保 安 警 察 隊 ). These are mobile, rapid deployment police forces. They also
execute various sentry duties and serve as a pool of reserve formations for police
manpower.
Three task-force-grouped SWAT units (referred to as Peace Enforcing Special Service
Forces or "Wei-An" Forces(zh: 維 安 特 勤 隊 )[6] comprise the 1st, 4th and 5th Special Police
Corps. The mission of the "Wei-An" Forces include counter-terrorism, counter-hijacking, high-
profile hostage rescue, and presidential protection. In recent years they have also been involved
in the arrest of heavily armed fugitives. The uniforms and equipment of the Wei-An units are
similar to local SWAT units, which are referred to as Thunder Squads(zh: 霹 靂 小 組 ). The
Thunder Squads are subordinate to local police departments. However, the "Wei-An" Forces
are the only police units equipped with V-150S armor vehicles and M998 Humvee(zh:悍馬車),
which were transferred fromROC Army after the 2004 shoot out with Zhang Xi-Ming (zh:張錫銘).
[7]

The First Corps

A training base for courses of on-the-job training and mobile task force. Riot
control, Special Weapons and Tactics, counter-terrorism in northern Taiwan. It commands six
special police brigades and one "Wei-an" Forces(zh:維安特勤隊). Three brigades of conscripts,
2nd, 5th and 6th, served like combat police in Korea, are usually deployed for Riot control.

1. Corps Headquarter, 2nd, 3rd, 4th brigades, and one "Wei-An" Forces, are stationed in
Si-pai, Taipei City.
 "Wei-an" Forces: Formed in June 1992. Its mission specialties are counter-terrorism,
high-profile hostage rescues, and presidential protection. These forces are composed of
SWAT units divided into two companies, which are supported by the 3rd brigade.
2. 1st and 5th brigades are stationed in Sanxia District, New Taipei City.
3. The 6th brigade is stationed in Da-nan, Taoyuan County.
The Second Corps
There are 4 brigades commended by the Ministry of Economic Affairs( 經濟部). It is for
security duty of all governmental business units and Taiwan Power Company under the Ministry
of Economic Affairs and all Science Parks of National Science Council.
 1. The first brigade is especially tasked for the copyright protection and the enforcement of
counterfeit and infringement in related to intellectual property. It is usually code-named
as Intellectual Property Protection Brigade.
2. The 2nd is to guard three nuclear power plants (Nuclear No.1, No.2, and No.4)
of Taiwan Power Company in New Taipei City.
3. The 3rd is in northern Taiwan for the security duty of two Science Parks
in Hsinchu and Taichung under National Science Council, and the other industrial parks,
import-export districts, and certain government installations of the Ministry of Economic
Affairs.
4. The 4th is in southern Taiwan for the security duty of all governmental business
installations under the National Science Council and the Ministry of Economic Affairs,
which includes one nuclear power plant: "Nuclear No.3."
The Third Corps
It is a part of border police and provides supportive and supplemental duty of Customs
Services of Ministry of Finance(財政部), ROC in Taiwan.
The Fourth Corps
Riot control, Special Weapons and Tactics, counter-terrorism in central Taiwan.

 "Wei-an" Forces: In March 2003, two more task force-sized SWAT groups of "Wei-an"
Forces were formed. One of them is attached to the 4th Special Police Corps in Taichung,
which is located in
The Fifth Corps
Riot control, Special Weapons and Tactics, counter-terrorism in southern Taiwan.

 "Wei-an" Forces: On March 2003, two task-force SWAT groups were formed. One is
attached to the 5th Special Police Corps in southern Taiwan.
The Sixth Corps
Responsible for the physical security of central government buildings, high-ranking civilian
officials, foreign embassies, and liaison institutes.
Taiwan Special Police Corps
There are 6 Special Police Brigades inherited from the late Taiwan Provincial Police
Administration.

 The first 3 brigades are for the security duty of 3 governmental financial banks: Taiwan Land
Bank, Taiwan Cooperative Bank, and Bank of Taiwan.
 The 4th is to guard the government installations related to the late Taiwan Province.
 The 5th and 6th are attached to Water Resources Agency( 水 利 署 ), Ministry of Economic
Affairs(經濟部) to protect the water supply and water-and-land-related environmental cases.
Other NPA Units
The Immigration Office ( 入 出 境 管 理 局 ) is removed from NPA and attached to
the National Immigration Agency (zh:入出國移民署) and since 2 January 2007.

1. National Highway Police Bureau ( 國 道 公 路 警 察 局 ): Jurisdiction over national

highways.
2. Harbor Police Offices ( 港 務 警 察 局 ): Part of border police in Taiwan. There are 4
separate offices with jurisdictions over the ports of Keelung, Taichung,Kaohsiung,
and Hualien.
3. Railway Police Bureau (鐵路警察局): Jurisdiction over stations and facilities of Taiwan
Railway Administration since 1949 and Taiwan High Speed Railsince 26 December
2006.
a) The 1st section: facilities of TRA, north of Taichung in western Taiwan
b) The 2nd section: facilities of TRA, south of Taichung in western Taiwan
c) The 3rd section: facilities of TRA in eastern Taiwan
d) The THSR section: facilities of THSR
 4. Airport Police Bureau (航空警察局 ): The Airport police is a part of border police and
responsible for safeguarding, traffic administration, crime investigation, documents
inspection, security examination etc. at local civil airports in the ROC. Its headquarter is
at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport.
5. National Park Police Corps (國家公園警察大隊): Jurisdiction over the national parks,
specialization in search and rescue operations.
6. Taiwan Police College (zh:臺灣警察專科學校)
7. Police Armory (警察機械修理廠)
8. Police Telecommunications Office (警察電訊所)
9. Civil Defense Headquarters (民防防情指揮管制所)
10. Police Radio Station (警察廣播電臺): A government public radio station run by civilians.
It broadcasts regular radio show programs, news, and real-time traffic situations.Task-
Force Formations under NPA.By separate decrees of The Executive Yuan, three task-
force formations, each consisted of roughly a couple of hundreds police officers with
different specialty, are formed under the National Police Agency but attached to two
cabinet-level institutions or other units.

a) Telecommunication Police Corps (電信警察隊): In January 1998, a task force called

the "Telecommunication Police Corps" was formed and attached to the Ministry of
Transportation and Communications( 交 通 部 ). Since 2 February 2006, the
Telecommunication Police Corps are re-attached to the National Communication
Commission(zh: 國 家 通 訊 傳 播 委 員 會 ). Its job is to enforce laws concerning the radio
spectrum and telecommunications.
b) Environmental Protection Police Corps ( 環 保 警 察 隊 ): It was formed in 1999 and is
attached to The Environmental Protection Agency(環境保護署). There are currently 192
policemen serving as Environmental Protection Police and assigned to three brigades
at Taipei City, Taichung City and Fongshan City in Northern, Central and Southern
Taiwan, respectively.
c) Forest & Nature Conservation Police Unit (森林暨自然保育警察隊): This was formed
with 178 policemen on July 1, 2004 by the decree of the Executive Yuan on August 6,
2003, after ten forest arson cases in the mountain area of Taichung County (now part
of Taichung City) within six years. It is attached to the Forest Bureau of the Council of
Agriculture. Besides its headquarter in Taipei City, there are 8 squadrons in Taiwan
mountain area. Its main task is to support the forest patrolmen to preserve and protect
the ecology system and all historic monuments in all the forests in Taiwan.

Local Agencies

Local police departments exist for all administrative divisions above the county/provincial
city level. There are 26 local departments in total. All local agencies are subordinate to the NPA
as well as their respective local government, and all police officers wear the same uniform
regardless of jurisdiction.
Local city and county governments are responsible for allocating funds for their local
police departments and local police chiefs must attend city or county council meetings to answer
questions from council members. While all high ranking police officers are subject to personnel
rotation and transfer by the NPA, under the wake of local autonomy beginning in 1990, the NPA
Director-General will usually consult with local officials
Municipal Police Departments
The Police Commissioners of the Taipei and Kaohsiung City Police Departments hold
the rank of "Director-General, first level," which is the same as the Director-General of National
Police Agency.
 Although the Directors-General of the Taipei and Kaohsiung City Police Departments
hold the same rank as the Directors-General of National Police Agency and Central Police
University(zh:中央警察大學), the latter two are both presidential commissions and appointed by
the Minister of the Interior. As a courtesy, the two local Directors-General usually wear a lower
rank in public.
Taipei City Police Department
Somehow different from the Police system of Japan, in the capital Taipei City, the city
government has its own Taipei City Police Department and a subordinate criminal investigative
force, "Criminal Investigation Division", which is also an active and famous police force in the
field.
Kaohsiung City Police Department
In retrospect to the organization of police administration of Kaohsiung City, it has gone
through history and experienced the great changes of the society. In fact it has to be traced
back to the time of Japanese colonization. At that time there was the establishment of Eastern
Police Office, Western Police Office, Marine Police Office and Fire Police Office.
After the end of Japanese colonization in October 1945, they were used continuously
until the official establishment of Police Office of Kaohsiung City on 8 November 1945. This new
police office was in charge of the maintenance of law and order of the whole city. On 14
February 1946, there was the establishment of the 1st and 2nd Precincts, Marine Branch Office
and Fire Office. In 1958 the Police Office of Kaohsiung City was permitted to be promoted as a
police department of Grade B system. Meanwhile, two more Precinct Offices were added.
Island Police Departments in Fujian
Kinmen and Lien-chiang County Police Departments are two local agencies which are
historically out of the mainstream of Taiwan police system. The local police forces were merged
into the two respective military theater garrison commands once or twice.
Since the direct travel between mainland China and Kinmen and Matsu was opened in
2002, the local police departments are put on heavier duty of border security and immigration
checking.
Kinmen County Police Department
Its root can be traced back to China in 1915. The local police department was once
disbanded in 1949 and replaced by the military security forces under the Kinmen garrison
command. Then, in 1953, along with the reinstatement of Kinmen County
government, Kinmen PD was detached from military command and assigned to the county
government, which was still under the oversight of Kinmen military committee until 1992.
Lien-chiang County Police Department
It is stationed at Matsu Islands.
Lien-chiang County Police Department was formed with 17 police officers in 1956 as a
military security detail "Lien-chiang County Police Institute" under Matsu military committee. In
December 1965, it was re-designated as "Lien-chiang County Police Department." In May 1967,
it was then separated from a military unit and turned into a real civilian police force with four
dispatched police stations.
After two expansions in June 1979 and in November 1998, it now contains 124 police
officers and two field police brigades: Forces of "Criminal Investigation" and "Special Police and
Traffic."
In August 2001, Lien-chiang County Police Department reorganized and upgraded its
four dispatched police stations to four "police institutes." Among them, two police stations are
added to "Nankan Police Institute" and one "Dongjyu Police Station" on Dungjyu Island is
formed up and subordinated to "Chukuang Police Institute."

Ranks

Rank insignias are worn over the right breast pocket when in uniform.
Ranks of Police Officer Rank Insignia Police Rank 4 警佐四階 One Star on One Horizontal Bar
Police Rank 3 警佐三階 Two Stars on One Horizontal Bar Police Rank 2 警佐二階 Three Stars
on One Horizontal Ba rPolice Rank 1 警佐一階 Four Stars on One Horizontal Bar Police Officer
Rank 4 警 正 四 階 (Inspector)(Sub-Lieutenant)One Star on Two Horizontal Bars Police Officer
Rank 3 警正三階 (Senior inspector)(Captain)Two Stars on Two Horizontal Bars Police Officer
Rank 2 警正二階 (Superintendent)Three Stars on Two Horizontal Bars Police Officer Rank 1 警
正一階 (Senior Superintendent)Four Stars on Two Horizontal Bars Police Supervisor Rank 4 警
監四階 (Superintendent General)One Star on Three Horizontal Bars Police Supervisor Rank 3
警監三階 Two Stars on Three Horizontal Bars Police Supervisor Rank 2 警監二階 Three Stars
on Three Horizontal Bars Police Supervisor Rank 1 警監一階 Four Stars on Three Horizontal
Bars Police Supervisor Rank Supreme (Police General) 警監特階

Policing in the ROC

General information

In addition to normal law enforcement duties, police in the ROC are charged with other
slightly more unusual duties such as taking census data, as well as immigration and visa related
issues Most jurisdictions also have a Foreign Affairs squad staffed by English speaking officers
tasked with visa enforcement and issues relating to foreigners or the foreign community in
Taiwan.

With the exception of traffic police in some local departments, all police officers carry
small firearms and batons. A criticism that has emerged in recent years is that police officers
generally do not carry any nonlethal weapons aside from batons such as tasers or pepper
spray, limiting their options when dealing with violent criminals. Police in Taiwan have
sometimes been known to fire warning shots or at the legs of fleeing suspects, though this
practice has reportedly decreased in recent years.
Most police officers patrol in marked police cars or small motorscooters. Motorcycles are
typically used only by the traffic police. Police officers patrol with the light bars on their cars
turned on (which is both annoying and unnecessary). Like many other nations in the Asia Pacific
region, the emergency number for police in Taiwan is 1-1-0.
Local Stations
In Taiwan, including islands of Kinmen and Matsu, there are a total of 1,615 various local
police stations.
Typically, there are 16 police officers, including a station chief and a sergeant, in a local
police station.
Usually, a counter is placed in the 24-hour-opened main entrance and a pistol-armed
police officer would sit there as the station duty officer, or watch commander, on a 2-or-4-hour
watch. The watch commander is the main funnel between that station and civilians within its
area of responsibility. He or she is in charge of the safety of the station, including the security of
firearms and ammunition. The station duty officer must answer all personal or telephone
complaints from civilians, delegate those reports to proper desk police officers, dispatch police
officers on patrol to respond, or provide legal advice to common citizens. Also, the station duty
officer would reply to all information requests concerning suspicious persons or vehicles over
radio communication.
In remote areas or due to manpower shortage, some local stations are allowed by
regulation to close the main gate between 2200 and 0600 hrs, but one police officer must
remain inside.

Selection & training

Career police officers are trained at either the Taiwan Police College(zh:臺灣警察專科
學 校 ) in Taipei City or the Central Police University in Taoyuan. The Taiwan Police College
provides basic training for entry level police officers assigned to patrol duty, while the Police
University provides more advanced training for manager level or active duty officers
in forensics, administration, traffic control, fire control and science, border police, crime
investigation, maritime police, foreign affairs, information management, law and other related
subjects.
In 2006, police selection criteria were amended to include all persons with a high school
diploma between ages 18 – 28 able to pass a police civil service exam and undergo one year of
training. This removed the past requirement where only graduates of specialized police colleges
and universities were allowed to become police officers.
Conscripts may also choose to fulfill their mandatory twenty month national service
requirement in the Police Department following basic training. Conscripts are typically deployed
to assist local officers in positions such as traffic control, riot control, secretarial work, and basic
patrol. Conscripts serving in the police force are generally not issued firearms.
Uniforms

Most police officers, since 1988, wear the standard uniform which consists of dark blue
pants, the Combination cap with a gold band or a baseball cap, a jacket or an overcoat in
winter, and a light Grey shirt. Dark-blue or yellow windbreakers attached white reflective strips
are sometimes also issued, with white letters "POLICE" and " 警 察 " on the back. All uniform
buttons or decorations are golden yellow. A golden rank insignia is worn over the right breast
pocket of the shirt. Two patches are worn, one on each shoulder: one with the golden NPA
insignia, department name, and serial number. The second patch may be optional and is
specific to the squad or unit the officer belongs to.

Court bailiffs, volunteer police officers, and civil defense personnel wear the same
uniforms with small variations. The cap insignia worn by volunteer police officers is silver white
rather than gold, as are the decorations and the shoulder patches. Instead of the golden rank
insignia over the right breast pocket, volunteer policemen wear name tags.
Volunteer traffic police personnel wear similar uniforms with same style but with a high
visibility orange shirt, and usually bear no rank.
Members of certain SWAT units will usually wear dark blue BDU style uniforms rather
than the regular one. Detectives typically dress in plainclothes.
Conscripts serving alternative national service with the police wear khaki uniforms
instead of the standard police blue.

Bureau of Investigation

Regarding drugs, corruptions, espionage, and economic crimes, the Investigative

Bureau of Ministry of Justice has developed stronger capability to cover cases in those
categories for decades. The investigation of these cases, police corruption included, are usually
transferred to or led by the Bureau of Investigation.
MJIB are equipped with a strong laboratory-testing capacity regarding controlled
substances. This gives a necessary advantage and training for the investigators of MJIB.
However, the police forces in the ROC still maintain several active drug enforcement squads at
the local police departments and the Criminal Investigation Bureau of NPA.
Historically, counter-intelligence affairs are under the turf of MJIB. Different from "special
branch" in the police system in United Kingdom, the security divisions at all levels of Taiwan
police system are mainly staff units, not fielded police details. Under the supervision of National
Security Bureau, all non-military cases of espionage would soon be moved to the Bureau of
Investigation.
A few years ago, high-ranking police officials tried to develop the strength of
investigating white-collar crimes in the ROC police system but gained unnoticed
progress. MJIB is still in the lead position of cracking economic crimes or money-laundry.
However, the Criminal Investigation Bureau of NPA has built fair reputation
on copyright protection and the safety of computers and networks. Also, regarding
the copyright issue, the 1st brigade of the 2nd special police corps is especially tasked for the
enforcement related to intellectual property.

Military Police

In the ROC, the usual cases for local police to bring in the military police are military
deserters or traffic accidents involving military vehicles or personnel.
The latter one is a very interesting situation that ROC civilians tend to shake down the
related military units when such kind of accidents occurs. For some paranoid thinking, people in
the ROC military presume that the local policemen would side with civilians. As an unofficial rule
in all ROC armed forces, all military drivers, and commissioned or non-commissioned officers
are frequently instructed to call in the military police when they find themselves are in the middle
of such a vehicular incident.
Contrary to common belief, the Republic of China Military Police can actively go after
civilian criminals, although usually they choose not to muddle the gray area after the lifting of
martial law on July 15, 1987. By "Law of the dispatching of Judicial Police Personnel,"
the military police can deal with civilian affairs under the supervision of the public prosecutor(s)
from all Court Prosecutors' Offices at all levels under the Ministry of Justice. Once so often,
some public prosecutor(s) would direct the military police to handle large-scale searches or
arrests with cases of police-related crimes, prostitution, or fugitive recovery.
Regarding counter-terrorism, there are three company-size troops of special
forces under the operational control of the Ministry of National Defense.

a) Northern Taiwan: Military Police Special Service Company (MPSSC, Code Name: Night
Hawk), Military Police Command.
b) Central Taiwan: Special Warfare Special Service Company, Aviation, Airborne and
Special Warfare Command of the Republic of China Army.
c) Southern Taiwan: Marine Special Service Company, Marine Corps Command of
the Republic of China Navy.
These three are tasked to handle combat situations involving international terrorists, mercenary
or para-military criminals. Bound by laws, currently only the Military Police Special Service
Company can react to non-military cases, like airplane hijacking

Coast Guard

The shore lines of Taiwan are under multiple protections from several law enforcement
units in Taiwan.
Historically, the maritime patrol of Coast Guard Administration could be traced back to
one of its several origins, the former 7th Special Police Corps. As a matter of fact, the former
7th Special Police Corps was expanded from the late and unique River Patrol squadron
of Taipei County (now New Taipei City) Police Department. Ironically, the land branches of
Coast Guard Administration are rooted from the late controversial Taiwan Garrison Command.
However, the formations of land patrol forces were inherited from the ROC Army.
Based on these interesting and complicated roots of heritage, Coast Guard
Administration does not always go along well with the police, especially when the land
jurisdiction problems presents.
Smuggling and Arms-trafficking has been a long existing issue in Taiwan. Human-
trafficking and its counterpart, prostitution, are increasingly hot problems in Taiwan.
Naturally, the maritime patrol of Coast Guard Administration is tasked to stop those
crimes at sea and the coastal patrol of Coast Guard Administration is detailed to intercept such
criminal cases along the coast line of Taiwan. The in-land territory of Taiwan should be the
responsibility of individual local police departments or national law enforcement units from NPA
or MJIB.

Fire Brigades

Taiwan Firemen were a part of the Taiwan Police before 1995. At that time, the Fire
Policemen were not the most favorite people in the eyes of certain police chiefs. The most
extreme case was inTaipei County (now New Taipei City) Police Department: the Taipei
County Police Commissioner Yao Kao-Chiao (zh: 姚 高 橋 ) assigned all his fire policemen to
kitchen duty because he felt his fire policemen were doing nothing except waiting for a fire to
happen.
It is worth to point out that Yao Kao-Chiao was the Directors-General of Central Police
University from May 1995 to June 1996, of National Police Agency from June 1996 to 1997,
and of Coast Guard Administration from 2000-01-28 to 2000-05-21.
Also, in Taiwan, another contradiction was the radio call signs for the fire trucks or
rescue vehicles. For reasons to avoid unwanted attentions and to remain secrecy, all radio call
signs for all police vehicles were uncorrelated with the missions of the subject vehicles,
unnecessarily including fire trucks, rescue vehicles, and ambulances of fire brigades. When fire
police teams were responding to an emergency situation, these confusing call signs inevitably
led to chaos and time delay. A successful fire chief, Chao Kang (zh:趙鋼,convinced the police
high command to rearrange the radio call sign assignment for all fire vehicles. Chao Kang then
was appointed as the Commissioner of Taiwan Provincial Fire Administration, and the Director-
General of National Fire Agency from 2000-08-10 to September 2002.
C.INDIA POLICE SYSTEM

Law enforcement in India by numerous law enforcement agencies. Like many federal
structures, the nature of the Constitution of India mandates law and order as a subject of the
state, therefore the bulk of the policing lies with the respective states and territories of India.

At the federal level, the many agencies are part of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs,
and support the states in their duties. Larger cities also operate metropolitan police forces,
under respective state governments. All senior police officers in the state police forces, as well
as those in the federal agencies, are members of the Indian Police Service (IPS) and Indian
Revenue Service (IRS), one of the civil services.
Central (federal) agencies
The federal police are controlled by the central Government of India. The majority of
federal law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The head of
each of the federal law enforcement agencies is always an Indian Police Service (IPS). The
constitution assigns responsibility for maintaining law and order to the states and territories, and
almost all routine policing—including apprehension of criminals—is carried out by state-level
police forces. The constitution also permits the central government to participate in police
operations and organization by authorizing the maintenance of the Indian Police Service.
Police officers are recruited by the Union Public Service Commission through a competitive
nationwide examination. On completion of a nationwide basic public-service course, police
officer candidates attend the National Police Academy at Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. They are
then assigned to particular state or union territory forces, where they usually remain for the rest
of their careers. About 50 percent of the officers are regularly assigned to states or territories
other than their own in an effort to promote national integration.

Ministry of Home Affairs

The principal national-level organization concerned with law enforcement is the Ministry
of Home Affairs, which supervises a large number of government functions and agencies
operated and administered by the central government. The ministry is concerned with all
matters pertaining to the maintenance of public peace and order, the staffing and administration
of the public services, the delineation of internal boundaries, and the administration of union
territories.
 In addition to managing the Indian Police Service, the Ministry of Home Affairs maintains
several agencies and organizations dealing with police and security. Police in the union
territories are the responsibility of the Police Division, which also runs the National Police
Academy and the Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science. The Central Bureau of
Investigation investigates crimes that might involve public officials or have ramifications for
several states. The ministry also is the parent organization of the Border Security Force.
Central Armed Police Forces
There are eight forces officially defined as "Central Armed Police Forces". They are
frequently unofficially referred to as "paramilitary".
Border Security Force
The Border Security Force (BSF) is responsible for guarding India's land borders during
peacetime and preventing trans-border crimes. It is a central paramilitary force operating under
the Union Ministry of Home Affairs. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 demonstrated the
inadequacies of the existing border management system and led to the formation of the Border
Security Force as a unified central agency with the specific mandate of guarding India's
international boundaries. The BSF's paramilitary capabilities were used in the Indo-Pakistani
War of 1971 against the Pakistani Armed Forces in areas where the Indian Armed Forces was
thinly spread; BSF troops took part in the Battle of Longewala.
Although originally charged with guarding India's external boundaries, the BSF has more
recently been given the task of aiding the Indian Army encounter and counter-
terrorism operations. When the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir broke out in 1989,
the Jammu and Kashmir state police and the thinly-deployed Central Reserve Police
Force (CRPF) struggled to cope with the spiraling violence, and the Indian government
deployed the BSF to Jammu and Kashmir to combat Islamic militants.
Central Industrial Security Force
The Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) is used to guard industrial installations
around the country owned by the Central government as well as securing seaports and airports.
Recently CISF has started providing services to non government organizations. Infosys being
the first one. Many other private industries has also applied for the same.
Central Reserve Police Force
The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) is one of the largest paramilitary
organizations in the world.[ Its main objective is to assist and help state and union territories' law
enforcement agencies in maintaining law and order and to contain insurgency. It is also
deployed as anti-terrorist unit in various regions. As of 2010, the CRPF is the largest
paramilitary organization of the country and is actively looking after the internal security of every
part of India and are even operating abroad as part of United Nations peacekeeping missions. It
is performing a variety of duties ranging from VIP security to election duties, from guarding of
vital installations to the counter-naxal operations.
Indo-Tibetan Border Police
The Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) are a paramilitary force responsible for security
along the Indo-Tibetan Border, covering 2115 km. The ITBP is trained
in mountaineering, disaster management, and nuclear, biological and chemical disasters. ITBP
personnel have been deployed abroad to UN peacekeeping missions in Bosnia and elsewhere.
National Security Guards
The National Security Guards (NSG) is a commando unit originally created for counter-
terrorism and hostage rescue missions. Raised in 1986, it is popularly known as the "Black
Cats" for the uniform worn by its operators. Like most military and elite security units in India, it
is media-shy and the general Indian public is largely unaware of its capabilities and operational
details.
The NSG draws its members from the Indian Army and various central police units. It is
India's premier counter-terror outfit and is typically deployed in situations that would be beyond
the capabilities of regular police units. An NSG team with a dedicated transport aircraft is always
stationed at Palam airport in New Delhi, ready to deploy in 30 minutes. The NSG has also been
increasingly tasked with protection of VIPs. This role has expanded in recent years, as several
politicians have come to view NSG protection as a status symbol. This has caused some
concern among senior NSG officers and Home Ministry officials.[
Railway Protection Force
The Railway Protection Force (RPF) is responsible for law enforcement on Indian
Railways. They maintain discipline on platforms as well as travel inside trains to keep
passengers secure. Railway accidents are also handled by them.
Special Protection Group
The Special Protection Group (SPG) is the executive protection agency of
the Government of India. It is responsible for the protection of the Prime Minister of India, other
top officials, and their immediate families. The force was established in 1985 after
the assassination of Indira Gandhi.
Sashastra Seema Bal /SSB
The Bal, formed in 1963 is a Central Armed Police Force deployed on the borders along
with Nepal and Bhutan. This is earlier known as special service bureau and was under cabinet
secretariat and contributed in many covert operations for the nation. Since 2001 it came under
ministry of home affairs, and later assigned the task to guard the Indo-Nepal and Indo-Bhutan
border, which are porous and required no visa to visit in these two nations for Indian citizens.
Porous borders between these two nations makes the task of border guarding more complex,
but SSB men are adept in this task and this is the 1st Border Guarding Force (BGF) in India to
recruit women component in its strength.

Central investigation and intelligence institutions:

Central Bureau of Investigations

The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is India's premier investigative agency,
responsible for a wide variety of criminal and national security matters. It was established on 1
April 1963 and evolved from the Special Police Establishment founded in 1941. The Central
Bureau of Investigation is controlled by the Department of Personnel and Training in the Ministry
of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pension of the Union Government usually headed by
a Union Minister who reports directly to the Prime Minister. It is India’s official Interpol unit. The
CBI draws its officers from the best IPS and IRS officers around the country. It is responsible for
investigation into various crimes and national security. The agency specializes in investigating
crimes involving high ranking government officials and politicians.
Indian Income-tax Department
The Indian Income-tax Department is India's premier financial agency, responsible for a
wide variety of financial and fiscal matters. The Tax department is controlled by the Department
of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance of the Union Government headed by a Union Minister who
reports directly to the Prime Mister .The CBDT is a part of Department of Revenue in the
Ministry of Finance. On one hand, CBDT provides essential inputs for policy and planning of
direct taxes in India, at the same time it is also responsible for administration of direct tax laws
through the Income Tax Department. The Central is a statutory authority functioning under the
Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963. The officials of the Board in their ex-officio capacity also
function as a Division of the Ministry dealing with matters relating to levy and collection of direct
taxes and matters of tax evasion and revenue intelligence. It is India’s official FATF unit. The
Income tax Department draws its officers from the Indian Revenue Service officers around the
country. It is responsible for investigation into various economic crimes and tax evasion. The
special agents and agents are able to carry firearms when they are posted in the Directorate of
Criminal Investigation (DCI) in the I-T department .The Finance Ministry has recently notified
bringing under one umbrella the intelligence and criminal investigation units of the Income Tax
department to effectively deal with terror financing cases and transactions that pose threat to
national security. The department will now recruit special agents and agents (criminal
investigation) under the new wing, half of whom would be recruited or brought on deputation
from premier investigative agencies and police organizations of the country. The special agents
who will form part of the premier DCI would be able to carry firearms under the rules prescribed
by their parent organization and would be able to tackle any intimidation in course of their new
duty of checking and gathering intelligence on tax evasion.
Directorate of Revenue Intelligence
The Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) is an intelligence-based organization
responsible for the co-ordination of India's anti-smuggling efforts. Officers in this organization
are drawn from Indian (I.R.S.).
National Investigation Agency
National Investigation Agency (NIA) is the central agency to combat terror in India. The
agency is empowered to deal with terror related crimes across states without special permission
from the states. The National Investigation Agency Bill 2008 to create the agency was moved in
Parliament by Union Home Minister on 16 December 2008.[1][2][3] The NIA was created in
response to the Nov 2008 Mumbai terror attacks as need for a central agency to combat
terrorism was found. It also deals with drug trafficking and currency counterfeiting. It draws it's
officers from IRS and IPS.
Narcotics Control Bureau
The NCB is responsible for anti-narcotic operations all over the country. It checks the
spread of contraband as well as the cultivation of drugs. The officers in this organization are
drawn from both the IRS and the IPS.
Bureau of Police Research & Development (BPR&D)
The Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D) was set up on 28 August
1970 in furtherance of the objective of the Government of India for the modernization of Police
Forces. It is involved in a research work of problems confronting the Indian police, the training of
different ranks of Police in India, and the introduction of technology at both federal and state
levels.
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)
The National Police Commission in 1979 recommended the creation of a "Nodal
Agency" which would suggest a common format for maintenance of Crime-Criminal records at
all the police stations in the country, with the same common format being utilized to create
shareable databases at police stations and districts and at state and federal Level.
On this recommendation NCRB was created in 1986 with amalgamation of the
Directorate of Coordination Police Computers, Central Finger Print Bureau, Data Section of
Coordination Division of Central Bureau of Investigation and Statistical Section of the Bureau of
Police Research and Development.

Central forensic institutions:

Central Forensic Science Laboratory

The Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL) is a wing of the Indian Ministry of
Home Affairs, which fulfils the forensic requirements in the country.[1] It houses the only DNA
repository in South and Southeast Asia.
There are four central forensic laboratories in India, at Hyderabad,
Kolkata,Mumbai,Rajkot, Chandigarh,Pune and New Delhi. CFSL Hyderabad is centre of
excellence in chemical sciences, CFSL Kolkata in biological sciences and CFSL Chandigarh in
physical sciences. These laboratories are under the control of the Directorate of Forensic
Science (DFS) of the Ministry of Home Affairs. The laboratory in New Delhi is under the control
of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and investigates cases on its behalf.
National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Sciences (NICFSC)
The National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (formerly the "Institute of
Criminology and Forensic Science") came into existence on 4 January 1972 on the
recommendations of a Committee appointed by the UGC to look into the applied aspects of
education, training and research in the fields of Criminology and Forensic Science to
commensurate with the growing needs of the country in general and the Criminal Justice
System in India in particular. In September 1976, the Institute was constituted as a separate
department under the Ministry of Home Affairs headed by a full-time Director.
State police
Each state and union territory of India has a state police force, headed by
the Commissioner of Police (State) or Director General of Police (DGP). It is controlled by
the Chief Minister and Home Minister of the state/union territory. The state police is responsible
for maintaining law and order in townships of the state and the rural areas.
States such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra have taken steps to get their police
force trained by advanced police training schools notably the Scotland Yard, Atlanta City Police
of the USA and the World Police Academy of Canada. The Tamil Nadu state police is at the
forefront of advancement with the Tamil Nadu Police Academy which now is seeking university
status. Kerala Police is also the first police force in South Asia, to adopt community policing for
effective and pro-public friendly initiatives and action.
The Police Act of 1861 established the fundamental principles of organization for police
forces in India, and, with minor modifications, continues in effect. Consequently, although state-
level police forces are separate and may differ in terms of the quality of equipment and
resources, their patterns of organization and operation are markedly similar.
The Provincial Armed Constabulary (Pradeshik) is an armed reserve maintained at key
locations in some states and active only on orders from the deputy inspector general and
higher-level authorities. Armed constabulary are not usually in contact with the public until they
are assigned to VIP duty or assigned to maintain order during fairs, festivals, athletic events,
elections, and natural disasters. They may also be sent to quell outbreaks of student or labor
unrest, organized crime, and communal riots; to maintain key guard posts; and to participate in
antiterrorist operations. Depending on the type of assignment, the Provincial Armed
Constabulary may carry only lathes .
At all levels, the senior police officers answer to the police chain of command and
respond to the general direction and control of designated civilian officials. In the municipal
force, the chain of command runs directly to the state home secretary rather than to the district
superintendent or district officials.
Working conditions and pay are poor, especially in the lower echelons of the police
forces. Recruits receive only around Rs1,900 per month (about US$64). Opportunities for
promotion are limited because of the system of horizontal entry into higher grades. Allegations
of bribery, attributable to the low pay and poor working conditions, have been widespread.

Organization

a) Some state forces are organized into Police Ranges, headed by A Special Inspector
General of Police (Spl.IG) or Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) or Additional
Commissioner of Police, who control several Police Districts.
b) The Police District is the fulcrum of state police activity and each Police District of the
state is headed by a Senior Assistant Commissioner of Police or Superintendent of
Police (SP). In many states an SP is assisted by one or more Additional SPs.Generally a
Police district is same as a revenue district of a state.
c) The Police District is divided into Police Sub-Divisions and will be under the command of
a Assistant Commissioner of Police or Deputy Superintendent of Police.
d) The Police Sub-Division is made up of one or more Police Circles, and is under the
command of an Inspector of Police often referred to as the Circle Inspector (CI).
e) Under the Police Circles are the police stations, generally under the control of a Sub-
Inspector (SI). As per the various Indian laws, Sub-Inspector (and above) are the only
officers who can file a charge sheet in the court.
f) Criminal Investigation Department, (CID) is constituted in each district under a Deputy
Inspector General of Police for the purpose of collating and distributing information
 regarding organized crimes. It is also in charge of Railway Police and the Finger Print
Bureau.
g) Armed Police: State Armed Police, Indian Reserve Battalion
h) Unarmed Police: District Police; District Police Commissionerate; Police
Telecommunication; State Police Academy; State Crime Record Bureau; Intelligence
Bureau; Traffic Police.

Metropolitan police

In addition to the state police, major Indian cities have their own police forces which
follow the Police Commissionerate System. The Chief of Metropolitan Police is the Police
Commissioner. Reporting to the Police Commissioner are the Joint Police
Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner of Police and Assistant Commissioner of Police.

The majority of metropolitan police forces are subordinate to the state government. The
exception are the Delhi Police, which as part of the Union Territory Cadre are directly under the
federal Ministry of Home Affairs . All other metropolitan forces report to their respective state
governments.

Traffic Police

Highway Police and Traffic Police in the small towns come under the state police, but Traffic
Police in the cities come under the metropolitan police. The Traffic Police are responsible for
maintaining the smooth flow of traffic and stopping offenders in the city or town, whilst the
Highway Police are responsible for securing the highways and for catching speeding offenders.

State Armed Police Forces

The State Armed Police Forces are organizations which provide the state with policing in
particularly violent or serious situations. Such forces are often involved with
combating banditry andNaxalites. Like the Central Armed Police Forces, they are sometimes
known unofficially as "paramilitary forces". Each state police force maintains its own State
Armed Police Force (known by names such as Provincial Armed Constabulary (PAC), Special
Armed Police, etc.) which is responsible for emergencies and crowd control issues. They are
generally activated only on orders from the Additional Commissioner of Police, and higher-level
authorities. The armed constabulary does not usually come into contact with the general public
unless they are assigned to VIP duty or to maintain order during fairs, festivals, athletic events,
elections, and natural disasters. They may also be sent to quell outbreaks of student or labor
unrest, organized crime, and communal riots; to maintain key guard posts; and to participate in
anti-terrorist operations. Depending on the type of assignment, the Armed Police force may
carry only lathes or lethal weapons.
Selection and Training
The recruitment process differs according to the level of the position, and direct entry (where an
applicant does not have to start at the lowest level) is possible. The educational requirements
increase with recruitments for higher posts.
The Superintendents of Police (SP) are recruited every year by the UPSC (a wing of the central
government) by an extremely competitive exam and are appointed into the Indian Police
Service. The IPS officers are then assigned to a state force. Superintendents of Police undergo
rigorous training for 44 weeks. The training programmed also involves external invitees such as
lawyers and management consultants. At the end of probation, they undergo an orientation
training of few weeks at the assigned state's police academy.
Lower, non-managerial positions are selected by the state or central government and
are trained at Police Recruit Schools. The duration of training for inspectors is roughly a year,
and for constables is nearly 9 months. The training staff for these schools is drawn from the
police force itself.
 Indian Police Service (IPS) is one of the three All India Services of India. Along with
Indian Administrative Services (IAS), it is widely regarded as a job which gives the opportunity
to make a direct, positive, and long term impact on the life of common citizen. The recent
internal security problems have only made it all the more important. Lots of youths in India wish
to become an IPS officer because of the intense desire that they feel to serve their motherland.

Pay Scale of IPS Officers

We have the report of Sixth Pay Commission which is the latest one. The Sixth Pay
Commission has recommended the following pay scales for IPS officers which have been
accepted by the Government of India.

Junior Time Scale [Pay Band – III]:

Rs. 15,600 – Rs. 39,100 [Grade Pay of Rs. 5,400 is added with this scale]. This is the
first pay scale that an IPS officer gets when he joined the service. The new officers are kept on
this scale from their training period to the next promotion. Assistant Commissioner of Police and
DSP are two usual ranks that we see with this scale.

Senior Time Scale [Pay Band – III]

Rs. 15,600 – Rs. 39,100 [Grade Pay of Rs. 6,600 is added with this scale]

This is the first promotion that an IPS officer gets. One might not get real promotion in
rank with this scale.

Junior Administrative Grade [Pay Band – III]

Rs. 15,600 – Rs. 39,100 [Grade Pay of Rs. 7,600 is added with this scale]

When an IPS officer is promoted to the Superintendent of Police [SP] then he catches up
with this grade. Deputy Commission of Police [DCP] is another well known post with this grade
along with other posts.

Selection Grade [Pay Band – IV]

Rs. 15,600 – Rs. 39,100 [Grade Pay of Rs. 8,700 is added with this scale]

Another promotion and IPS officers touch the next Pay Band that is Pay Band Four.
Senior Superintendent of Police [SSP] is a well known post related to this grade along with other
posts.

Super Time Scale [Pay Band – IV] – DIG GRADE

Rs. 37,400 – Rs. 67,000 [Grade Pay of Rs. 8,900 is added with this scale]

This marks a big leap for any IPS officer. Deputy Inspector General of Police [DIG] and
Commission of Police are two very well known posts of this scale along with other posts.

Super Time Scale [Pay Band –IV] – SENIOR ADMINISTRATIVE GRADE

Rs. 37,400 – Rs. 67,000 [Grade Pay of Rs. 10,000 is added with this scale]

Inspector General of Police is a well known post of this scale.

Above Super Time Scale

Rs. 67,000 – Rs. 79,000

Most IPS officers retired with at this scale. It should also be noted that Chiefs of CBI, IB,
RAW, NIA belongs to IPS and usually those officers who retired at this scale.

Apex Scale

Rs. 80,000 [Fixed according to Sixth Pay commission]

 The Director General of Police [DGP] the top police personnel of any state belong to this
scale. Since, only one person can occupy this post at a time hence lots of officers retired at the
penultimate scale and becomes head of various intelligence agencies.

6.3.4 AUSTRIALIAN POLICE SYSTEM

The Australian Federal Police (AFP) is the federal police agency of
the Commonwealth of Australia. Although the AFP was created by the amalgamation in 1979 of
three Commonwealth law enforcement agencies, it traces its history from Commonwealth law
enforcement agencies dating back to the federation of Australia's six precursor British self-
governing colonies in 1901.
The role of the AFP is to enforce Commonwealth of Australia criminal law and to protect
Commonwealth and national interests from crime in Australia and overseas. The AFP is
Australia's international law enforcement and policing representative, and the Government's
chief source of advice on policing issues.
Since 7 September 2009, the Commissioner of the Australian Federal Police has been
Mr. Tony Negus, who was sworn in following the retirement of the previous commissioner, Mick
Keelty.
History
The AFP was formed on 19 October 1979 under the Australian Federal Police Act
1979[3] after the merging of the former Commonwealth Police and the Australian Capital
Territory Police. In November 1979, the Federal Bureau of Narcotics of the Australian Customs
Service was transferred to the new agency.[5] In 1984 the Protective Service component of the
AFP was separated forming the Australian Protective Service under the Administrative Service
and later governed by Attorney Generals Department, subsequently that government agency
was transferred back to the AFP in 2004 and is now known as Australian Federal Police
Uniform Protection.
Roles and functions
The AFP falls within the portfolio of the Home Affairs Ministry, a ministerial position
outside of the Cabinet and subordinate to the Attorney-General. The Minister responsible for the
AFP is the Minister for Home Affairs, Jason Clare MP .[3] Prior to the creation of this ministerial
portfolio with the commencement of Rudd Government in November 2007, the Minister
responsible for the AFP was the Minister for Justice and Customs.
Key priorities of the AFP are set by the Australian Minister for Home Affairs and Justice,
through a 'Ministerial Direction' issued under the Australian Federal Police Act 1979. The
current Ministerial Direction was issued by the former Minister for Home Affairs, Brendon
O'Connor MP, on 1 July 2010
The AFP enforces Commonwealth law and protects Commonwealth and national
interests from crime in Australia and overseas. The AFP provides community policing to
the ACT, the Jervis Bay Territory, Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling)
Islands. The AFP provides protective security for (and on behalf of) the Australian Government.
The AFP is Australia's international law enforcement and policing representative, and is
the chief advisor on policing issues to the Australian Government. The AFP maintains an
extensive international liaison network; officers are posted to 33 international posts. The AFP
works closely and collaboratively with all Australian police forces and criminal investigative
agencies and Crime Commissions.
The AFP consists of a workforce of over 6500. The Australian Federal Police Act 1979 is the
legislative base for the employment of all AFP staff. Each employee is described in the
legislation as an AFP Employee, who are then declared as either a Member (Police
Officer, Federal agent) or (Uniform Protection Officer)-Protective Service Division. In addition,
the Commissioner may appoint any person as a Special Member of the AFP. A Special Member
may be given any powers and duties of an AFP member under the Act but is not regarded as
a special constable.
Industrial representation of AFP staff solely rests with the Australian Federal Police
Association branch of the Police Federation of Australia.
National
Federal Agents are based in each Australian state and Territory capital city,
internationally and form the largest component of the AFP staff, Federal Agents chiefly perform
criminal investigative duties.
Current areas of focus for the AFP:

a) Illicit drug trafficking

b) Organized people smuggling;
c) Human Trafficking, including sexual servitude and human exploitation;
d) Serious major fraud against the Government
e) High Tech Crime involving information technology and communications
f) Preventing, countering and investigating terrorism
g) Transnational and multi-jurisdictional crime
h) Money laundering
i) Organized crime
The AFP hosts the National Missing Persons Coordination Unit, the Australian Interpol National
Central Bureau and the Australian Bomb Data Centre.
Community policing role
The AFP provides community policing services to the Australian Capital Territory, under
a contractual agreement between the Australian Government and the ACT Government. This
AFP portfolio, ACT Policing, is the successor of the ACT Police, one of the agencies that was
merged to form the AFP in 1979. The mission of ACT Policing is to keep the peace and
preserve public safety for the citizens of the ACT. Key sections of ACT Policing include general
duties, crime and safety management, criminal investigations, crime prevention, traffic
operations and criminal intelligence. The head of ACT Policing is known as the Chief Police
Officer of the Australian Capital Territory.
The AFP also provides community policing and counter terrorism first response duties at
major Australian airports. Additionally the AFP provides community policing within the Jervis
Bay Territory and in the external Australian Territories of Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and
the Cocos Islands.
The AFP provides a mix of United Nations peacekeeping, community policing and
capacity development roles and services in a number of nations.
Uniform protection role
AFP Uniform Protection provides physical protection for the Australian Government at
key locations throughout Australia and internationally. Uniform Protection officers are firearms
and defensive tactics trained, and perform duties which include armed escorts, bomb
appraisals, bomb detection canines, visitor control, static guarding, alarm monitoring and
response, mobile, foot and bicycle patrols, maintain civil disorder, security consultancy services,
counter terrorism first response at many Commonwealth establishments. Uniform Protection
Officers have powers under Section 14 of the AFP Act 1979 to arrest, stop, search, and request
identification in their jurisdiction. Uniform Protection officers undertake an essential role in
protecting Australia's critical infrastructure and assist in providing protection for Australian High
Office Holders, diplomatic, consular personnel and other foreign nationals.
International Deployment Group
Since its inception, the AFP has had a long tradition of involvement in
international peacekeeping, policing and capacity development. International Deployment Group
(IDG) is an AFP portfolio that has increased rapidly in a short time since its inception in 2004.
Since 1964, Australia has contributed police officers to the United Nations Peacekeeping Force
in Cyprus. AFP officers also presently serve with the United Nations in East Timor (Timor Leste)
and South Sudan.
In recent years, Australian Government efforts to assist neighboring and remote
countries with institutional capacity building has led to AFP deployments to Papua New Guinea,
the Solomon Islands (Under the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands), Timor-Leste
(Under the Timor-Leste Police Development Program
TLPDP, Nauru, Tonga, Vanuatu, Afghanistan, Samoa and Vanuatu.
Previous peacekeeping missions have included Haiti, Mozambique, Thailand, Namibia,
and Somalia.
IDG utilize the Specialist Response Group for particular medium and high risk planned
operations or emergency incidents in addition to assisting with capacity building and force
protection operations.
Ceremonial and protocol duties
To recognize, celebrate and respectfully honor the achievements and commitments
made by members of the AFP, the AFP Ceremonial Team conducts and participates in a variety
of police and community functions and ceremonies.
Ceremonial events include: Annual National Police Remembrance Day Service at the
National Police Memorial in Canberra on 29 September ], medal presentations, parades, police
funerals, memorial services, official opening of Police Stations and Policing Facilities, AFP
Pipes and Drums concerts, inauguration events and Public relations events
The Ceremonial Team coordinates the AFP Ceremonial and Protocol Officer (CAPO)
Network, the AFP Ceremonial Mounted Cadre and the AFP Pipes and Drums to perform
ceremonial duties at these functions and ceremonies.
The AFP Ceremonial and Protocol team currently provide Drill Instructor Accreditations for both
the AFP and the NSW Police Force, and also provide Ceremonial and Protocol Officer
accreditation for all of Australia's policing jurisdictions.
International Network
The AFP has an international network to assist with enquiries and liaison with police
agencies around the world. The AFP represents Australian state/ territory police agencies
internationally. AFP's International Liaison Officer Network has 85 AFP appointees in 30
countries around the world. AFP International Liaison Officers are the Australian Government's
law enforcement representatives overseas

6.3.5 US and other European Models

A.UNITED STATE
a. UNITED STATES POLICE SYSTEM
Law enforcement in the United States is one of three major components of
the criminal justice system of the United States, along with courts andcorrections. Although
there exists an inherent interrelatedness between the different groups that make up the criminal
justice system based on their crime deterrence purpose, each component operates
independently from one another. However, the judiciary is vested with the power to make legal
determinations regarding the conduct of the other two components.
Apart from maintaining order and service functions, the purpose of policing is the
investigation of suspected criminal activity and the referral of the results of investigations and
of suspected criminals to the courts. Law enforcement, to varying degrees at different levels of
government and in different agencies, is also commonly charged with the responsibilities of
deterring criminal activity and of preventing the successful commission of crimes in progress;
the service and enforcement of warrants, writs and other orders of the courts.
Law enforcement agencies are also involved in providing first response to emergencies and
other threats to public safety; the protection of certain public facilities and infrastructure; the
maintenance of public order; the protection of public officials; and the operation of some
correctional facilities (usually at the local level).
Number of police
The 2008 Bureau of Justice Statistics’ Census of State and Local Law Enforcement
Agencies (CSLLEA), found there were 17,985 state and local law enforcement agencies
employing at least one full-time officer or the equivalent in part-time officers.
In 2008, state and local law enforcement agencies employed more than 1.1 million persons on a
full-time basis, including about 765,000 sworn personnel (defined as those with general arrest
powers). Agencies also employed approximately 100,000 part-time employees, including 44,000
sworn officers.
From 2004 to 2008, overall full-time employment by state and local law enforcement
agencies nationwide increased by about 57,000 (or 5.3%). Sworn personnel increased by about
33,000 (4.6%), and no sworn employees by about 24,000 (6.9%). From 2004 to 2008, the
number of full-time sworn personnel per 100,000 U.S. residents increased from 250 to
251. From 1992 to 2008, the growth rate for civilian personnel was more than double that of
sworn personnel.
Local police departments were the largest employer of sworn personnel, accounting for
60% of the total. Sheriffs’ offices were next, accounting for 24%. About half (49%) of all
agencies employed fewer than 10 full-time officers. Nearly two-thirds (64%) of sworn personnel
worked for agencies that employed 100 or more officers.
Changes in personnel numbers
Fifteen of the 50 largest local police departments employed fewer full-time sworn
personnel in 2008 than in 2004. The largest declines were in Detroit (36%), Memphis (23%),
New Orleans (13%), and San Francisco (10%).
Ten of the 50 largest local police departments reported double-digit increases in sworn
personnel from 2004 to 2008. The largest increases were in Phoenix (19%), Prince George’s
County (Maryland) (17%), Dallas (15%), and Fort Worth (14%).
Types of police
Policing in the United States is conducted by numerous types of agency at many
different levels. Every state has their own nomenclature for agencies, and their powers,
responsibilities and funding varies from state to state.
Federal
Federal police possess full federal authority as given to them under United States
Code (U.S.C.). Federal Law Enforcement Officers are authorized to enforce various laws at
the federal level.
Both types operate at the highest level and are endowed with police roles, both may
maintain a small component of the other (for example, the FBI Police). The agencies have
nationwide jurisdiction for enforcement of federal law. All federal agencies are limited by the
U.S. Code to investigating only matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal
government. However, federal investigative powers have become very broad in practice,
especially since the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act.
The Department of Justice (DOJ) is responsible for most law enforcement duties at the
federal level. It includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF),
the United States Marshals Service, the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) and others.
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is another branch with numerous federal
law enforcement agencies reporting to it. U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), U.S.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), United States Secret Service (USSS), United
States Coast Guard(USCG), and the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) are some of
the agencies that report to DHS.
At a crime or disaster scene affecting large numbers of people, multiple jurisdictions, or broad
geographic areas, many police agencies may be involved by mutual aid agreements, for
example theUnited States Federal Protective Service responded to the Hurricane
Katrina natural disaster. Command in such situations remains a complex and flexible issue.
The federal government is prohibited from exercising general police powers due to
restrictions in the constitution, because the United States is organized as a union of sovereign
states, which each retain their police, military and domestic law-making powers. For example,
the State's National Guard is the state's military. The constitution gives the federal government
the power to deal with foreign affairs and interstate affairs (affairs between the states). For
policing, this means that if a non-federal crime is committed in a state and the fugitive does not
flee the state, the federal government has no jurisdiction. However, once the fugitive crosses a
state line he or she violates the federal law of interstate flight and is subject to federal
jurisdiction, at which time federal law enforcement agencies may become involved.
State
Most all states operate statewide government agencies that provide law enforcement
duties, including investigations and state patrols. They may be called State Police, State
Patrol or Highway, and are normally part of the state Department of Public Safety. In addition,
the Attorney General's office of each state has their own state bureaus of investigation.
In Texas the Texas fulfills this role though they have their history in the period before Texas
became a state.
Various departments of State Governments may have their own enforcement division
such as capitol police, Campus Police, State Hospitals, Departments of Correction, Water
police, environmental (fish and game/wildlife) Game Wardens or Conservation Officers (who
have full police powers and statewide jurisdiction). In Colorado, for instance, the Department of
Revenue has its own investigative branch, as do many of the state funded universities.
County
Also known as parishes and boroughs, county law enforcement is provided by Sheriffs'
Departments or Offices and County police.
County police
County police tend to exist only in metropolitan counties and have countywide
jurisdiction. In some areas, there is a sheriff's department which only handles minor issues such
as service of papers such as a constable in other areas, along with security for the local
courthouse. In other areas, there are no county police and the local sheriff is the exclusive law
enforcement agency and acts as both sheriff and county police, which is much more common
than there being a separate county police force. County police tend to fall into three broad
categories:

 Full-service - provide the full spectrum of police services to the entire county, irrespective
of local communities, and may provide contractual security police services to special
districts within the county.
 Hawaii - Hawaii has only county police, there are no state police.

 Limited service - provide services to unincorporated areas of the county (and may provide
services to some incorporated areas by contract), and usually provide contractual security
police services to special districts within the county.

 Restricted service - provide security police to county owned and operated facilities and
parks. Some may also perform some road patrol duties on county built and maintained
roads, and provide support to municipal police departments in the county.
Some northeastern states maintain county detectives in their county attorneys' offices.

Sheriffs' offices

 Full service - The most common type, provide all traditional law-enforcement functions,
including countywide patrol and investigations irrespective of municipal boundaries.

 Limited service - along with the above, perform some type of traditional law-enforcement
function such as investigations and patrol. This may be limited to security police duties on
county properties (and others by contract) to the performance of these duties in
unincorporated areas of the county, and some incorporated areas by contract.

 Restricted service - provide basic court related services such as keeping the county jail,
transporting prisoners, providing courthouse security and other duties with regard
to process and summonses that are issued by county and state courts. The sheriff also
 often conducts auction sales of real property in foreclosure in many jurisdictions, and is
often also empowered to conduct seizures of chattel property to satisfy a judgment. In other
jurisdictions, these civil process duties are performed by other officers, such as
a marshal or constable.

 In Texas the Sheriffs Office is normally the agency responsible for handling mental health
calls. If the situation is dangerous a Sheriff’s Deputy has the power to take a person to a
hospital on a mental health commitment immediately. However, if the situation is not actively
dangerous a warrant must be sought. With the rise in mental health units across the state
the Texas CIT Association was formed.
Municipal
Municipal police range from one-officer agencies (sometimes still called the town marshal)
to the 40,000 men and women of the New York City Police Department. Most municipal
agencies take the form (Municipality Name) Police Department. Many individual cities and
towns will have their own police department, with larger communities typically having larger
departments with greater budgets, resources, and responsibilities.
Police functions
Textbooks and scholars have identified three primary police agency functions. The
following is cited from The American System of Criminal Justice, by George F. Cole and
Christopher E. Smith, 2004, 10th edition, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning:

a) Order maintenance. This is the broad mandate to keep the peace or otherwise
prevent behaviors which might disturb others. This can deal with things ranging
from a barking dog to a fist-fight. By way of description, Cole and Smith note that
police are usually called-on to "handle" these situations with discretion, rather
than deal with them as strict violations of law, though of course their authority to
deal with these situations are based in violations of law.
b) Law enforcement. Those powers are typically used only in cases where the law
has been violated and a suspect must be identified and apprehended. Most
obvious instances include robbery, murder, or burglary. This is the popular
notion of the main police function, but the frequency of such activity is
dependent on geography and season.
c) Service. Services may include rendering first aid, providing tourist information,
guiding the disoriented, or acting as educators (on topics such as
preventing drug use). Cole and Smith cited one study which showed 80% of all
calls for police assistance did not involve crimes, but this may not be the case in
all parts of the country. Because police agencies are traditionally available year-
round, 24 hours a day, citizens call upon police departments not only in times of
trouble, but also when just inconvenienced. As a result, police services may
include roadside auto assistance, providing referrals to other agencies, finding
lost pets or property, or checking locks on vacationers' homes.

Styles of Policing
Police weapons
Police in the United States usually carry a handgun on duty. Many are required to be
armed on-duty and often required to have a concealable off-duty handgun. Among the most
common sidearm’s are models produced by Glock, Smith & Wesson, SIG Sauer, Beretta,
and Heckler & Koch, usually in 9mm, .40 S&W, .357 SIG (US Secret Service & other Federal
Law Enforcement agencies) or .45 ACP.
Until the late 1980s and early 1990s, most US police officers carried revolvers, typically
in .38 Special or .357 Magnum calibers, as their primary duty weapons. At the time, Smith &
Wesson,Colt, Ruger and some Taurus models were popular with police officers, most popular
being the Smith & Wesson or Colt revolvers. Since then, most agencies have switched
to semiautomatic pistols. Two key events influencing many US police forces to upgrade their
primary duty weapons to weapons with greater stopping power and round capacity were the
1980 Norco shootout and the 1986 FBI Miami shootout.
 Some police departments allow qualified officers to carry shotguns and/or semiautomatic
rifles in their vehicles for additional firepower, typically to be used if a suspect is involved in
an active shooter situation, or a Hostage/barricade incident.
Less lethal weapons
Police also often carry an impact weapon - a baton, also known as a nightstick. The
common nightstick and the side handle baton, have been replaced in many locations by
expandable batons such as the Monadnock Auto-Lock Expandable Baton or ASP baton. One
advantage of the collapsible baton is that the wearer can comfortably sit in a patrol vehicle while
still wearing the baton on their duty belt. The side handle night stick usually has to be removed
before entering the vehicle. Many departments also use less-lethal weapons like mace, pepper
spray, electroshock guns, and beanbag shotgun rounds.
.Specialized weapons
Most large police departments have elite SWAT units which are called in to handle
situations, such as barricaded suspects, hostage situations and high-risk warrant service, that
require greater force, specialized equipment, and special tactics. These units usually
have submachine guns, automatic carbines or rifles, semiautomatic combat, sniper rifles, gas,
smoke and flash bang grenades, and other specialized weapons and equipment at their
disposal. Some departments have an armored vehicle for especially dangerous work.
Body armor
Uniformed police officers are often issued body armor, typically in the form of a
lightweight Level IIA, II or IIIA vest that can be worn under service shirts. SWAT teams typically
wear heavier Level III or IV tactical armored vests, often with steel or ceramic trauma plates,
comparable to those worn by US military personnel engaged in ground operations. Officers
trained in bomb disposal wear specialized heavy protective armor designed to protect them from
the effects of an explosion when working around live ordnance.
Police communications
Most American police departments are dispatched from a centralized communications
center, using VHF, UHF or, more recently, digitally trunked radio transceivers mounted in their
vehicles, with individual officers carrying portable handsets or ear-worn headsets for
communication when away from their vehicles. American police cars are also increasingly
equipped with portable computers linked by radio to a network allowing them access to
state department of motor vehicles information, criminal records, and other important
information.
Most police communications are now conducted within a regional pool of area 911
operators using 911 and 911 telephone taxation. A large number of police agencies have
pooled their 911 tax resources for Computer Aided Dispatching (CAD) to streamline dispatching
and reporting.
Entry qualifications
Nearly all U.S. states and the federal government have by law adopted minimum-
standard standardized training requirements for all officers with powers of arrest within the state.
Many standards apply to in-service training as well as entry-level training, particularly in the use
of firearms, with periodic re-certification required. These standards often comply with standards
promoted by the US Department of Justice. These standards typically require a
thorough background check that potential police recruits:

a) Be a United States citizen (waived in certain agencies if the applicant is a lawful

resident).
b) Must have a high school diploma or a G.E.D. and if necessary a college degree or
served in the United States military without a dishonorable discharge;
c) Be in good physical and psychological condition;
d) Maintain a clean criminal record without either serious or repeated misdemeanor or any
felony convictions;
e) Must have a valid driver's license with a clean driving record and that is not currently or
has a history of being suspended or revoked;
 f) Be of high moral character;
g) Not have a history of prior narcotic or repeated marijuana use or alcoholism;
h) Not have a history of ethical, professional, prior employment, motor vehicle, or financial
improprieties;
i) Not have a history of domestic violence or mental illness;
j) Not to pose a safety and security risk;
k) Be legally eligible to own and carry a firearm.
Repeated interviews, written tests, medical examinations, physical fitness tests,
comprehensive background investigations, fingerprinting, drug testing, a police oral board
interview, a polygraph examination and consultation with a psychologist are common practices
used to review the suitability of candidates. Recruiting in most departments is competitive, with
more suitable and desirable candidates accepted over lesser ones, and failure to meet some
minimum standards disqualifying a candidate entirely. A police oral board is the most subjective
part of the process and often disqualifies the biggest portion of qualified candidates.
Departments maintain records of past applicants under review, and refer to them in the case of
either reapplication or requests from other agencies.
b. CANADA POLICE SYSTEM
In Canada, there are three levels of police forces: municipal, provincial, and federal.
Constitutionally, law enforcement is a provincial responsibility, and most urban areas have been
given the authority by the provinces to maintain their own police force. All but three provinces in
turn contract out their provincial law enforcement responsibilities to the Royal Canadian
Mounted Police, the national police force.
Police Forces
Ontario, Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador maintain their own provincial police
forces: The Ontario Provincial Police, Sûreté du Québec (Quebec Provincial Police) and Royal
Newfoundland Constabulary. Smaller municipalities often contract police service from the
provincial policing authority, while larger ones maintain their own forces. Newfoundland's
provincial police force is only responsible for its larger urban areas (St. John's, Corner
Brook and Labrador West); the province has contracted the RCMP to patrol the rest of the
province. The RCMP, colloquially known asMounties, serves as the provincial police in the
territories and the other seven provinces and in some smaller municipalities serves as the local
police force as well. Thus, the RCMP is the only police force of any sort in some areas of the
country. In addition, First Nation's Reserves have their own police forces established through
agreements between the governing Native Band, province and the federal government.
There are also a few private police forces with some of the powers usually reserved for
governmental forces (as it relates to company property). The Canadian National
Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway each have their own police force. In fact, any railway in
Canada can appoint police officers under the Railway Safety Act. The duties of private railway
police are to prevent crimes against the company and protection of goods, materials, and public
rail transit being moved on their rail systems. They work to protect the public, rail personnel, and
property owned or administered by the railways. The regular public police maintain authority and
jurisdiction for all criminal offences, regardless of whether the offence occurs on public or
private property. Some hospitals, universities, transit commissions, power authorities and other
agencies employ special constables. The local police chief has statutory and Common Law
authority and responsibility for the jurisdiction policed. The duties of private special constables
are determined by their employers and have authorities limited by statutes under which they
operate. All persons and companies have access to public police.
Canadian Forces Military Police
The Canadian Forces Military Police (CFMP) contribute to the effectiveness and
readiness of the Canadian Forces (CF) and the Department of National Defense (DND) through
the provision of professional police like, security and operational support services worldwide.
CFMP are unusual in that although, not deemed Police Officers by any Federal or
Provincial Acts, they are classified as Peace Officers in the Criminal Code of Canada, which
gives them powers similar to civilian law enforcement personnel to enforce Acts of
Parliament on or in relation to DND property or assets anywhere in the world. Their authority is
similar to that of an appointed Special Constable. The National Defense Act does not bestow
the authority to the Minister of Defense to appoint Police Officers. Section 156(1) of the National
Defense Act does allow the Minister to confer Peace Officer Status to Specially Appointed
Military Police Members. They have the power to arrest anyone who is subject to the Code of
Service Discipline (CSD), regardless of position or rank under the National Defense Act (NDA).
MP have the power to arrest and charge non-CSD bound civilians only in cases where a crime
is committed on or in relation to DND property or assets, or at the request of the Minister of
Public Safety, Commissioner of the Correctional Service of Canada or Commissioner of the
Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Although MP jurisdiction is only on DND property across
Canada and throughout the world, any civilian accessing these areas falls under MP jurisdiction
and are dealt with in the same manner as any civilian policing agency. If in fact a crime is
committed on or in relation to DND property or assets, MP have the power to arrest and charge
the offender, military or civilian, under the Criminal Code of Canada. It is important to note
though that the purpose of the CFMP is not to replace the job of a civilian police officer, but
rather to support the Canadian Forces through security and internal policing services.[3][4] MP
also have the power to enforce the Provincial Highway Traffic Act on all military bases in
Canada contrary to the Government Property Traffic Regulations (GPTR). The usage of
POLICE within the CFMP is deemed historical in use, and does not automatically confer or
accredit the CFMP as a recognized Police Service. Although appointed Peace Officers, Military
Police Members do not hold status as Police Officers or Police Constables as detailed in the
Criminal Code of Canada. Their authority can be best described as that of a sworn Special
Constable.
Strength
In 2011, there were 69,438 active/sworn police officers in Canada. This number is
expected to exceed 70,000 by the end of 2012. Canadian police strength reached a peak in
1975, when there were 206 officers per 100,000 people. Although the current number reflects a
significant rise in the total police strength in the country (the highest in twelve years after steady
declines in the 1980s and 1990s), Canada still utilizes fewer police than the United States (230
per 100,000), Australia (222), and England and Wales (262).
Provincially, Saskatchewan had the highest number at 207 officers per 100,000, and the
province has also held the national record for the highest crime rate since 1997. The lowest
numbers were in Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador and Alberta.[6] The three
territories, while having far fewer police officers in absolute terms, have around twice as many
police officers per capita as do the provinces.
The city of Toronto has been known as one of the safest major cities in North America,
due to its low crime rate and homicide rate. Toronto's robbery rate also ranks low, with 207.1
robberies per 100,000 people, compared with Los Angeles (348.5), Vancouver (266.2), New
York City (265.9), and Montreal (235.3).
Police Force Ranks
The Chief of Police is the title of the head of most Canadian police forces outside of
Quebec except for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (Commissioner), Ontario Provincial
Police(Commissioner), South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority Police
Service (Chief Officer), Vancouver Police Department (Chief Constable), and the West
Vancouver Police Department(Chief Constable). In Quebec, the rank established to command
and administer police forces is Director General. Other typical ranks include:

a) Deputy Chief of Police

b) Chief Superintendent
c) Staff Superintendent
d) Superintendent
e) Staff Inspector
f) Inspector
g) Staff Sergeant
h) Sergeant (and Detective Sergeant)
 i) Corporal (and Detective Corporal)
j) Senior Constable
k) Police Constable (and Detective Constable)
l) Special Constable
m) Cadet/Recruit

Police Officer Salary Canada (Except Commissioned)

Average Canadian Police Officer's Salary: Police Officers' Wages in Canada

The table below details the hourly wages for Police Officers. The Canadian national occupation
classification code (NOC) for this employment is 6261.

Job titles and exact duties vary in this occupation and examples of some job titles are: police
officer, royal Canadian mounted police (RCMP) officer, highway patrol officer, detective and
patrol officer.

The pay information below has been split into rough bands as follows:

a) Low pay: The bottom 10 percent of workers earn this.

b) High pay: The top 10 percent of workers earn this.
c) Average pay: The average wage in this sector after removing the bottom 10 percent and
the top 10 percent of workers. Average pay is then calculated on the remaining 80
percent of workers' wages.

According to the latest figures, the highest hourly average wages are earned in Halifax,
Nova Scotia at $36.90 per hour and the lowest average wages are earned in Montreal, Quebec
at $19.25 per hour.
A typical full-time annual salary for this occupation is in the region of $60,000 - $70,000.
The largest sector of employment for police officers is public administration. The average
weekly earnings for the public administration sector as a whole were $1136.19 in January 2012,
an increase of 2.4% on the previous year. Assuming an average working week of 36 hours,
hourly average earnings in the sector for January 2012 are $31.56.
B.EUROPE
1. NORWAY POLICE SYSTEM
The Norwegian Police Service (Norwegian: Politi- og lensmannsetaten) is the
civilian police agency for Norway. It consists of a central National Police Directorate, seven
specialty agencies and twenty-seven police districts. The government agency is subordinate
the Ministry of Justice and Public Security and has 13,000 employees, of which 8,000 are police
officers. In addition to police powers, the service is responsible for border control, certain civil
duties, coordinating search and rescue operations, counter-terrorism, highway patrolling, writ of
execution, criminal investigation and prosecution.
The police service dates to the 13th century when the first sheriffs were appointed. As
the first city in Norway to do so, Trondheim had a chief of police appointed in 1686,
and Oslo established a uniformed police corps in 1859. The directorate is led by National Police
Commissioner Odd Reidar Humlegård. Police districts were introduced in 1894, with the current
structure dating from 2003. Each police district is led by a chief of police and is subdivided into
several police stations in towns and cities, and sheriffs' offices for rural areas. The Governor of
Svalbard acts as chief of police for Svalbard. Norwegian police officers to not carry firearms, but
keep their Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch P30 pistols locked down
in the patrol cars. The Norwegian Prosecuting Authority is partially integrated with the police.
Specialist agencies within the services include the National Criminal Investigation
Service, the National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and
Environmental Crime (Økokrim), the National Police Immigration Service, the National Mobile
Police Service, the Norwegian Border Commissioner, the National Police Computing and
Material Service and the Norwegian Police University College. Several other national
responsibilities are under the command of Oslo Police District, such as the Emergency
Response Unit and the two police helicopters. The Police Security Service is separate from the
National Police Directorate.
History

The police force in Norway was established during the 13th century. Originally the 60 to
80 sheriffs (lensmann) were predominantly used for writ of execution and to a less degree police
power. In the cities the duties were originally taken care of by a gjaldker. The sheriffs were
originally subordinate the sysselmann, but from the 14th century they instead became
subordinate the bailiff (fogd) and the number of sheriffs increased. In the cities the police
authority was transferred directly to the bailiff. By the mid-17th century there were between 300
and 350 sheriffs. With the introduction of the absolute monarchy in 1660 and subsequent
strengthening of the civil service, the importance of the police increased. The bailiffs as such
became part of the police structure, with their superiors, the county governor, receiving a similar
role as that of chief of police. The first titled chief of police was hired in Trondheim in 1686, thus
creating the first police district, although his jurisdiction only covered the city proper. Chiefs of
police were hired in Bergen in 1692, Christiania (Oslo) in 1744 and Christianssand in 1776.

From the 19th century, deputies were hired in larger areas to assist the sheriffs.
Following the democratization, the Ministry of Justice was created in 1818 and has since had
the primary responsibility for organizing the police force. The 19th century saw a large increase
in the number of chiefs of police, reaching sixteen by the middle of the century. Christiania
established the country's first uniformed corps of constables in 1859, which gave the force a
more unified appearance. Similar structures were soon introduced in many other cities. From
1859 the municipalities would finance the wages of the deputies and constables, which made it
difficult for the police to use those forces outside the municipal borders. The first organized
education of police officers started in Christiania in 1889.
In 1894 the authorities decided to abolish the position of bailiff and it was decided that
some of its tasks would be transferred to the sheriffs. This resulted in 26 new chief of police
positions, largely corresponding to the old bailiwicks. Some received jurisdiction over both cities
and rural areas, other just rural areas. At the same time the existing police districts were
expanded to include the surrounding rural areas. However, the individual bailiff were not
removed from office until their natural retirement, leaving some bailiwick in place until 1919. The
reform eliminated the difference between the rural and city police forces; yet the sheriffs were
only subordinate the chief of police in police matters—in civil matters and administration they
remained under the county governors.
The police school was established in 1920 and the Governor of Svalbard was created in
1925. To increase the police force's flexibility, the municipal funding was cut and replaced with
state funding in 1937.That year also saw the first two specialty agencies were created, the
Police Surveillance Agency (later the Police Security Service) and the Mobile Police Service.
After a border agreement was reached between Norway and the Soviet Union in 1949, the
Norwegian Border Commission was established the following year. The Criminal Investigation
Service was established in 1959, and the search and rescue system with two joint coordination
centers and sub-centers for each police district was created in 1970.
Structure
The National Police Directorate, located in Downtown Oslo, is the central administration
for the Norwegian Police Service. It conducts management and supervision of the specialist
agencies and police a district, including organizational development and support activities.The
directorate is led by the National Police Commissioner, who, since 2012, has been Odd Reidar
Humlegård. The National Criminal Investigation Service is a national unit which works
with organized and serious crime. It both works as an assistant unit for police districts, with
special focus on technical and tactical investigation, in addition to being responsible on its own
for organized crime. It acts as the center for international police cooperation, including
participation in Interpol and Europol.[14] The National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution
of Economic and Environmental Crime is responsible for complex cases of economic crime and
acts as a public prosecutor for those cases.[15] The National Police Immigration Service registers
and identifies asylum and returns those which have their applications rejected. The National
Mobile Police Service is based in Stavern and operates throughout the country. Their primary
role is as highway patrol and manages the police reserves, although they also assist police
districts in extraordinary events where extra manpower is needed or where they are in the
vicinity.
The Norwegian Border Commissioner is located in Kirkenes and is responsible for
managing the Norway–Russia border and upholding the border agreement. Special
consideration is needed as it is the only non-Schengen Area land border of Norway. Border
controls are the responsibility of the respective police district. The National Police Computing
and Material Service is responsible for managing the police's information and communications
technology, procurement, security and real estate.[18] Norway has two joint rescue coordination
centers, one for Northern Norway located in Bodø and on one for Southern Norway located
in Sola. Their jurisdiction border goes at the 65th parallel north (Nord-Trøndelag–
Nordland border). Organizationally they are directly subordinate the Ministry of Justice and the
Police, although their operations are subordinate the chiefs of police in Salten and Rogaland,
respectively. The Police Security Service is Norway’s security; although considered a law
enforcement agency, it is not subordinate the National Police Directorate nor part of the
Norwegian Police Service.
Metropolitan Norway is divided into 27 police districts. Each district is further
subdivided into local police stations and rural police districts, the latter led by a sheriff. Each
police district is headquartered at a main police station and is led by a chief of police. Police
districts hold a common pool of resources and personnel and have a common administration
and budget. Each also has a joint operations center which also acts as an emergency
call center for 112. Many of the larger districts have their own execution and enforcement
authority, while this in integrated in the smaller districts. The size of the police districts varies,
from Oslo with 2,500 employees and covering a population of 570,000 to Eastern
Finnmark which has 160 employees and 30,000 residents.
Each districts has specially-trained mobile units for armed and other challenging
missions, and dog units for narcotics and search and rescue missions. The police districts also
have police boats for coastal waters and selected lakes, with focus on driving under the
influence, speeding and environmental monitoring In Troms and Finnmark, the Reindeer Police
are responsible for monitoring and supervising reindeer husbandry and environmental
supervision. As of 2009 there were 301 rural police districts, 68 local police stations and 10
execution and enforcement authorities.
Oslo Police District has a series of special divisions and task forces which provide aid to
all other police districts when necessary. It is responsible for the two police helicopters, which is
mostly, used for traffic motoring, search and rescue and apprehension. The Emergency
Response Unit is a deployment unit for terrorism, sabotage and hostage incidents, which is
separate from the crisis and hostage negotiation service. Oslo's dog patrol service includes the
national bomb squad. The departments further has a mobile deployment squad
against demonstrations and riots, a Police Negotiation Unit for use against barricades and
kidnapping, a mounted police, and the responsibility for protecting high-ranking government and
royal officials
Svalbard is not part of the regular police districts—instead it law enforcement it handled
by the Governor of Svalbard. He holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of
police, as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch. Duties
include environmental policy, family law, law enforcement, search and rescue, tourism
management, information services, contact with foreign settlements, and abjudication in some
areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations—albeit never in the same cases as acting
as police. Jan Mayen is subordinate Salten Police District.
Jurisdiction and capabilities
Organization and that police power and prosecutor power is not granted to other
agencies within Norway. The sole exception is the military police, albeit which only has
jurisdiction over military personnel and on military installations, except during martial law. The
police are decentralized and generalized to allow a more flexible resource allocation, while
remaining under political control. This entails that police officers have no geographical or sector
limitations to their powers. The Police Act and several special laws regulate the agencies and
the officer's powers and responsibilities. The police are required to assist other public
institutions, including the healthcare authorities, and can be asked by other agencies to assist
when it is necessary to enact a decision by force. Conversely, the police can ask for assistance
from the Coast Guard when necessary. The police are responsible for all responses against
terrorism and sabotage unless Norway is under armed attack
Responsibilities and functions related to security includes patrolling, continual
emergency availability, highway patrolling, sea patrolling, coordination of search and rescue
activities, embassy security and as a body guard service for members of the government, the
royal family and other in need. The crime fighting responsibility is split between preventative
measures, such as information, observation and controls, and consequential measures, such as
investigation and prosecution. The police further have duties related to civilian court cases, such
as writ of execution, evaluation of natural damage, assisting the courts after bankruptcies and
functioning as a notary public.
Education and employment

Education of police officers is the responsibility of the Norwegian Police University

College, which is subordinate the National Police Directorate. The main campus is located
at Majorstuen in Oslo, while the secondary campus is located at Mørkved in Bodø. In addition
the college has training centers in Kongsvinger and Stavern. Police officer training is a three-
year bachelor's degree, where the first and third year take place at the college and the second
year is on-the-ground training in police districts. In 2009, 1990 people applied for 432 places at
the college. From 2010, admission is administrated through the Norwegian Universities and
Colleges Admission Service. The college also has a three-year part-time master's degree in
police science. As the chief of police and deputy chief of police are part of the prosecuting
authority, they must be a candidate of law to act in such a position. Although there no longer is a
formal requirement for such an education, the role as prosecutor effectively hinders others from
holding the position.
At the time of graduation all officers are qualified for operational service. However, each
employee must undergo 40 hours of yearly training, including firearms practice, to keep their
operational certification. Without this, they cannot patrol, use firearms or participate in actions.
Forty-four percent of police officers in 2012 lacked such certification. The main reason is that
the police districts see it as a waste of resources to train investigation and administrative staff
which do not participate in operative duty, and that a higher quality is achieved through
specialization of tasks, such as dedicated investigation personnel. Each police district may
dictate that operational personnel have a higher amount of training, for instance 80 hours is
required in Oslo. Officers are certified at five levels, of which the top four can use firearms. Level
three consists of a call-out unit for each police district, consisting of a combined 646 people.
This requires 103 hours of special training per year. Higher levels are required for body-guard
service (55 officers) and the Emergency Response Union (73 officers). All certification
curriculum is developed by and organized by the university college.
The Norwegian Police Federation is the trade union which organizes employees from all
levels within the police force.[46] The federation is a member of the Confederation of Unions for
Professionals, Norway[47] and the Police. It is illegal for police officers to strike. The federation
have nonetheless undertaken several actions, including collective sick leave to close a police
station and by members sabotaging courses by not participating. Reports of misconduct and
criminal offenses by officers during duty are investigated by the Norwegian Bureau for the
Investigation of Police Affairs. Based in Hamar, it is directly subordinate the Ministry of Justice
and the Police and is not part of the Norwegian Police Service.
Equipment
As of 2011 the police's new patrol cars are four-wheel drive Volkswagen Pass
at with automatic transmission. New transport cars are Mercedes-Benz Vito for light transport
and Mercedes-Benz Sprinter for heavy transport. The police force operates two Euro copter
EC135 helicopters, which are based at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. In addition, the Emergency
Response Unit can use the Royal Norwegian Air Force's Bell 412 helicopters.
The police have two main types of uniforms, type I is used for personnel which primarily
undertake indoor work, and type II is used for personnel which primarily undertakes outdoor
service. Both types have summer and winter versions, and type I also has a dress
uniform version. Both types use black as the dominant color with light blue shirts. Police officers
are not armed with firearms during patrolling, but have weapons locked down in the patrol cars.
Arming of the locked-down weapons requires permission from the chief of police or someone
designated by him. The police use Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch
P30semi-automatic pistols The Emergency Response Unit uses Diemaco C8 assault
rifles. Norwegian police officers do not use electroshock weapons.
The Norwegian Public Safety Radio has been installed in Oslo, Østfold, Akershus and
southern Buskerud. The system is uses Terrestrial Trunked Radio and allows for a
common public safety network for all emergency agencies. Features
include authentication, encryption and possibilities to transmit data traffic. As the system is
rolled out, central parts will receive transmission speeds of 163 kbit/s. The rest of the country
uses an analog radio system specific for each police district. In addition to lack
of interoperability with paramedics and fire fighters, none of the systems are encrypted, forcing
police officers to rely heavily on GSM-based mobile telephones for dispatch communication
when transmitting sensitive information. Police cars lack GPS navigation devices and mobile
data terminal. Instead, all communication must be radioed to the dispatcher at the joint
operations center, and officers must rely on printed road atlases for navigation. In
contrast, GPS navigation and terminal equipment was finished installed in ambulances and fire
trucks in 2003. The Norwegian Public Safety Radio is scheduled for completion in 2015.
2. ITALY PILIC SYSTEM
Law enforcement in Italy is provided by seven separate police forces, five of which are
national groups in Italy.
During 2005 in Italy, the number of active police officers from all agencies totaled 324,339, the
highest number in the European Union both overall andper capita, twice the number of agents in
the similarly sized United Kingdom.[1] However in this numbers are included the members of
the Arma dei Carabinieri, one of the four Italian Armed Forces, that does not have the unique
role of police enforcement.
National Police Forces
Arma dei Carabinieri
The Carabinieri is the common name for the Arma dei Carabinieri, a Gendarmerie-like
military corps with police duties. They also serve as the Italianmilitary police.
The Carabinieri have become a separate armed force (alongside the Army, Navy and Air
Force), thus ending their long standing tradition as the First Corps (Arma) of the Italian Army
(Esercito). They are referred to as the Arma or La Benemerita (The Meritorious Corps).
Carabinieri units have been dispatched all over the world in peacekeeping missions,
including Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq.
In 2004, twelve Carabinieri were killed in a suicide bomb attack on their base in
Nasiriyah, in southern Iraq. This was Italy's largest military loss in a single action since World
War II.
Until 2001,[2] only men were allowed to become part of the Arma (or any military force,
for that matter), but military reforms allow women to serve in the Italian military, including
Carabinieri.
Guardia di Finanza
The Guardia di Finanza, (English: Financial Guard) is a corps of the Italian Army under
the authority of the Minister of Economy and Finance, with a role as police force.
The Corps is in charge of financial, economic, judiciary and public safety: tax evasion,
financial crimes, smuggling, money laundering, international illegal, illegal
immigration, customs and borders checks, copyright violations, anti-Mafia operations, credit
card fraud, cybercrime, counterfeiting, terrorist financing, maintaining public order, and safety,
political and military defense of the Italian borders.
 The Guardia di Finanza has a strength of around 68,000 soldiers working as
agents, NCOs and officers. Its agents are in service in the Europol and the European Anti-Fraud
Office. Its Latin motto since 1933 is Nec recisa recedit (English: Not Even Broken Retreats). The
Guardia di Finanza also maintains over 600 boats and ships and more than 100 aircraft to fulfill
its mission of patrolling Italy's territorial waters.
Polizia di Stato
The Polizia di Stato (State Police) is the civil national police of Italy. Along with patrolling,
investigative and law enforcement duties, it patrols the Autostrada (Italy's Express Highway
network), and oversees the security of railways, bridges and waterways.
It is a civilian police force, while the Carabinieri are military. While its internal
organization and mindset is somewhat military, its personnel is composed of civilians. Its
headquarters are in Rome, and there are Regional and Provincial divisions throughout Italian
territory.
A program Polizia di Quartiere has been implemented which increases police presence
and deter crime. Pairs of poliziotti (policemen) or carabinieri patrol areas of major cities on foot.
Its critics contend that these efforts are ineffective, as the areas with the greatest concentration
of crime are being neglected.
Polizia Penitenziaria
The Polizia Penitenziaria (Prison Guards, literally Penitentiary Police) operate the Italian
prison system and handle the transportation of inmates. The training academy for the Polizia
Penitenziaria is located in Aversa.
Corpo Forestale dello Stato
The Corpo Forestale dello Stato (National Forestry Department) is responsible for law
enforcement in Italian national parks and forests. Their duties include enforcing poaching laws,
safeguarding protected animal species and preventing forest fires. Founded in 1822, the Corpo
Forestale dello Stato is a civilian police force specialised on the environmental protection. A
recent law reform expanded its duties to food controls.In Italy it has the responsibility to manage
the activities related to the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)

Local police forces

Provincial Police
Polizia Provinciale operate in only some of the 109 provinces of Italy. Their main duties
are to enforce regional and national hunting and fishing laws but they have also expanded
into wildlife management and environmental protection.
Municipal Police
In addition, each commune has its own Polizia Municipale (municipal police) whose main
duty is to enforce local regulations and control traffic, but who also deal with petty crime and
anti-social behaviour, especially in the largest metropolitan areas. These forces can be called
Polizia Municipale, Polizia Locale, Polizia Comunale, Polizia Urbana or Vigili Urbani.
In some regions Polizia Provinciale and Polizia Municipale are grouped into the Polizia
Locale name, although they keep their own internal organisation. Very little comunes can merge
their local police forces in a consortium.
Historical
The OVRA, Organizzazione di Vigilanza Repressione dell'Antifascismo Organization for
Vigilance in Repression of Anti-Fascism was a secret police organization in Italy during fascism.
The Polizia dell'Africa Italiana or PAI (Police of Italian Africa) (1936–1944).The
Italian Republican National Guard (Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana, or GNR) was a
paramilitary force of the Italian Social Republic created by decree on December 8, 1943,
replacing the Carabinieri and the MVSN.Zaptié were locally raised gendarmerie units in the
Italian colonies of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Colonia Primigenia and Somalia between 1889 and
3187.
3. RUSSIA POLICE SYSTEM
The Police (Russian: полиция [pɐˈlʲit͡ sɨjə], politsiya) is the central law enforcement body
in Russia, operating under the Ministry of Internal Affairs. It was established in 2011 replacing
the militsiya (militia), the former police service.
The police operates according to the Law on police (Закон "о полиции"),which has been
approved by the Federal Assembly and subsequentlysigned into law on February 7, 2011
by President of Russian Federation Dmitry Medvedev.
History
The police in Saint Petersburg was established as the Main Police on June 7, 1718 by
decree from Peter the Great. Anton de Vieira was appointed as the first General Polizmeister.
On January 19, 1722 the Governing Senate established the Moscow Police. The
Detective Department was founded in 1866 operating under the Police Department of MVD, and
by 1907 similar departments were created in other major cities of the Russian Empire,
including Moscow, Kiev,Riga, Odessa, Tiflis, Baku and Rostov-on-Don.
The Police of Russian Empire was dissolved on March 10, 1917, and on April 17
the Provisional Government established the People's Militia (Militsiya) as a new law
enforcement body.
Weapon formations staffed by Nazi collaborates fought against soviet partisans during
Nazi occupation of the Soviet territory in the Second World War had the name "police " (Polizei
in German).
2011 Police reform
Russian police reform (Закон РФ "о полиции" (Zakon RF "O politsii" {Law on police}) is
an ongoing effort initiated by President Dmitry Medvedev to improve the efficiency of Russia's
police forces, decrease corruption and improve the public image of law enforcement. On 7
February 2011, amendments were made to laws on the police force, the criminal code and the
criminal procedure code. The amendments came into force on 1 March 2011. These changes
stipulate a personnel cut of 20% in law enforcement, a renaming of Russian law enforcers from
"militsiya" (militia) to "politsiya" (police), substantial increases in wages, centralization of
financing, and several other changes. Around 217 billion rubles ($7 billion) have been allocated
from the federal budget to finance the reform.
Main changes and aims of the reform:

a) Name change. Under the reform, the name of Russian law enforcers was changed from
the Soviet-era term "militsiya" (militia) to the more universal "politsiya" (police) on 1
March 2011.
b) Personnel reduction and salary increase. The number of police officers will be
reduced by 20%, dropping from 1.28 million to 1.1 million by 2012. The reduction will be
accomplished via a comprehensive evaluation of all officers. The evaluation will be
conducted before June 2011, and those failing the evaluation will end up losing their
jobs. All officers who in the past have received administrative penalties or who have links
to the criminal underworld will be fired. For those officers surviving the reduction,
salaries will be increased by 30%.
c) Centralization. As a result of the reform, the Russian police will be made a federal-level
institution, with funding accomplished fully from the federal budget. Under the old
system, police units responsible for public order and petty crimes were under the
jurisdiction of regional and city authorities, financed from regional budget and
responsible more to the regional governors than to the federal center.
d) Changes to police and detainee rights. According to the new law, the detainee will
receive a right to make a telephone call within 3 hours of the detention. He will also
receive the right to have a lawyer and interpreter from the moment of his detention, and
police must inform the detainee of his rights and duties. The police will lose its right to
 carry out and demand checks of a company's financial and business activities. Police
may also no longer detain a citizen for an hour just to verify his identity.

4. SPAIN POLICE SYSTEM

The National Police Corps (Spanish: Cuerpo Nacional de Policía, CNP; [ˈkwerpo naθjo
ˈnal de poliˈθi.a]) is the national civilian police force ofSpain. The CNP is mainly responsible for
policing urban areas, whilst countryside policing is generally the responsibility of the Guardia
Civil, the Spanish gendarmerie. The CNP operates under the authority of Spain's Ministry of the
Interior. They mostly handle criminal, judicial, terrorism and immigration matters. The powers of
the National Police Force varies according to the autonomous communities, Ertzaintza in
the Basque Country, Mossos d'Esquadra in Catalonia, and Policía Foral (Foruzaingoa)
in Navarre are the primary police agencies while BESCAM in the Madrid region is more of a
resources provider. In Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Galicia, and Valencia the National Police
units are functionally acting directly under the orders of the Autonomous Communities to which
they are attached.
History
The 1986 organic law unifying the separate uniformed and plainclothes branches of the
national police was a major reform that required a considerable period of time to be brought into
full effect. The former plainclothes service, known as the Superior de Policía (Higher Police
Corps), but often referred to as the "secret police," consisted of some 9,000 officers. Prior to
1986, it had a supervisory and coordinating role in police operations, conducted domestic
surveillance, collected intelligence, investigated major crimes, issued identity documents, and
carried out liaison with foreign police forces.
The uniformed service was a completely separate organization with a complement of
about 50,000 officers, including a small number of female recruits who were first accepted for
training in 1984. The Director General of the National Police Corps, a senior official of the
Ministry of Interior, commanded 13 regional headquarters, 50 provincial offices, and about 190
municipal police stations. In the nine largest cities, several district police stations served
separate sections of the city. The chief of police of each station was in command of both the
uniformed and the plainclothes officers attached to the station. A centrally controlled Special
Operations Group (Grupo Especial de Operaciones--GEO) was an elite fighting unit trained to
deal with terrorist and hostage situations.
The principal weapons regularly used by the uniformed police were 9mm pistols, 9mm
submachine guns, CETME and NATO 7.62mm rifles, and various forms of riot equipment. Their
original uniform consisted of light brown trousers and dark brown jackets.
The initial training phase for recruits to the National Police Corps was nine months,
followed by a year of practical training. Promotions to corporal, sergeant, and sergeant major
were based on seniority, additional training, and performance. In the Franco era, most police
officers were seconded from the army. Under a 1978 law, future police officers were to receive
separate training, and army officers detailed to the police were to be permanently transferred.
By 1986 only 170 army officers remained in the National Police Corps. Under the 1986 organic
law, military-type training for police was to be terminated, and all candidate officers were to
attend the Higher Police School at Ávila, which previously had served as the three-year training
center for the Higher Police Corps. The ranks of the plainclothes corps--commissioners, sub
commissioners, and inspectors of first, second, and third class--were to be assimilated into the
ranking system of the uniformed police--colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, captain, and
lieutenant. Two lower categories --sub inspection and basic--would include all no officer
uniformed personnel. The newly unified National Police Corps was to be responsible for
issuing identity cards and passports, as well as for immigration and deportation
controls, refugees, extradition, deportation, gambling controls, drugs, and supervision of
private security forces.
Franco's Armed and Traffic Police had once been dreaded as one of the most familiar
symbols of the regime's oppressiveness. During the 1980s, however, the police effected an
internal transformation, adopting wholeheartedly the new democratic spirit of the times. The
police unwaveringly supported the legally constituted government during the 1981 coup attempt.
Led by the new police trade union, the police demonstrated in 1985 against right-wing militants
 in their ranks and cooperated in efforts to punish misconduct and abuses of civil rights by
individual officers.
Duties
Duties are regulated by the Organic law 2/1986 of March 13, 1986.

1. The issuing of identity documents - ID cards and passports.

2. To control receipts and outgoings of the foreign people and Spaniards.
3. Immigration law, refuge and asylum, extradition and expulsion.
4. Gaming enforcement
5. Drug enforcement
6. Collaboration with Interpol and Europol.
7. Control of private security companies
8. General law enforcement

Access and training

Requirements

1. Born or naturalized Spanish

2. Between 18 and 30 years old
3. At least 1.65 meters (5 ft 5 in) tall, for men, and 1.60 metres (5 ft 3 in) metres for women
4. Not to have been convicted of fraud or dismissed by the state, autonomous or local
governments, or prevented from holding public functions.
5. Hold a driving license of the class specified by the government.
Basic Scale:

 Have or to be in conditions to obtain the Certificate in Secondary Education or equivalent

level. (Baccalaureate will be necessary in some years).
Executive Scale:

 Have a Technical Engineer, Technical Architect, Qualified University student or equivalent

or top formation degree.
Competitive examination
The applicant can choose between a Basic Scale career or an Executive Scale career.
Applicants must pass the following basic tests before starting the academy:

1. Physical test
2. Multiple-choice exam
3. Aptitude test
4. Volunteer language test (English or French)
5. Medical examination
6. Interview
Training academy
If the applicant has been chosen, they will receive professional training in Ávila's police
academy for six months. Whilst trainees reside at the academy, they learn about Spanish law,
receive firearms and self-defense training, conduct practical application exercises, learn the
basics of the English language and undergo training in crime investigation. After that, the
applicant will have the aula práctica, that mixes theoretical knowledge with practical situations
for three months. Finally, the pupil will receive a policing practice, in which there will be various
common situations that will form him as an agent.
Ranks

Deputy
Pay scale Superior Executive Basic
Inspector
 Comisario Inspector
Comisario Inspector Subinspector Oficial Agente
Principal Jefe

English Chief Deputy

Commissioner Superintendent Inspector Sergeant Officer
equivalent Inspector Inspector

Specialist units

There are numerous specialist units:

1. GEO (Grupo Especial de Operaciones) - Special operations tactical unit, equivalent

to GSG-9 or FBI HRT.
2. GOES (Grupos Operativos Especiales de Seguridad) - Equivalent to SWAT units.
3. SCDE-NRBQ (Servicio Central de Desactivación de Explosivos y Nuclear, Radiológico,
Bacteriológico y Químico) - Explosive artifacts defuser and CRBN (Chemical,
Radiological, Biological, and Nuclear) specialised team.
4. UIP (Unidad de Intervención Policial) - Anti-riot unit.
5. UDYCO (Unidad de Drogas Y Crimen Organizado) - Drugs and organised crime
investigation squad.
6. UDEV (Unidad de Delincuencia Especializada y Violenta) - Investigation and pursuit
several kinds of crimes related to artistic and cultural heritage, families.
7. BIT (Brigada de Investigación Tecnológica) - Computing crimes investigation.
8. UCDEF (Unidad Central de Delincuencia Económica y Fiscal) - Monetary crimes.
9. Guías Caninos - Canine unit. Drug, explosives and people detection.

Nicknames
An earlier uniform was brown, leading to the nickname la madera/los maderos ("the
wood"/"the logs"). They are also called la pasma. Among supporters of the violent Basque
terrorist organization ETA, Policía Nacional are colloquially referred to as txakurrak (Basque for
"the dogs").
5. CUBA POLICE SYSTEM
Law enforcement in Cuba is the responsibility of the National Revolutionary Police
Force (Spanish: Policía Nacional Revolucionaria, PNR) under the administration of
the Cuban Ministry of the Interior. Article 64 of the Cuban Constitution states that "Defense of
the socialist motherland is every Cuban's greatest honor and highest duty." Conscription into
either the armed forces or the national police force is compulsory for those over the age of 16.
Nevertheless, conscripts have no choice to which service they are assigned.
Crime rates in Cuba remain significantly lower than many other major cities worldwide,
with Cuban police acting strongly against any crime, particularly in Havana. Fidel
Castro commented in 1998 that "The war against crime is also a war against
the imperialist enemy." Information on murder and rape crime statistics for the country have
never been released by the government, however theft was estimated to be 6,531 cases in
1988, or 62 per 100,000 population. The Cuban penal system contained 19,000 inmates in
1990, approximately 190 per 100,000.
Administration of the PNR
As with many countries, the PNR is under the control of the Ministry of the Interior, which
in turn reports to the Council of State. The Ministry of the Interior is divided into three divisions:
Security, Technical Operations, and Internal Order and Crime Prevention. The latter is further
divided into corrections, fire protection, and policing. The PNR reports to this sub directorate,
and is responsible for uniform policing, criminal investigation, crime prevention, juvenile
delinquency, and traffic control. The PNR conducts these activities across the 14 provinces of
Cuba, each of which has its own police chief who reports to a central PNR command in Havana
 While the Internal Order and Crime Prevention controls the PNR, which is responsible
for day-to-day policing, the Security division of the Ministry of the Interior is responsible for
crimes such as espionage, sabotage, and offenses against state security. All these divisions of
the Ministry of the Interior and the PNR have been closely associated with the Revolutionary
Armed Forces since 1959.
In addition, the PNR is supported by the Committees for the Defense of the
Revolution (CDR), a police intelligence auxiliary police organization using la guardia, a
nightly neighborhood watch. The CDR also handle issues relating to water and energy
conservation, pet inoculation, and public health.
Equipment
The PNR have a wide range of police cars, particularly in the major cities, but also patrol on
foot. They utilize radio communications, as well as a developmental computer dispatching
system. PNR officers are armed with a semi-automatic handgun and a baton, and they "may
use necessary force to apprehend suspects and to defend their person or that of any other
citizen” with warrant requirements common in nations such as the United States and the United
Kingdom is a serious requirement under Cuban.
6.3.6 Programs of Select Police Models (provided on previous selected police model)
6.3.7APPLICATION TO THE PHILIPPINE SETTING

PHILLIPINE NATIONAL POLICE

The Philippine National Police is the National police force of the Republic of the Philippines. It is
both a national and a federal police force in that it provides all law enforcement services
throughout the Philippines. It was formed in 1980 by the merger of the Integrated National
Police with the Philippine Constabulary. It is based in Quezon City in the Manila National Capital
Region. It is organized on a regional and provincial basis.
The PNP is under the National Police Commission (NAPOLCOM) and it is monitored and
directed by the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) through it’s Secretary.
ORGANIZATION
The passage into law on December 13,1990 Act No.6975 entitled “An Act Establishing
the Philippine National Police under a recognized Department of Interior and Local Government
and other Purposes” ended the existence of the Philippine Constabulary and the Integrated
National Police and gave way to the creation of the Philippine National Police, known as the
country’s police force that is national in scope and civilian in character. It is administered and
controlled by the National Police Commission.

MANDATED
Republic Act 6975 entitled An Act Establishing the Philippine National Police under a
reorganized Department of the Interior and Local Government and other Purposes as amended
by R.A.8551 Philippine National Police Reform and Reorganization Act of 1998 and further
amended by R.A. 9708.
Philosophy
Service, Honor, and Justice

Core Values

1. Maka-Diyos (God-fearing)
2. Makabayan (Nationalistic)
3. Makatao (Humane)
4. Makakalikasan (Environment-Friendly)

Mission
To enforce the law, prevent and control crimes, maintain peace and order, and ensure public
safety and internal security with the active support of the community.

Function
1. Law enforcement
 2. Maintain peace and order
3. Prevent and investigate crimes and bring offender to justice
4. Exercise the vested power from the Philippine Constitute and pertinent law.
5. Detain an arrested person for a period not beyond what is prescribe by law.
6. Implements pertinent laws and regulations on firearms and explosive control.
7. Supervise and control the training and operations of security agencies.
Ranks
Commissioned Officers
1. Deputy Director General
2. Director
3. Chief Superintendent
4. Senior Superintendent
5. Superintendent
6. Chief Inspector
7. Senior Inspector
8. Inspector
Non-Commissioned Officer
1. Senior Police Officer IV
2. Senior Police Officer III
3. Senior Police Officer II
4. Senior Police Officer I
5. Police Officer III
6. Police Officer II
7. Police Officer I

Internal Branches and Organization

As amended by law, the PNP activated/created the Internal Affairs Services (IAS) on a national
scope on June 1, 1999. It is an organization within the structure of the PNP and one of it’s tasks
is to help the Chief, PNP institution reform to improve the image of the police force through
assessment, analysis, and evaluation of the character and behavior of the PNP Personnel. It is
headed by the Inspector General. The PNP has the following branches included the following
organizations”
1. Philippine National Police Aviation Security Command
2. Program Management Office
3. PNP Maritime Group
4. PNP Intelligence Group
5. PNP Regional Public Safety Battalion

Recruitment and Training

The PNP conducts regular recruitment programs, depending on annual budget allocation. The
entry for non-commissioned officer is the rank of Police Officer I. The new recruits undergo
Police Basic Recruit Course (PBRC) for six (6) months, and a Field Training Exercise
(FTEx) for another six (6) months prior to deployment to various units.
Officer for the Philippine National Police are sourced from the Philippine National Police
Academy as well as through Lateral Entry, for specialized discipline and requirement such as
doctors, engineers, and other technical position. The Philippine National Police Academy is
located at Camp Gen. Mariano N. Castaneda, Silang, Cavite and is the premier training
academy for the PNP, BJMP and BFP.

Other Law Enforcement Agencies in the Philippines include:

1. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)
2. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA)
3. Bureau of Jail Management and Penology (BJMP)
4. Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)
5. Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP

6.4 THE ROLE OF INTERPOL

THE INTERNATIONAL POLICE ORGANIZATION (INTERPOL)INTERPOL
 Is the world’s largest international police organization, with188 member countries. Created
in1923, it facilitates cross-border police co-operation, and supports and assists all organizations,
authorities and services whose mission is to prevent or combat international crime.

INTERPOL
Aims to facilitate international police co-operation even where diplomatic relations do not exist between
particular countries. Action is taken within the limits of existing laws in different countries and in the spirit of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Interpol’s prohibits ‘any intervention or activities of
a political, military, religious or racial character.

6.4.1 ORGANIZATION SETUP

INTERPOL’S STRUCTURE
As defined in Article of its Constitution, INTERPOL (whose correct full name is 'The International Criminal Police
Organization – INTERPOL’) comprises the following:
 General Assembly
 Executive Committee
 General Secretariat
 National Central Bureaus
 Advisers
 The Commission for the Control of Interpol’s Files The General Assembly and the Executive Committee
form the organization’s Governance.

General Assembly
Compose of delegates appointed by the governments of Member Countries. As Interpol’s
supreme governing body, it meets once a year and takes all the major decisions
affecting general policy, the resources needed for international co-operation, working
methods, finances and program of activities. It also elects the Organization's Executive Committee.
Generally speaking, the Assembly takes decisions by a simple majority in the form of resolutions. Each Member
State represented has one vote.

Executive Committee
The Executive Committee is Interpol’s select deliberative organ which meets three times a year,
usually in March, July and immediately before the General. Its role, in accordance with Article of the
Constitution, is to:
a) Supervise the execution of the decisions of the General Assembly
b) Prepare the agenda for sessions of the General Assembly
c) Submit to the General Assembly any program of work or project which it considers useful
d) Supervise the administration and work of the General. In accordance with Article of the
Constitution, the Executive Committee has 13 members comprising the president
of the organization, 3 vice-presidents and 9 delegates. These members are elected by
the General Assembly and should belong to different countries; in addition, the president
and the 3 vice-presidents must come from different regions. The president is elected for 4 years, and
vice-presidents for 3. They are not immediately eligible fore-election either to the same posts, or as
delegates to the Executive Committee. Voting is by secret ballot. A two-thirds majority is
required for the election of the president. If this majority is not obtained after the second
ballot, a simple majority is then sufficient. Vice-Presidents and delegates are elected
on a simple majority. Each member state has one vote; those member states
attending the General Assembly are eligible to take part in the election, providing they are not prevented
from doing so under Articleof theGeneral Regulations.

Composition of the Executive Committee

a) President
b) Vice Presidents
c) Delegates

The former Filipino President of INTERPOL in 1980 – 1984 -

Jolly R. Bulgarian
(Philippines)
General Secretariat
Located in Lyon, France, the General Secretariat operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a
year and is run by the Secretary General. Officials from more than 80 countries work
side-by-side in any of the Organization’s four official languages: Arabic, English, French and
Spanish. The Secretariat has seven regional across the world; in Argentina, Cameroon, Côte
d’Ivoire, El Salvador, Kenya, Thailand and Zimbabwe, along with Special Representatives at the
United Nations in New York and at the European Union in Brussels.

Secretary General
The Secretary General of the Organization is appointed by the General Assembly for a period of
5years. He may be re-elected. The Secretary General is effectively the Organization’s chief full-time
official. He is responsible foreseeing that the day-to-day work of international police co-operation is carried
out, and the implementation of the decisions of the General Assembly and Executive Committee.
National Central Bureaus (NCB)-
Each INTERPOL member country maintains a National Central Bureau staffed by national law
enforcement officers. The NCB is the designated contact point for the General Secretariat, regional
offices and other member countries requiring assistance with overseas investigations and the location and
apprehension of fugitives

Advisers
These are experts in a purely advisory capacity, who may be appointed by
the Executive Committee and confirmed by the General Assembly.

Commission for the Control of Interpol’s Files (CCF)

a) This is an independent body whose mandate is threefold:
b) To ensure that the processing of personal information by INTERPOL complies with the Organization’s
regulations,
c) To advise INTERPOL on any project, operation, set of rules or other matter involving
the processing of personal information and
d) To process requests concerning the information contained in Interpol’s files.

6.4.2FUNCTIONS AND PROGRAMS

INTERPOL’S FOUR CORE FUNCTIONS
Interpol’s activities are guided by the following four core functions:
Secure global police communication services
Interpol’s global police communications system, known as I-24/7, enables police in
all member countries to request, submit and access vital data instantly in a secure environment.
Operational data services and databases for police
Member countries have direct and immediate access to a wide range
of databases including information on known criminals, fingerprints, DNA profiles and stolen
or lost travel documents. INTERPOL also disseminates critical crime-related data through a system
of international notices.
Operational police support services
INTERPOL provides law enforcement officials in the field with emergency support and
operational activities, especially in its priority crime areas. Centre operates 24 hours a day, seven
days a week and can deploy an Incident Response Team to the scene of a serious crime or
disaster
Police training and development
INTERPOL provides focused police training initiatives with the aim of enhancing the
capacity of member countries to effectively combat transnational crime
and terrorism. This includes sharing knowledge, skills and best practices in policing and establishing
global standards.
Interpol’s Leadership and Governance
The President of INTERPOL and the Secretary General work closely together in
providing strong leadership and direction to the Organization.

The official abbreviations

O.I.P.C - Stands for
Organization internationale de police criminelle'
ICPO - Stands for
 International Criminal Police Organization'
.
The official name is 'ICPO-INTERPOL'
The word 'INTERPOL' is a contraction of 'international police', and was chosen in 1946
as the telegraphic address. In 1956, the International Criminal
Police Commission changed its name to become the International Criminal Police Organization
- INTERPOL.

The Emblem
a) The emblem, in use since 1950, comprises the following elements:
b) The GLOBE represents the worldwide activities of the INTERPOL
c) The olive branches in either sides of the globe symbolize PEACE
d) The name 'INTERPOL' below the globe in the center of the olive branches
e) The Vertical Sword behind the globe, representing police action
f) The Scales below the olive branches symbolize JUSTICE

The flag
The flag has been in use since 1950, it has a light-blue background the emblem is in the center the four
lightning flashes arranged symmetrically around the emblem represent telecommunications and
speed in police action
.
Background to the organization's distinctive signs
a) At the 1947 General Assembly session in Paris, it was recommended that all member
states adopt the name 'INTERPOL' as the telegraphic address (Resolution AGN/16/RES/12)
b) At the 1949 General Assembly session in Berne, the
organization (then known as the International Criminal Police Commission) adopted the
INTERPOL emblem and flag
c) At the 1956 General Assembly session in Vienna, the name 'International Criminal
Police Organization' was adopted
d) At the 1958 General Assembly session in London, member
states were asked to take measures to protect the word 'INTERPOL' (AGN/27/RES/1)
e) At its 1961 session in Copenhagen, the General Assembly recommended that members take further
measures to protect the name 'ICPO-INTERPOL' from unauthorized use (AGN/30/RES/6)
f) At the 1972 General Assembly session in Frankfurt, Indonesia proposed
that Interpol’s emblem be modified so that all regions would be represented.
g) At the 1973 General Assembly session in Vienna, the emblem was modified, and now depicts all the
regions of the world.

Protection of the distinctive signs

As an international organization, Interpol’s distinctive signs are protected by
the 1883 Paris Convention. Under the terms of Article 6 of this Convention, which has been ratified by the
majority of Interpol’s member states, the signatory countries have agreed to refuse to register as
trademarks and ban the use of coats of arms, flags, emblems, initials and names of states and
intergovernmental organizations. The organization's emblem and the name 'INTERPOL' have, in addition, been
registered as European Community and US trademarks.

Authorization to use Interpol’s distinctive signs

In exceptional cases, the organization may authorize a third party to use its
distinctive signs. Authorization can only be given by Interpol’s Secretary General. In any event,
authorization to use the organization's distinctive signs is limited:
a) Authorization is given for a specific, identified project
b) The duration of the authorization is specified
c) Authorization does not confer any exclusive rights
d) The authorization specifies that the organization's signs may not be modified or adapted. Where
appropriate, the media (documents, films, etc.) must be submitted to the organization for
approval before publication. The organization may automatically revoke the entitlement to use its
 distinctive signs if it transpires that the project for which the organization has given its
agreement is likely to prejudice its reputation or image.

6.5 BILATERAL AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF TRANS NATIONAL CRIME

6.5.1 UN CONVENTION AGAINST TRANSNATIONAL CRIME
The United Nation is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating
cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress,
human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II
to replace the League of Nations, to stop between countries, and to provide a platform for
dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its mission.
There are currently 193 member states, including every internationally recognized
sovereign state in the world but the Vatican city. From its offices around the world, the Un and
its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meeting held
throughout the year. The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly ( the main
deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and
security); the Economic and Social Councils (for assisting in promoting international economic
and social cooperation and development); the Secretariat( for providing studies, information,
and facilities needed by the Un); the International Court of Justice ( the primary judicial organ);
the United Nation Trusteeship Council( which is currently inactive). Other prominent Un System
agencies include the World Health Organization, the World Food Programmed and United
Nation Children Fund. The UN’s most visible public figure is the Secretary-general, Currently
Ban Ki-moon of South Korea, who attained the post in 2007.
The United nations headquarter reside in international territory in New York City, with further
main offices at Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna. The organization is finance from assessed and
voluntary contributions from its member state, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese,
English, French, Russian, and Spanish.

OBJECTIVES:
1. Strengthening International cooperation for development.
2. Promoting development based on an international approach.
3. To provide acceptance of and respect for the principle of International Law.
4. To promote means and methods for the peaceful settlement of disputes between states,
including resort to and full respect for the International Court of Justice.
5. To encourage the teaching, study, dissemination and wider appreciation of international
law.

6.5.2. ROLE OF ASEANAPOL

Organization of ASEANAPOL
a) ASEAN was established in August 1967 as a non military alliance in Bangkok, Thailand.
Only five countries initially composed ASEAN (Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia,
Singapore and Thailand).
b) Brunei Darussalam joined in January 8, 1984
c) Vietnam on July 28, 1995.
d) Laos and Myanmar on July 23, 1997.
e) Cambodia on April 30, 1999
f) ASEAN organization was initially limited to economic, social and cultural cooperation.
g) Later on it became concerned with the abuse of narcotics and trafficking of illegal drugs.
h) The expansion and diversification of transnational crime to include terrorism, arms
smuggling, money laundering, illegal migration and piracy brought by modernization and
industrialization of the ASEAN nations has intensified and importance of police
collaboration at the bilateral and regional level.
i) In 1981, the police forces of ASEAN agreed to organized an association to be called the
Association of Southeast Asian Chief of police ASEANAPOL. It aims to enhance police
professionalism, forge stronger regional cooperation in in police work and promote
lasting friendship among police officers of ASEAN countries.
History
a) The first ASEANAPOL conference was hosted by the Philippines on October 20-24,
1981 attended by four chiefs of Police (Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines) and
 the Deputy Chief of the Indonesian National Police.
b) Brunei Darussalam joined in 1985 during the 5th Conference
c) Vietnam in 1996 during the 16th conference.
d) Laos Myanmar as Observers during the 17 th conference in 1997 and formally joined
during the 18th conference in 1998.
e) Cambodia joined in 200 during the 20th conference
Institution Mechanics of ASEANAPOL
 It is within the Ambit of the ASEAN, hence communicates through the ASEAN
secretariat.

 It has three Ad Hoc Commission

a. Illicit drug trafficking
b. Mutual assistance in Criminal Matters, terrorism, arm smuggling, economic and
financial crimes, extradition and arrangement of handling over the criminal
offenders and fugitives.
c. It has established its own databases system to enable the member countries to
exchange information and provide further means of accessing the computerized
system at the Interpol General Secretariat.