Passage 1
The Layers of the Sun
Consider the earth, the moon, and all the other planets in our solar system. Think about
the mass that all those objects must have when they are all added together. Counter-
intuitively, added all together they account for only 0.2% of the total mass of the solar
system. The sun makes up the remaining 99.8% of all the mass in the solar system! The
sun is the center of the solar system and the largest object in the solar system. Our sun
is a star that provides light and heat and supports almost all life on Earth.
The sun is a sphere, but unlike the earth and the moon, it is not solid. Most atoms in the
sun exist as plasma, or a fourth state of matter made up of superheated gas with an
electrical charge. Our sun consists almost entirely of the elements hydrogen and helium,
and because the sun is not solid, it does not have a defined outer boundary. It does,
however, have a definite internal structure. There are several identifiable layers of the
sun:
The core is the innermost or central layer of the sun. The core is plasma, but moves
similarly to a gas. Its temperature is around 27 million degrees Celsius. In the core,
nuclear reactions combine hydrogen atoms to form helium, releasing vast amounts of
energy in the process. The energy released then begins to move outward, towards the
outer layers of the sun.
Just outside the core is the radiative zone, which has a temperature of about 7 million
degrees Celsius. The energy released in the core travels extremely slowly through the
radiative zone. Particles of light called photons can only travel a few millimeters before
they hit another particle in the sun, are absorbed and then released again. It can take a
photon as long as 50 million years to travel all the way through the radiative zone.
Surrounding the radiative zone is the convection zone. Here, hot material from near the
sun's center rises, cools at the surface, and then plunges back downward to receive more
heat from the radiative zone. This movement helps to create solar flares and sunspots.
These first three layers make up what we would actually call "the sun". The next three
layers make up the sun's atmosphere. Of course, there are no solid layers to any part of
the sun, so these boundaries are fuzzy and indistinct.
The visible surface of the sun is known as the photosphere. This is the region of the sun
that emits sunlight. It's also one of the coolest layers of the sun—only about 6700°C.
Looking at a photograph of the sun's surface, you can see that it has several different
colors: oranges, yellow and reds, giving it a grainy appearance. We cannot see this when
we glance quickly at the sun as our eyes can't focus that quickly and the sun is too bright
for us to look at for more than a brief moment. Looking at the sun for any length of time
can cause blindness, so don't try it! Sunlight is emitted from the sun's photosphere. A
fraction of the light that travels from the sun reaches Earth. It travels as light in a range of
wavelengths, including visible light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation. Visible light is all
the light we can see with our eyes. We can't see ultraviolet or infrared radiation, but their
effects can still be detected. For example, sunburn is caused by ultraviolet radiation when
you spend too much time in the sun.
The chromosphere is the zone about 2,000 kilometers thick that lies directly above the
photosphere. The chromosphere is a thin region of the sun's atmosphere that glows red
as it is heated by energy from the photosphere. Temperatures in the chromosphere range
from about 4000°C to about 10,000°C. Jets of gas fire up through the chromosphere at
speeds up to 72,000 kilometers per hour, reaching heights as high as 10,000 kilometers.
The outermost layer of the sun, and the outermost part of its atmosphere, is called the
corona. It is the sun's halo or "crown". It has a temperature of 2 to 5 million degrees
Celsius and is much hotter than the visible surface of the sun, or photosphere. The corona
extends millions of kilometers into space. If you ever have the chance to see a total solar
eclipse, you will be able to see the sun's corona, shining out into space.
To conclude, in the sun's core, nuclear fusion reactions generate energy by converting
hydrogen to helium, and the rest of the sun is heated by the movement of this energy
outward from the core. Light energy from the sun is emitted from the photosphere, and it
travels through space, and some of it reaches the earth. The sun is the source of almost
all the energy on Earth and sunlight powers photosynthesis, as well as warming and
illuminating our Earth.
chromosphere
radiative zone
convection zone
corona
Questions 5-9
Complete each sentence with the correct ending A - I from the answer below.
Write the correct letter A - I in boxes 5-9 on your answer sheet.
NB not all letters will be used.
5. The vast majority of the total mass of the solar system is accounted for by...
G
6. i
There is no fixed outer edge ...
7. The core produces energy which... b
8. E
Our planet only receives...
9. c
One kind of light emitted by the sun, which...
A can be seen in the photosphere, as a form of superheated gas.
B is extremely hot and used to create hydrogen.
C is invisible to humans, and can damage our skin.
D moves at a very slow pace through the area surrounding it.
E a small proportion of the light that the sun emits.
F sunspots, which are the third layer of the sun's atmosphere.
G the biggest single object in the solar system, which is the sun.
H. the planets and their moons.
I. to the sun due to the fact that it is mostly made of gas or plasma.
Questions 10-14
Do the following statements agree with the information provided in passage 1?
True if the statement agrees with the information
False if the statement contradicts the information
Not Given if there is no information on this
10. The interior of the sun is composed of a mixture of only two elements. False
11. The movement of matter back and forth between the radiative zone and the area
that surrounds it gives rise to surface features like solar flares. True
12. If a person were to stare at the sun for a long time (while using equipment to protect
the eyes), they would be able to see that most of the surface of the sun is not yellow. Not Given
13. Light travels faster through the chromosphere than it does through the radiative
zone. False
14. Nearly all the energy on our planet is produced originally by means of a nuclear
reaction. False
Passage 2
The Changing Landscape of Oceania
Section A - The human settlement of Oceania, from the earliest migrations to European
colonization, has reshaped the physical landscape of this region. Environmental
degradation - disturbances to resources like air, land, and water - is a serious concern as
economic growth often comes at the expense of environmental sustainability. In Australia,
for example, wide stretches of previously sparsely inhabited Outback have become
grazing lands. In Papua New Guinea illegal logging has contributed to significant
deforestation. Pollution from dairying in New Zealand has led to high levels of water
pollution.
Section B - Invasive species have also had significant environmental impacts in a region
that has been otherwise relatively isolated. Australia has adopted a system of strict
quarantine in an attempt to limit damage from non-native plants and animals. The country
currently spends around $4 billion yearly in invasive weed management alone. Cats have
been banned in parts of New Zealand where they pose a threat to local bird species. Rats
brought by early European ships have presented a significant problem for many islands
of the Pacific, where they kill other plants and animals and also spread disease. Offshore,
invasive fish and algae species have damaged fragile ocean ecosystems.
Section C - In addition to local pollution concerns, human settlement of other world
regions has contributed to pollution in the Pacific Ocean. Worldwide, there are five main
ocean gyres, large systems of rotating ocean currents. In the northern Pacific Ocean, one
gyre has very high concentrations of trash and plastics carried to the area by ocean
currents. It has been termed the Great Pacific garbage patch. When you throw something
"away" improperly, these gyres are really where "away" is. A water bottle improperly
disposed of on the western coast of North America will make its way to the Great Pacific
garbage patch in around six years.
Section D - One issue with plastics is that they don't biodegrade, and instead keep
breaking down into smaller pieces while still remaining plastic. Fish and other marine life
eat these tiny bits of plastic, which can disrupt a number of biological systems. Some of
these fish species are then consumed by humans. Because the Great Pacific garbage
patch contains such small pieces of plastic, and most of the plastic is below the surface
of the ocean, it is not easily visible with the naked eye and it is difficult to estimate its size.
Some have theorized the patch is as big as or bigger than the US state of Texas, while
others note that the idea of a "patch" of garbage is really a misnomer as there are
concentrations of trash throughout the world's oceans.
Section E - Trash from other world regions also washes up along the shores of the Pacific
islands. Kamilo Beach in Hawaii is the site of a significant amount of plastic that has
washed ashore from the Great Pacific garbage patch, so much so that the area has been
nicknamed "Plastic Beach". Though the shoreline looks sandy, 90 percent of it is actually
bits of plastic and you would have to dig down at least one foot to reach grains of sand.
Plastic trash litters many of the shorelines of the Pacific islands, presenting a hazard for
marine life and a management and cleanup challenge since debris often comes from
thousands of miles away.
Section F - It is changes in global climate, however, that pose the most severe
environmental threat to Oceania. For many of the world's regions, changes in climate are
viewed as hypothetical. Hurricanes might increase in intensity. The risk of fire might
increase. Changes in bird migrations in Europe and North America to shifts in global fish
stocks have already been linked to increases in global temperature but with little direct
effect on the human populations of these regions. In Oceania, though, small increases in
temperature and ocean levels could have disastrous effects on already fragile
ecosystems and economies. The Great Barrier Reef is currently experiencing periods of
coral bleaching due to increasing ocean temperatures. When waters get too warm, coral
experience "stress" and expel the colorful, algae-like organisms that live within them.
Mass coral bleaching has occurred several times since the late 1990s and is expected to
become a regular occurrence as ocean temperatures continue to rise. Coral bleaching
has also been documented in other reefs, including ones in Hawaii.
Some of the leaders of the Pacific islands have been among the most vocal champions
for global climate regulations. Speaking in 2015, the prime minister of Fiji, Frank
Bainimarama did not mince words: "Unless the world acts decisively in the coming weeks
to begin addressing the greatest challenge of our age, then the Pacific, as we know it, is
doomed." Fiji has already experienced an increase in infectious diseases related to higher
temperatures, record-breaking high tides, and has had to relocate citizens due to rising
ocean levels. The rising oceans in the Pacific and the concentrations of pollution found in
this region are stark reminders of our interconnected world. In many ways, the future of
Oceania will be decided by the actions of global citizens and leaders.
Questions 15-19
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage to
answer the questions below.
15. According to the article, what environmental problem has been caused by the dairy
industry in New Zealand? water pollution
16. What measure has been introduced in Australia to reduce problems caused by
foreign animals and vegetation?
17. Approximately how long does it take for a piece of plastic rubbish to reach the
GreatPacific garbage patch from the west coast of the USA? six years
18. What proportion of Kamilo Beach is comprised of plastic? 90 percent
19. What problem is affecting coral reefs in Hawaii? ocean temperature
Questions 20-24
Passage 2 has six sections labelled A-F
Choose the correct headings for Sections B-F.
List of Headings
i. Beach garbage from far away
ii. Fish consumption
ili. How pollution from outside Oceania reaches the region
iv. Hypothesizing change
v. The effect of human migration on the region
vi. The extent of the plastic problem
vii. The impact of foreign wildlife on Oceania
viii. The serious danger posed by climate change
ix. The spread of Texan pollution
E.g. Section A – v
Section B vii
Section C iii
Section D ii
Section E vi
Section F viii
Questions 25-27
Choose the appropriate letters A, B, C or D
Write your answers in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet.
25. According to the text, the Great Pacific garbage patch
A. can be seen to consist mostly of plastic.
B. is known to be nearly as large as Texas.
C. is of an unknown size.
D. is believed by some to stretch to all the world's oceans.
26. Coral
A. change their behaviour as a result of exposure to a certain amount of heat.
B. experienced mass bleaching regularly prior to the 1990s.
C. have undergone the most severe damage in Hawaii.
D. exist in the Great Barrier Reef due to increasing temperatures.
27. In Fiji,
A. diseases have meant that many people have needed to relocate.
B. higher sea levels have led to food shortages.
C. some citizens have been moved to other locations due to increasing sea levels.
D. most diseases involve fever as a principal symptom.
Passage 3
Spanish Exploration and Conquest
A. The Spanish established the first European settlements in the Americas, beginning
in the Caribbean and, by 1600, extending throughout Central and South America.
Thousands of people flocked from Spain to the Americas seeking wealth and status. The
most famous of these adventurers are Christopher Columbus (who, though Italian
himself, explored on behalf of the Spanish monarchs), Hernán Cortés, and Francisco
Pizarro.
B. The history of Spanish exploration begins with the history of Spain itself. During the
fifteenth century, Spain hoped to gain advantage over its rival, Portugal. The marriage of
Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 unified Catholic Spain and began the
process of building a nation that could compete for worldwide power. In 1492, they
completed the Reconquista: the centuries-long Christian conquest of the Iberian
Peninsula. The Reconquista marked another step forward in the process of making Spain
an imperial power, and Ferdinand and Isabella were now ready to look further afield.
C. Their goals were to expand Catholicism and to gain a commercial advantage over
Portugal. To those ends, Ferdinand and Isabella sponsored extensive Atlantic
exploration. Spain's most famous explorer, Christopher Columbus, was actually from
Genoa, Italy. He believed that, using calculations based on other mariners' journeys, he
could chart a westward route to India, which could be used to expand European trade
and spread Christianity. Starting in 1485, he approached Genoese, Venetian,
Portuguese, English, and Spanish monarchs, asking for ships and funding to explore this
westward route. All those he petitioned —including Ferdinand and Isabella at first-
rebuffed him; their nautical experts all concurred that Columbus's estimates of the width
of the Atlantic Ocean were far too low. However, after three years of entreaties, and, more
importantly, the completion of the Reconquista, Ferdinand and Isabella agreed to finance
Columbus's expedition in 1492, supplying him with three ships: the Nina, the Pinta, and
the Santa Maria. The Spanish monarchs knew that Portuguese mariners had reached the
southern tip of Africa and sailed the Indian Ocean. They understood that the Portuguese
would soon reach Asia and, in this competitive race to reach the Far East, the Spanish
rulers decided to act.
D - Columbus held erroneous views that shaped his thinking about what he would
encounter as he sailed west. He believed the earth to be much smaller than its actual size
and, since he did not know of the existence of the Americas, he fully expected to land in
Asia. On October 12, 1492, however, he made landfall on an island in the Bahamas. He
then sailed to an island he named Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic and Haiti).
Believing he had landed in the East Indies, Columbus called the native Taínos he found
there "Indios," giving rise to the term "Indian" for any native people of the New World.
Upon Columbus's return to Spain, the Spanish crown bestowed on him the title of Admiral
of the Ocean Sea and named him governor and viceroy of the lands he had discovered.
E - Columbus's 1493 letter—or probanza de mérito (proof of merit)-describing his
"discovery" of a New World did much to inspire excitement in Europe. Probanzas de
méritos were reports and letters written by Spaniards in the New World to the Spanish
crown, designed to win royal patronage. Today they highlight the difficult task of historical
work; while the letters are primary sources, historians need to understand the context and
the culture in which the conquistadors, as the Spanish adventurers came to be called,
wrote them and distinguish their bias and subjective nature. While they are filled with
distortions and fabrications, probanzas de méritos are still useful in illustrating the
expectation of wealth among the explorers as well as their view that native peoples would
not pose a serious obstacle to colonization.
F - In 1493, Columbus sent two copies of a probanza de mérito to the Spanish king and
queen and their minister of finance, Luis de Santangel. Santangel had supported
Columbus's voyage, helping him to obtain funding from Ferdinand and Isabella. Copies
of the letter were soon circulating all over Europe, spreading news of the wondrous new
land that Columbus had "discovered." Columbus would make three more voyages over
the next decade, establishing Spain's first settlement in the New World on the island of
Hispaniola. Many other Europeans followed in Columbus's footsteps, drawn by dreams
of winning wealth by sailing west. Another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for the
Portuguese crown, explored the South American coastline between 1499 and 1502.
Unlike Columbus, he realized that the Americas were not part of Asia but lands unknown
to Europeans. Vespucci's widely published accounts of his voyages fueled speculation
and intense interest in the New World among Europeans. Among those who read
Vespucci's reports was the German mapmaker Martin Waldseemuller. Using the
explorer's first name as a label for the new landmass, Waldseemuller attached "America"
to his map of the New World in 1507, and the name stuck.
1469
bahamas
queen
mapmaker
Questions 32-36
Passage 3 has six paragraphs labelled A-F.
Which paragraphs contain the following information?
32. Why Ferdinand and Isabella at first refused to fund Columbus's expedition c
33. How Spain's imperialist ambitions began b
34. The difficulty of analysing the letters written to the Spanish king and queen e
35. Columbus's first discoveries d
36. The number of journeys undertaken by Columbus to the New World f
c
A
e
c
